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History of Math

LESSON 1: PREHISTORIC MATHEMATICS

(50, 000 BC- 20, 000 BC)

TIME FRAME AND NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

During 300, 000 BC the mankind have no idea of numerical units while arithmetic
in some form (counting) has been with us since people banded together in primitive tribal
groups in early historical records of mathematics from 50,000-20,000 BC where
evidences of counting was discovered. In approximately 35, 000 years ago, formal
mathematics could not begin until writing was invented. These where the time when
things were discovered like;

MATERIALS USED
The Ishango bone that was found near the headwaters of the Nile river
(northeastern Congo), may be as much as 20,000 years old and consists of a series of tally
marks carved in three columns running the length of the bone. Common interpretations
are that the Ishango bone shows either the earliest known demonstration
of sequences of prime numbers or a six month lunar calendar. The Ishango bone is a dark
brown bone which happens to be the fibula of a baboon, with a sharp piece of quartz
affixed to one end for engraving.

source: https://afrolegends.com/2013/08/29/the-ishango-bone-craddle-of-mathematics/

It is the oldest attestation of the practice of arithmetic in human history. The Belgian
geologist Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt uncovered the bone buried in layers of volcanic
ashes on the shores of Lake Edward in the Ishango region in DRC, near the border
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History of Math

with Uganda. The Ishango bones are actually two (2) bones of baboon, 10 to 14 cm long,
with several incisions on each faces. The smaller of the two bones was the first to be
exposed at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels; it carries several
incisions organized in groups of three columns.

The location of Ishango

source: https://afrolegends.com/2013/08/29/the-ishango-bone-craddle-of-mathematics/

SYMBOLS USED AND MANNER OF COUNTING

Mathematical calculations

Left column
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History of Math

Center column

source: http://originalpeople.org/ishango-bone-worlds-oldest-math-tool/

Right Column
The left column can be divided in 4 groups, with each group possessing 19, 17,
13, and 11 notches. The sum of these being 60. Those are the 4 successive prime
numbers between 10 and 20. This constitutes a quad of prime numbers.
The central column is divided in groups of 8. By an approximate count, one can
find (in the parenthesis, is the maximum number): 7 (8), 5 (7), 5 (9), 10, 8 (14), 4 (6), 6,
3. The minimal sum is 48, while the maximal sum is 63.
The right column is divided into 4 groups, where each group has 9, 19, 21,
and 11 notches. The sum of these 4 numbers is 60.
And the oldest known possibly mathematical object is the Lebombo bone,
discovered in the Lebombo Mountains of Swaziland and dated to approximately 35,000
BC. It consists of 29 distinct notches cut into a baboon’s fibula. Also prehistoric artifacts
discovered in Africa and France, dated between 35,000 and 20,000 years old, suggest
early attempts to quantify time. The Lebombo Bone is essentially a Baboon fibula that
has tally marks on it. It is 35,000 years old. It is conjectured to have been used for
tracking menstrual cycles, because it has 29 marks on it. It is older than the Ishango bone.
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History of Math

source: http://originalpeople.org/ishango-bone-worlds-oldest-math-tool/

In the 1970’s during the excavations of Border Cave, a small piece of the fibula of
a baboon, the Lebombo bone, was found marked with 29 clearly defined notches, and, at
37,000 years old, it ranks with the oldest mathematical objects known. The bone is dated
approximately 35,000 BC and resembles the calendar sticks still in use by Bushmen clans
in Nimibia.

Location of Swailand

source: http://originalpeople.org/ishango-bone-worlds-oldest-math-tool/

The closest town to the Lebombo Mountains is Siteki, renowned for its Inyanga
and Sangoma School, a government school to train healers and diviners. It’s a
fascinating mix of botany, spiritualism and natural science, and you can visit the school if
you arrange it in advance through Swazi Tourism in Mbabane.
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History of Math

PROMINENT PEOPLE AND CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

With the help of some people called as "cave man” who discovered the use of it
things were been a lot easier they known the passing of time during the days and night.
They have also found a tool to use to keeping track on seasons in year and to know when
to plant crops because they can determine the changes of weather for planting by the use
of carving on cave wall or slash tallies on bones, woods or stone.
CONTRIBUTION TO MATHEMATICS
The rudiments of mathematics first appeared in the prehistoric era. Such as the
arrangements of numbers from prehistoric era are the first step in the development of a
number system. Although it is mere counting, it marks a milestone on the pathway to
algebra and geometry.
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History of Math

LESSON 2: SUMERIAN/ BABYLONIAN MATHEMATICS

(3500 BCE–539 BCE)

source: math.hawawii.edu/~mchvba/documents/syllabus/Math499/Babylonians/Babylonian.pdf

Babylonian mathematics (also known as Assyro-Babylonian mathematics) was

any mathematics developed or practiced by the people of Mesopotamia, from the days of
the early Sumerians to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC.

NATURE OF BABYLONIAN MATHEMATICS

 Sumerian mathematics was based on sexagesimal or base 60 numeric system

 Pin shape represents the value of 1.

 Wing shape represents the value of 10.

