NEP NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

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INTRODUCTION TO
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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENT
Unit I: Disciplinary History of International Relations

Lesson 1 International Relations and Debates: Idealism/Realism &

Science/Classical Methods, Inter-Paradigm Debate

Unit II: Theories of International Relations

Lesson 2 Realpolitik/Realism/Neo-Realism, Liberalism/Neo-Liberalism,

Marxism/Neo-Marxism, and Feminism

Unit III: Concepts & Issues

Lesson 3 State and Sovereignty 65-84

Lesson 4 War and Peace 85-105

Lesson 5 Human Rights 107-128

Lesson 6 Global Governance and Climate Change Negotiations

Unit IV: IR Beyond Eurocentrism

Lesson 7 Non-Western Perspectives 153-172

Lesson 8 Indian Contributions to International Relations

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q. 1 - What is International Relations? Evolution of International Relations and

Compare the Perspectives of Realism and Idealism.

Answer - Introduction

International relations (IR) is the study of relationships that

transcend the borders of countries. It includes topics such as

international politics, global economy, cultural relations, foreign

policy, terrorism, media, and social movements. The purpose of

international relations is to maintain good relations between

countries and promote peace and development globally.

In simple words, international relations allow countries to work

together, share resources, and find solutions to global problems

that are not limited to just one country or region.

Definitions of International Relations by Major Philosophers :

Hans Morgenthau: A major figure in the field of international relations, in

his work "Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace" (1948),
he defined international relations as a "struggle for power among states."

Thomas Hobbes: Known for his work "Leviathan", he believed that

maintaining peace in society requires a strong government and a social

contract among all, which helps in understanding international relations.

Kenneth Waltz: He is known for his neorealist theory of international

relations. Waltz in his book "Theory of International Politics" (1979) defines
international relations as "a sphere of political activity".

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Evolution of International Relations :

The development of International Relations (IR) has been a

long and complex process, encompassing many important

events and theoretical developments from ancient civilizations

to the rise of the nation-state system in the 17th century, which

shaped it as an academic subject and established the study of

relations between states and doers on a global scale.

1. Treaty of Westphalia (1648): It gave birth to the concept of the nation-state and
ended the 30 Years' War. It gave legal recognition to the state and its sovereignty,

which became the basis of modern international relations.

2. Era of Diplomatic History (Before 1919): Before the First World War, international
relations were mainly focused on diplomatic history and foreign policy. It was studied

only by diplomats and historians. Wars and alliances were considered natural in this
period, so efforts to stop it were few.

3. The era of political reformism (1919-1939): After the First World War, attempts

were made to reform international politics through the establishment of the League
of Nations. At this time, scholars believed that the development of international

institutions was necessary for peace and security.

4. Second World War and Global Outlook (1939-1945): After the Second World

War, international relations took a global form. Every nation began to try to link its
interests with global peace, security and development. At this time international

relations developed in a more organised and institutionalized form.

5. Modern era (after 1991): The end of the Cold War and the process of globalization
changed the nature of international relations. Now international organizations have
played an important role in cooperation and solution at the global level on economic,
environmental, cultural and human rights issues between countries.
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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Comparison of the perspectives of Realism and Idealism:

Realism :

▪ Main idea: Realism assumes that states in international relations act to protect
their own security and national interests. It believes that the world is anarchic and
that power is the most important factor.

▪ According to the realist view, human nature is selfish, and states struggle to
increase their security and power.

▪ Role of the Nation: The state is considered to be the most important actor, and it
is above any international institution or law.

▪ Cooperation: Realists assume that international cooperation is temporary and

status-dependent, as the main objective of each state is to increase its power and
security.

Idealism :

▪ Main idea: Idealism believes that cooperation, peace and justice are possible in
international relations. It believes that states can cooperate with each other by
following humanity and moral principles.

▪ According to the idealism approach, human nature is basically good and peace
is possible by following the right path.

▪ Role of the state: In idealism, international institutions, laws and moral principles
are considered important. The state needs to work through these institutions.

▪ Cooperation: Idealists believe that international cooperation is permanent, and

peace and cooperation can be established through the right policies and
institutions.

Conclusion

Ultimately, the nature of international relations is changeable. Whenever there is a

change in the environment, factors and events of international relations, change in the

methods and approaches of studying it is also inevitable. Moreover, this change is not
permanent but continuous.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q.2- Critically explain realism and neo-realism in international relations.

Answer– Introduction

Realism and Neo-Realism are two major theories in international relations. According
to Realism, states act based on their power and national interests, considering conflict,

war, or the use of force as normal. Neo-Realism argues that the structure of the
international system and the balance of power significantly influence state behavior.
From a critical perspective, both theories lack emphasis on humanity, morality, and

cooperation, focusing solely on power balance and conflict.