 The Sumerians developed the first known writing system - a pictographic writing
system known as the cuneiform script.

 Sumerian mathematics initially developed largely as a response to bureaucratic

needs when their civilization settled and developed agriculture for the
development of plots of lands and taxation of individuals.
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History of Math

 Their geometry extended to the calculation of the areas of rectangles, triangles,

and trapezoids, as well as the volumes of simple shapes such as bricks and
cylinders.

 Mathematical tablets gave us the first ever solutions of quadratic equations.

 Used symbols for specific measure of anything.

 Babylonians developed another revolutionary mathematical concept, a circle

character for zero.

source: gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/numbers/Babylon/index.htm

Material used

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/sumerian_clay_cones.jpg
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History of Math

Sumerian Equation

Source:https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlj/2009/cdlj2009_003.html

Babylonian clay tablet

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/sumerian.html

Sumerian numbers for counting

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/babylonian-table-of-squares-116682
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History of Math

Source: gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/numbers/bavylon.htm
PROMINENT PERSONS

Sumerian(3100 BCE) Sumerian(2600 BCE) Babylonian(1800-1600 BCE):

Earliest documented Multiplication tables, Clay tablets dealing with

counting and measuring geometrical exercises, fractions, algebra, and

system. and division problems. equations.

Contribution to people’s life

 Sumerian/Babylonian mathematics in architecture, agriculture, and
modern math.
 Was the birthplace of writing, agriculture, the arch, the plow, irrigation,
and many others and is often referred to as the cradle of civilization.
 Measurement of plots of lands and taxation of individuals.
 The use of geometric shapes on architectures and buildings
 60-minute hour
 The Babylonian divided the day into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes,
and each minute into 60 seconds.
 Development of writing with their cuneiform script.
 Their writing allowed record keeping and knowledge to be preserved and
passed down to the generations.
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History of Math

 Tablets allow historians to delve into the past and explore the
sophisticated mathematical techniques of these people.
Contribution to new mathematical concept
a. Construction of table to aid calculations (senkerah on 2000 BC).
b. They give squares to the numbers up to 59.
c. The idea of reciprocals from their tables.
d. Their understanding about fractions
e. Their mathematics passed to the Greeks and formed the basis of pure
mathematics as the master of manipulator of numbers.

0;30 = 0 + =

1;24,51,10 = 1 + + +
= 1. 41421296

Limitations of Babylonian Math

 A single sign might be used in several systems, where it could mean two or more
values.
 There were only two symbols to represent their numeral for counting.
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History of Math

LESSON 3: EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS

(3000 BCE–300 BCE)

A. TIME FRAME
 developed and used in Ancient Egypt c. 3000 to c. 300 BC, from the Old
Kingdom of Egypt until roughly the beginning of Hellenistic Egypt.
B. NATURE

By 3000 BC two earlier nations had joined to form a single Egyptian nation under
a single ruler. Agriculture had been developed making heavy use of the regular wet and
dry periods of the year. The Nile flooded during the rainy season providing fertile land
which complex irrigation systems made fertile for growing crops. Knowing when the
rainy season was about to arrive was vital and the study of astronomy developed to
provide calendar information. The large area covered by the Egyptian nation required
complex administration, a system of taxes, and armies had to be supported. As the society
became more complex, records required to be kept, and computations done as the people
bartered their goods. A need for counting arose, then writing and numerals were needed
to record transactions.

Papyrus
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History of Math

source:https://simple.wikipedia.ora/wiki/Papyrus

Papyrus began as the world's first type of paper, derived from the Cyperus
papyrus plant. As a writing material, papyrus was used for hymns, religious texts,
spiritual admonitions, letters, official documents, proclamations, love poems, medical
texts, scientific or technical manuals, record-keeping, magical treatises, and literature.

Source:http://www.utahloy.com/m6egypttech/Egyptian%20mathematics.htm
Hieroglyphs were called, by the Egyptians, “the words of God” and unlike the
simple elegance of modern writing systems, this early attempt at recording words, used a
number of techniques to convey meaning. The picture symbols represent a combination
of alphabet and syllabic sounds together with images that determine or clarify meaning
and depictions of actual objects which are the spoken word of the thing they represent.

The Egyptians had a decimal system using seven different symbols:

 1 is shown by a single stroke.

 10 is shown by a drawing of a hobble for cattle.
 100 is represented by a coil of rope.
 1,000 a drawing of a lotus plant.
 10,000 is represented by a finger.
 100,000 a tadpole or frog
 1,000,000-Figure of a god with arms raised above his head.
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History of Math

Hieratic Script

Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/233553930645844593

The Hieratic script was invented and developed more or less at the same time as the
hieroglyphic script and was used in parallel with it for everyday purposes such as keeping
records and accounts and writing letters. It was used until the 26th Dynasty, though by
that time, it was only used for religious texts, while the Demotic script was used for most
other purposes.
These numerals allowed numbers to be written in a far more compact form yet using
the system required many more symbols to be memorized.

There were separate symbols for

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
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History of Math

HIERATIC NUMBERS

Source:https://discoveringegypt.com/egyptian-hieroglyphic-writing/egyptian-mathematics-numbers-hieroglyphs/

In one of the ancient stories the god Seth attacked his brother the god Horus and gouged
out his eye and then tore it to pieces. Fortunately for Horus the god Thoth was able to put
the pieces back together and heal his eye.

In honor of this story the ancient Egyptians also used the pieces of Horus’s eye to
describe fractions.

 The right side of  -The left side of the eye =

the eye = ½ 1/16

 The pupil = ¼  -The curved tail = 1/32

C. CONTRIBUTION TO THE PEOPLE

 The early Egyptians settled along the fertile Nile valley as early as about
6000 BCE, and they began to record the patterns of lunar phases and the
seasons, both for agricultural and religious reasons
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History of Math

 The Egyptians were probably the first to adopt a mainly solar calendar.
They noted that the Dog Star, Sirius, reappeared in the eastern sky just
before sunrise after several months of invisibility. They also observed that
the annual flooding of the Nile River came soon after Sirius reappeared.
They used this combination of events to fix their calendar and came to
recognize a year of 365 days, made up of 12 months each 30 days long,
and an extra five days added at the end. But they did not allow for the
extra fourth of a day, and their calendar drifted into error
 The Pharaoh’s surveyors used measurements based on body parts (a palm
was the width of the hand, a cubit the measurement from elbow to
fingertips) to measure land and buildings very early in Egyptian history,
and a decimal numeric system was developed based on our ten fingers.
 used for building the Pyramid of Giza.
 D. PROMINENT PEOPLE
 Pharaohs- Pharaoh’s surveyors used measurements based on body parts
(a palm was the width of the hand, a cubit the measurement from elbow to
fingertips) to measure land and buildings very early in Egyptian history,
and a decimal numeric system was developed based on our ten fingers.
 Early Egyptians- The early Egyptians settled along the fertile Nile valley
as early as about 6000 BCE, and they began to record the patterns of lunar
phases and the seasons, both for agricultural and religious reasons

E. CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATH

 Egyptians introduced the earliest fully-developed base 10 numeration

system at least as early as 2700 BCE (and probably much early).However,
there was no concept of place value, so larger numbers were rather
unwieldy (although a million required just one character, a million minus
one required fifty-four characters).
 Unit of fractions.(1) To express the result of dividing 4 by 7, for instance,
which in modern notation is simply 4/7, the scribe wrote 1/2 + 1/14. The
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History of Math

procedure for finding quotients in this form merely extends the usual
method for the division of integers, where one now inspects the entries for
2/3, 1/3, 1/6, etc., and 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, etc., until the corresponding multiples
of the divisor sum to the dividend. (2)2/29 is given in the Rhind papyrus
as 1/24 + 1/58 + 1/174 + 1/232) and can be worked out in different ways
(for example, the same 2/29 might be found as 1/15 + 1/435 or as 1/16 +
1/232 + 1/464, etc.(3)“to divide 6 loaves among 10 men” (Rhind papyrus,
problem 3), one merely divides to get the answer 1/2 + 1/10

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/egyptian.html

 Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction Multiplication, and Division)

In such a system, addition and subtraction amount to counting how many

symbols of each kind there are in the numerical expressions and then rewriting with the
resulting number of symbols.

(3) For example, to multiply 28 by 11, one constructs a table of multiples of 28 like the
following:

1 28
2 56
4 112
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History of Math

8 224
16 448
… …

The several entries in the first column that together sum to 11 (i.e., 8, 2, and 1) are
checked off. The product is then found by adding up the multiples corresponding to these
entries; thus, 224 + 56 + 28 = 308, the desired product.

To divide 308 by 28, the Egyptians applied the same procedure in reverse. Using
the same table as in the multiplication problem, one can see that 8 produces the largest
multiple of 28 that is less than 308 (for the entry at 16 is already 448), and 8 is checked
off. The process is then repeated, this time for the remainder (84) obtained by subtracting
the entry at 8 (224) from the original number (308). This, however, is already smaller
than the entry at 4, which consequently is ignored, but it is greater than the entry at 2
(56), which is then checked off. The process is repeated again for the remainder obtained
by subtracting 56 from the previous remainder of 84, or 28, which also happens to
exactly equal the entry at 1 and which is then checked off. The entries that have been
checked off are added up, yielding the quotient: 8 + 2 + 1 = 11. (In most cases, of course,
there is a reminder that is less than the divisor.)

Source: https://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-ancient-writings/does-ipuwer-papyrus-provide-evidence-events-exodus-006951

F. LIMITATIONS

 Computations involving fractions are carried out under the restriction to

unit parts
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History of Math

LESSON 4: GREEK MATHEMATICS

(Classical Period 600 BCE–300 BCE)

What is Greek Mathematics?

Greek mathematics refers to mathematics texts and advances written in Greek,
developed from the 7th century BC to the 4th century AD around the shores of
the Eastern Mediterranean.
It has 2 periods;
 Classical Period (600 BC-300 BC)
 Alexandrian/Hellenistic (300 BC-300 AD)
Nature of Greek Mathematics
 Most of Greek Mathematics was based on geometry.
 Greek mathematics adopted elements of mathematics from preceding civilizations
 Greek mathematicians were very interested in proving that certain mathematical
ideas were true.
 Greek mathematics has been their way of finding out proofs
 Greek mathematics is highly intellectual in purpose rather than for survival and
necessity.
 Greek mathematicians left less to no writings about their works and has done
mathematical innovations orally.
 Greeks were the first to grapple with the idea of infinity.

Greek Numeral System

https://www.lib.umich.edu/reading/Zenon/numerals.html
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History of Math

Ancient Greek Herodianic numerals

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/greek_numerals.gif]

Prominent People in Greek Mathematics:

 Thales of Miletus (624 BC)

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Illustrerad_Verldshistoria_band_I_Ill_107
.jpg/220px-Illustrerad_Verldshistoria_band_I_Ill_107.jpg]

 The first of the Greeks who took any scientific interest in mathematics in general
 Improved Egyptian mathematics
 His great contribution lay in suggesting a geometry of lines and in making the
subject abstract
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History of Math

 He gave the idea of a logical proof as applied to geometry

 He made the Thales Theorem and Intercept Theorem

Works of Thales
Thales Theorem

Source: http://www.gmatfree.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ScreenHunter_188-Oct.-13-16.52.jpg]

Intercept Theorem

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/thales _theorem.gif

Pythagoras (570 BC-495 BC)

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History of Math

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/pythagoras.jpg

 worked with abstract geometric objects and numbers

 gathered his school as a sort of mathematician secret brotherhood

 Pythagoras (or at least his followers, the Pythagoreans) also realized that the sum
of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles (180°)

 They discovered several new properties of square numbers, such as that the
square of a number n is equal to the sum of the first n odd numbers

Pythagoras is credited with the discovery of the ratios between harmonious musical tones

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/pythagoras_music.gif
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History of Math

Works of Pythagoras
Pythagorean Theorem

Source:http://www.johncmccloskey.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/03/Pythagorean-Theorem.jpg

Pythagorean’s Square

Source: http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/history/pythag/squareno.gif

Plato (428 BC-348 BC)

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History of Math

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/plato.jpg

 He founded his Academy in Athens in 387 BCE, where he stressed

mathematics as a way of understanding more about reality.
 The sign above the Academy entrance read: “Let no-one ignorant of
geometry enter here”.
 Plato the mathematician is perhaps best known for his identification of 5
regular symmetrical 3-dimensional shapes, which he maintained were the
basis for the whole universe, and which have become known as the
Platonic Solids

Plato’s Platonic Solids

Source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/platonic_solids.gif
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History of Math

Tetrahedron

 The tetrahedron has four triangular faces

 It represents fire

Octahedron

 the octahedron eight triangular faces

 It represents air

Cube
 the cube six square faces

 It represents earth

Icosahedrons
 the icosahedrons twenty triangular faces

 It represents water

Dodecahedron

 the dodecahedron twelve pentagonal faces

 It represents Universe or Aether

Contributions
 Were the first to established schools that study mathematics as it is.
 Were the first to provide proofs about certain problems.
 Improved Sumerian and Egyptian Geometry.
 First to relate mathematics to the field of science.
 First to use mathematics as basis of reality.
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History of Math

 First to uncover knowledge by using logic and reasoning through the usage of
mathematical procedures.

Limitations
 Greek Mathematics is highly oral in manner before and there were only a few
writings found.
 They were more focused on geometry, and used geometric methods to solve
problems that you might use algebra for
 They found it very hard to write down equations or number problems.
 Because the Greeks had very clumsy ways of writing down numbers, they didn't
like algebra
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History of Math

LESSON 5: HELLENISTIC MATHEMATICS

(323 BCE–31 BCE)

The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between

the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as
signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of Ptolemaic
Egypt the following year.

THE MATHEMATICIANS

 EUCLID (330-275 BCE)

Source: https://cdn.britannica.com/s:668x448/46/8446-004-B25BC327.jp

 Father of Geometry

 Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shape, and position of
2-dimensional shapes and 3-dimensional figures.

 ELEMENT (300 BC)– is a book containing different algebraic problem.

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History of Math

NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

His five geometrical postulates were:

1. It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any point
2. It is possible to extend a finite straight line continuously in a straight line
3. It is possible to create a circle with any center and distance (radius).
4. All right angles are equal to one another (i.e. "half" of a straight angle).
5. If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same
side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet
on that side on which the angles are less than the two right angles..
Euclid’s five general axioms were:
1. Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other.
2. If equals are added to equals, the wholes (sums) are equal.
3. If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders (differences) are equal.
4. Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.
He presented geometry as an axiomatic system: Every statement was either an axiom,
a postulate, or was proven by clear logical steps from axioms and postulates.

Equilateral Triangle
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History of Math

Source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/euclid_equilateral_triangle.gif

 It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any point.

 It is possible to create a circle with any center and distance (radius).
 Things that coincides with one another is equal to one another.

GEOMETRY’S CONTRIBUTION TO MAN’S LIFE

GEOMETRY IS EVERYWHERE!

a. Angles, shapes, lines, line segments, curves, and other aspects of geometry are every
single place you look.
b. Letters themselves are constructed of lines, line segments, and curves.
c. These man-made geometrical aspects please us in an aesthetic way.

 ARCHEMIDES (287-211 BCE)

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History of Math

Source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/ images2/archimedes.jpg

a. Produced formulas to calculate the areas of regular shapes, using a revolutionary

method of capturing new shapes by using shapes he already understood.
b. Archimedes was most noted for his use of the European method of exhaustion in
the measurement of curved surfaces and volumes and for his applications of
geometry to mechanics.
c. Method of exhaustion is a technique to prove propositions regarding the areas and
volumes of geometric figures.

Archimedes Circle

Source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/ archimedes_circle.gif

Concept of Pi (π)
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History of Math

Pi (π) is the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. Pi is a constant

number, meaning that for all circles of any size, Pi will be the same.

Archimedes determined that pi was less than 3 but greater than 3 .

3 = 3 =

= 3. 1428 = 3. 1408

Derivation of English Word of Perimeter

English Greek
Periphery περιφέρεια
Perimeter περίμετρος

Archimedes’ Principle: an object is

immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.

 DIOPHANTUS(200 – 284 CE)

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History of Math

Source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/images2/diophantus.jpg

 Father of algebra
 Wrote an influential series of books called the “Arithmetica”.
 Arithmetica is a collection of algebraic problems which greatly influenced
the subsequent development of number theory.
Nature of Mathematics
 Used fractions as numbers
 abbreviation for the unknown and for the powers of the unknown
 First to use a symbol to specify the unidentified quantities in his equation
 linear or quadratic equations
 Diophantine equation ( ax +by = 1)

Example: Euclidean Algorithm ax + by = 1

195x + 42y = 12

195 = 4 x 42 + 27
195 (-3) + 42 (14) = 3
42 = 1 x 27 + 15
195 (-12) + 42 (56) = 12
27 = 1 x 15 + 12
195 (-12 + 42) + 42 (56- 195) = 12
15 = 1 x 12 + 3
12 = 4 x 3 + 0 195 (-12 + n + 42 (56- n =
3 is the greatest common divisor 12

Rearrange: X= -12 + 14n

3 = 15 – 1 x 12 y = 56 – 65n
= 15 – 1 (27 – 1 x 15)
= 2 x 15 – 1 x 27 195 (2) + 42 (-9) = 12
= 2 (42 – 1 x 27) – 1 x 27
= 2 x 42 – 3 x 27
= 2 x 42 – 3 ( 195 – 4 x 42)
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History of Math

Overall Contribution to Math Development

 Hellenistic mathematics had an influence on Islamic mathematics(which merged
it with Indian mathematics)

LESSON 6: ROMAN MATHEMATICS

(500 BC–1300 AD)

Time Frame
By the middle of the 1st Century BCE, the Roman had tightened their grip on the
old Greek and Hellenistic empires, and the mathematical revolution of the Greeks ground
to halt.
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History of Math

Nature of Roman Mathematics

Its materials and manner of counting…

The Roman Hand-Abacus

(c. 300 CE)

Source: https://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/history.html

The Roman hand-abacus was the first portable counting board. It is thought that
early Christians brought it to the East.
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History of Math

ROMAN NUMERAL

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals#/media/File:CuttySarkRomNum.jpg

Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome. This ancient counting system is

believed to have started with the ancient Etruscans.

The symbol for one in the Roman numeral system probably represented a single tally
mark which people would notch into wood or dirt to keep track of items or events they
were counting. It would also be easy to write on a wax tablet.

Roman numerals were usually written in Largest to Smallest from Left to Right (in
addition). In the Subtractive Principle the smaller value was placed before the larger
value. “nulla” or zero- no numeral represents zero, because the system of Roman
numbers was developed as means of Trading.

Note:
Romans would only learn little of their mathematics unless required in their
occupation or daily life.
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History of Math

How to convert Arabic numbers to Roman Numerals ?

Roman numerals are written as combinations of seven letters.

I-1 V-5 X - 10 L - 50
C - 100 D -500 M-1000

The letters can be written as capital (XVI) or lower-case letters (xvi).

Let’s do it!
Can you convert 2010? Answer: MMX

Now try to write today’s date (Day / Month / Year) Time Span of Roman Mathematics
Answer: ______________________

Well done! You are a Roman Numeral Converter!

Contribution to Mathematics

 Roman Numerals are the basis of Hindu- Arabic Numerals

 Fractions were often used in currency. The most common fractions used were
twelfths and halves which represented by 2 single dot known as “uncia”
 Roman Numerals are used to refer to kings.

Contribution to people’s life

 Romans used mathematics just for practical purposes like trades, division of land,
and creating buildings.
 Romans were capable of writing large numbers.
 Roman numbers were widely used throughout the Roman Empire in everyday
life.
 36
History of Math

 Roman numerals were developed so that the Romans could easily put prices of
different products or services.
 37
History of Math

LESSON 7: MAYAN MATHEMATICS

(250 AD - 900 AD)

Nature of Mathematics:

The Mayan civilization had settled in the region of Central America from about 2000
BCE, although the so called Classic Period stretches from about 250 AD to 900 AD. During the
classic era, they made several advancements in arts, culture, architecture and other domains of
life and knowledge. They developed an efficient number system of their own which was
subsequently used by Mesoamerican civilizations (with some variations) and with which was
predominantly made use of shell, dot and bar. Their construction of sophisticated number system
was because of their calendar calculations and astronomy in which these required Mathematics.

source:www.crsystalinks.com/mayanmath.html
The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used a vigesimal number
system based on base20, probably originally developed from counting on fingers and
toes. The numerals consisted of only 3 symbols: zero, represented as a shell shape; one, a
dot and five, a bar. Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively simple matter of
 38
History of Math

adding up dots and bars, After the number 19, larger numbers were written in a kind of
vertical place format using powers of 20: 1, 20, 400, 8000, 16 000, etc.

Example:

Source:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-om9DkpvgA
Mayans were among the few ancient civilizations who developed not only an
elaborate mathematical system but also understood the concept of zero. This enabled the
Mayans to create an elaborate and accurate calendar which are:

Tzolkin

source: www.crystalinks.com/mayanmath.html

Tzolkin (meaning the distribution of the days) also called the Divine calendar and
the Sacred round. It is a 260 day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days and is used to
determine the time of religious and ceremonial events.

Long count
 39
History of Math

Source:https://amp.livescience.com/25662-how-mayan-calendar-works.html

Long count is an astronomical calendar in which used to track longer period of

time. It is also called universal cycle. Each cycle is calculated to be 2,880,00o days long
(about 7885 solar years). The Mayans believed that the universe is destroyed and then
recreated at the start of each cycle. This belief caused the 2012 phenomenon & is still
inspires a myriad of prophecies about the end of the world.

Haab cycle

source:https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=tha+haab+calendar&client=ms-alps-full_v3750-ph&prmd=ivn&source/

The Haab Cycle which consists of 365 days and approximates the solar year. The
Haab is composed of 19 months made of 20 days and 1 month made of 5 days. This 5 day
month is called wayeb.

--Mayans have also book called Dresden Codex. It contains astronomical calculations,
eclipse -prediction tables, the syndical period of Venus - of exceptional accuracy.
 40
History of Math

Dresden Codex

Source: www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Mayan_Mathematics.html

Symbols &Materials Used:

Shell-shaped Dot Bar

Source: www.crsystalinks.com/mayanmath.html

Contributions to life of people:

 Mayans made many contributions to new world today. One of these contributions
is the Mayan Calendar for:
-tracking longer periods of time
-human gestation period
-agricultural cycle
-utilizing a highly accurate measure of the length of solar year
 Mayans studied the stars and the patterns they made. They tracked the movement
of the stars and planet across the sky, and were able to predict events such as
eclipses (astronomy).
 They learned to deal with the swamps marshes by creating an irragation system
(farming).

Contributions to Mathematics:
 41
History of Math

 Highly advanced numeral system with which they could represent very large
numbers and is believed to be better than the Romans.
 They are the civilisations who comprehend and views the concept of zero

Limitation:

Mayan were only used 3 symbols to represent numerals.

LESSON 8: CHINESE MATHEMATICS

(1400BC-200CE)
 42
History of Math

Nature of Mathematics
Chinese mathematics was defined by Chinese times as the “art of calculation”.
This art was both a practical and spiritual one, and covered a wide range of subjects from
religion and astronomy to waster control and administration.

Materials used:

Oracle Bone Script

source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone#/media/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribe_scapula.jpg

Oracle bone script was based on the decimal system. It was also the first
ancient Chinese number system that were written in the flat cattle bones and tortoise
shells. The largest number found was 30,000.

Manner of counting

= 4359 = 5080
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Chinese_numerals.html

Counting Rods
 43
History of Math

source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Diagrams/counting_board.gif
Counting rods was the second form of Chinese number that used small
bamboo rods arranged to represent the numbers 1 to 9.And it was based on
decimal system and employed a positional value system.

Manner of counting

= 1234 = 45698

= 60390
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Chinese_numerals.html

Abacus
The first Chinese Abacus or known as suanpa. It uses beads sliding on a wire to
represent numbers. For numbers up to 4 slide the required number of beads in the lower
part up to the middle bar. For five or above, slide one bead above the middle bar down
(representing 5), and 1, 2, 3 or 4 beads up to the middle bar for the numbers 6, 7, 8, or 9
respectively.
 44
History of Math

source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suanpan#/media/File:Chinese-abacus.jpg

Example: 46,802

source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Chinese_numerals.html

Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

A textbook called “JiuzhangSuanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art” (written from about 200 BCE onwards, probably by a variety of author.

The Jiuzhang suanshu or Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is a practical

handbook of mathematics consisting of 246 problems intended to provide methods to be
used to solve everyday problems of engineering, surveying, trade, and taxation. It has
played a fundamental role in the development of mathematics in China, not dissimilar to
the role of Euclid's Elements in the mathematics which developed from the foundations
set up by the ancient Greeks. There is one major difference which we must examine right
at the start of this article and this is the concept of proof.
 45
History of Math

Source: https://www.amazon.com/Nine-Chapters-Mathematical-Art-version/dp/7312033598

Prominent People during Chinese Mathematics

Qin Jiushao (1202-1261 CE)

Source: https://alchetron.com/Qin-Jiushao

Chinese mathematician who developed a method of solving simultaneous linear

congruence. He started to formulate the solution of quadratic, cubic and high power
equations using method of repeated approximations.

He interrupted his government career for three years beginning in 1244 because of
his mother’s death; during the mourning period he wrote his only mathematical book,
now known as Shushu jiuzhang. His book is divided into nine “categories,” each
containing nine problems related to calendrical computations, meteorology, surveying of
fields, surveying of remote objects, taxation, fortification works, construction works,
military affairs, and commercial affairs.
 46
History of Math

Liu Hui (220-280 CE)

Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/ludolfina5/liu-hui

Chinese mathematician who solve linear equations using matrices (similar

to Gaussian elimination). Calculated value of Pi correct to five decimal place. He
also formulated the early forms of integral and differential calculus.

Liu proved the algorithms already presented in The Nine Chapters, and he
also provided and proved new algorithms for the same three-dimensional
volumes. In addition, he organized these algorithms, given one after the other
without comment in The Nine Chapters, into a system in which proofs for one
algorithm use only algorithms that had already been established independently.

Sun Tzu (200 CE)

 47
History of Math

Source:https://blog.bant.am/index.php/2018/06/20/lessons-in-risk-management-from-ge/

SunTzu was a Chinese mathematician, flourishing between the 3rd and the 5th century A
D.Interested in astronomy and trying to develop a calendar, he investigated Dioph
antine equations. He is only known forauthoring Sun Tzu Suan Ching 孙子算经
(pinyin: Sun Zi Suan Jing; literally,"Sun Tzu's Calculation Classic"), whichcontains the

Chinese remainder theorem.

Yang Hui (1238-1319 CE)

Source:https://mathmunch.org/2013/07/25/yang-hui-pascal-and-eusebeia/

Yang Hui, literary name Qianguang, (flourished c. 1261–75,

Qiantang, Zhejiang province, China), mathematician active in the great flowering of
Chinese mathematics during the Southern Song dynasty.

Yang’s Jiuzhang suan fa zuan lei (c. 1275; “Reclassification of the Mathematical
Procedures in the Nine Chapters”)—a compilation and reclassification, with further
explanations, of the problems from the Han dynasty classic and its
commentaries, Jiuzhang suanshu (c. 100 BC–AD 50; Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Procedures)—contains the oldest representation of what is known in the West as Blaise
Pascal’s triangle (see the figure; see also binomial theorem).
 48
History of Math

Yang Hui’s Triangle

Source:https://mathmunch.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/yanghui_triangle1.gif

Lo Shu Square (650 BCE)

source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/chinese.html\

The Lo (Luo) Shu Square, sometimes called the Magic Square, is also at the root of
ancient feng shui astrology, the flying star school Xuan Kong, as well as the I-Ching, of
course.

The numbers in the Lo Shu Square are considered to have specific properties or be
an expression of specific energies. For example, number 9 carries a strong Fire feng shui
element energy, while number 1 is an expression of the water element. In feng shui, they
 49
History of Math

are called "stars" and they have a predicted pattern to their movement. Lo Shu square is a
3X3 square where each row, column and diagonal adds up to 15. Earliest magic square
invented in China that was regarded as having great spiritual and religious significance.

Contribution to Math Development

 The existence of decimal place value system.

 The development of dualistic theory of YIN and YANG, Yin represents even
numbers and Yang represents odd numbers through the 3x3 magic square

Contribution to the life of People

 The construction of canals, dams and etc. to the water-dependent society led into
having a safe environment.

 “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art” became an

important tool in the education of such civil service, covering hundreds of
problems in practical uses such as trade, taxation, engineering and the payment of
wages.

Limitation

Chinese Mathematics don’t have the concept of zero.

LESSON 9: INDIAN MATHEMATICS

(3000 BC- 1200 AD)
 50
History of Math

Time frame of Indian Mathematics

The first use of mathematics in the Indian subcontinent was in the Indus valley
and dates as far back as 3000 BC [Wheeler]. The mathematics used by the early
Harappan civilization had mostly practical intent and was concerned with weights and
measuring scales. Excavations present knowledge of basic geometry. This culture also
produced artistic designs. On carvings there is evidence that these people could draw
concentric and intersecting circles and triangles.

Material used
Sulba Sutras (800-200 BC)
Sulba-sutras represent the 'traditional' material along with further related
elaboration of Vedic mathematics.

These include first 'use' of irrational numbers, quadratic equations of the form ax²
= c and ax² + bx = c, unarguable evidence of the use of Pythagoras theorem and
Pythagorean triples, predating Pythagoras (c 572 - 497 BC), and evidence of a number of
geometrical proofs.

source: amazon.co.uk
Nature of Indian Mathematics
 Developed Hindu-Arabic numerals and the concept of zero as a number
 Created the decimal system-counting system based on units of ten
 51
History of Math

 Use circle as a concept of zero.

Symbol used
Evolution of Hindu-Arabic Numerals

source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/indian.html

Brahmi Numerals

source:file:///C:/Users/gigabyte/Downloads/20077-Article%20Text-63884-1-10-20180531.pdf

THE ORIGIN OF ZERO

When stone is removed from the sand, a small round hole was left in its place
representing the movement of something to nothing.
 52
History of Math

source:https://www.storyofmathematics.com/indian.html

A portion of a dedication in a rock-cut Vishnu Temple in Gwalior Built in 876

AD. The number 270 seen in the inscription features the oldest extant zero in India.

source: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/understanding-ancient-indian-mathematics/article2747006.ece

Decimal number system, also called Hindu-Arabic, or Arabic, number system

It ispositional numeral system employing 10 as the base and requiring 10

different numerals, the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. It also requires a dot (decimal
point) to represent decimal fractions

source:https://www.mathsisfun.com/binary-decimal-hexadecimal.html
 53
History of Math

Prominent People in Indian Mathematics

Brahmagupta (589 A.D.)

Source:https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta
Brahmagupta formulated the concept of Zero. He established the basic
mathematical rules for dealing with zero: 1 + 0 = 1; 1 - 0 = 1; and 1 x 0 = 0 and he
thought that 1÷0 = 0. He use the initials of the names of colors to represent unknowns in
his equations, one of the earliest intimations of what we now know as algebra.
Brahmagupta dedicated a substantial portion of his work to geometry and trigonometry.
He pointed out that quadratic equations could in theory have two possible solutions, one
of which could be negative.

Braskara

source:https://www.mathsone.com/blog-details/blog/80-Bhaskara
 54
History of Math

His main work “Siddhanta Shiromani” is divided into four parts, these four sections
deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of planets, and spheres respectively. He was
the first to give that any number divided by zero gives infinity. He also wrote. “The
hundredth part of the circumference of a circle seems to be straight. Our earth is a big
sphere and that’s why it appears to be flat”. He developed a proof of Pythagoras Theorem
by calculating the same area in two different ways and these cancel out terms to get
.

source:https://mathsbyagirl.wordpress.com/tag/infinity/
Baudhayana

source: https://mysteriesexplored.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/baudhanya.jpg

It was Baudhāyana who discovered the Pythagoras theorem. Baudhāyana listed

Pythagoras theorem in his book called Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra (800 BCE). Incidentally,
 55
History of Math

Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra is also one of the oldest books on advanced Mathematics. The
actual shloka (verse) in Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra that describes Pythagoras theorem is
given below :
“dīrghasyākṣaṇayā rajjuH pārśvamānī, tiryaDaM mānī, cha yatpṛthagbhUte
kurutastadubhayāṅ karoti.”
Interestingly, Baudhāyana used a rope as an example in the above shloka which
can be translated as – A rope stretched along the length of the diagonal produces an area
which the vertical and horizontal sides make together. As you see, it becomes clear that
this is perhaps the most intuitive way of understanding and visualizing Pythagoras
theorem (and geometry in general) and Baudhāyana seems to have simplified the process
of learning by encapsulating the mathematical result in a simple shloka in a layman’s
language.

Aryabhata (476—550AD)

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata
 56
History of Math

His famous work are the” Aryabhatiya “and the”Aryasiddhanta”.The Mathematical part o
f the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry. He solved
the value of Pi and yielded the approximation of its value.

He gave the formula (a+b)² =a² + b² + 2ab. He taught the method of solving the following
problems:

1+2+3+…………+n = n(n+1)/2
12 + 22 + 32 +………+ n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
13 + 23 + 33 +…………..+ n3 = (n(n+1)/2)2

CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE OF PEOPLE

 Geometric patterns were used in the temple motifs

 The concept of nothingness comes from the Shoonya (zero)

 Ideas like the sine, cosine and tangent functions (which relate the angles of a
triangle to the relative lengths of its sides) to survey the land around them,
navigate the seas and even chart the heavens.

 Indian Astronomers used trigonometry and calculated the relative distances

between the Earth and the Moon and the Earth and the Sun.

source: https://www.storyofmathematics.com/indian.html

CONTRIBUTION TO MATH DEVELOPMENT

 Introduced the Brahmi Numerals which was the origin of Hindu Arabic-Numerals
 57
History of Math

 Introduction of negative numbers. The circle zero was recognized as a numeral

 The number system. The concept of zero. Vedic mathematics and arithmetical
operations. Basic Algebra. Value of Pi. Pythagoras Theorem

LIMITATIONS:

 There were no documents that presents what level the Indian Mathematics have
developed.

References
 58
History of Math

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