Theory of Realism in International Relations

Realism is a theory that states always seek power to ensure their security. It holds that conflict
and power struggles among nations are inevitable, and their behavior is driven by fear, honor,
and interest. Key proponents of Realism include Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and
Rousseau.

Realism and Neorealism in International Relations :-

1. Classical Realism : This theory asserts that the root cause of conflict and power struggles
in international politics lies in human nature and its selfish tendencies. Scholars like Hans J.

Morgenthau (Politics Among Nation – 1948) are prominent supporters of this view.

2. Neorealism : This theory suggests that the behavior of states in international politics is
determined by the structure and system of the international order, rather than human nature.
Kenneth Waltz introduced this concept in 1980.

Critical Analysis of Realism and Neorealism

1. Realism : Realism is an older and influential theory of international relations, based on

power, self-interest, and conflict. It views peace as temporary, as states prioritize their security
and interests. Key points of Realism include :

(a) State Self-Interest : Realism posits that states act to ensure their security and interests in
international politics.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

(b) Politics of Power : Power is central to Realism, with conflicts and wars resulting from
power imbalances.

(c) Anarchy : Realism defines anarchy as the lack of a central authority in the international

system, making states responsible for their own security.

(d) War and Conflict : War and conflict are seen as natural in Realism, as states compete to
enhance their power, making peace temporary.

Criticism of Realism

• Limited Perspective : Realism focuses only on power and conflict, ignoring other aspects
like economics, culture, or human rights.
• Lack of Morality : Realism downplays the importance of morality and justice, allowing
states to use any means to increase power, even if unethical.
• Neglect of Other Factors : Realism overlooks global elements like international
organizations and global citizenship that play a significant role in international relations.

2. Neorealism : Developed by Kenneth Waltz, Neorealism advances Realist principles by

emphasizing the structure of the international system, the balance of power, and state
behavior. Key points of Neorealism include:

(a) Structural Factors : Neorealism argues that the structure of international politics shapes
state behavior.

(b) Existence of Anarchy : Anarchy, according to Neorealism, leads to a balance of power

among nations, enhancing security.

(c) Balance of Power : The balance of power is seen as a natural phenomenon that prevents

wars and maintains stability.

(d) Structure Over Self-Interest : Neorealism believes that state behavior is influenced by
structural factors rather than self-interest.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Criticism of Neorealism :

• Overemphasis on Structure : Neorealism focuses excessively on structure, neglecting

human, cultural, or economic factors.
• Ignoring Actual Causes : Neorealism attributes state behavior solely to structural factors,
ignoring internal political, social, or economic influences.
• Permanent Anarchy : Critics argue that Neorealism wrongly assumes anarchy as a
permanent state, overlooking the role of international cooperation and organizations in
reducing it.

Conclusion

Both Realism and Neorealism are significant theories for understanding power and conflict
among nations. While they share similarities, Neorealism emphasizes a structural approach,
whereas Realism focuses on individual state interests and power. Despite their criticisms, these
theories make valuable contributions to understanding the complexities of international
relations.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q.3- Critically examine the feminist perspective in international relations.

Answer – Introduction

International Relations is the study of political, economic, social, and cultural

relations between countries. Its objective is to promote global peace, cooperation,

and stability. A feminist perspective highlights gender inequality and the

marginalization of women in these relations. It seeks to understand issues like power,

security, and peace from a new viewpoint. The critical examination of this perspective

helps in understanding how feminism can bring about change in international politics.

Meaning of Feminism

Feminism is an ideology that advocates for women's rights and equality. Its goal is
to bring gender equality between men and women in society, ensuring that women
are given equal status and are not subjected to discrimination.

Feminist Perspectives in International Relations

In international relations, a feminist perspective means that this approach considers

women's rights, gender equality, and their experiences as significant. It aims to highlight
women's voices and contributions, rather than focusing solely on men's viewpoints in
traditional international relations.

• Its major supporters include Marysia Zalewski, J. Ann Tickner, Jan Jindy Pettman, and
V. Spike Peterson, among others. Feminist international relations theory emerged in the
1980s in opposition to traditional perspectives, focusing on the role of women and gender.

Feminism Perspectives in International Relations

1. Critique of Traditional Theories : Feminist scholars like Marysia Zalewski and J. Ann
Tickner criticized traditional theories such as realism and liberalism. In Machiavelli's The
Prince (1532) and Hobbes' Leviathan (1651), there is no place for women, which promotes the
rights of men. Feminist scholars argue that these theories need reform.

2. The Role of the State and Women : Feminist supporters like Jan Jindy Pettman and V.
Spike Peterson highlighted the limited role of women in the state and global governance. In

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Hobbes' Leviathan (1651), it is portrayed that the state is in the hands of men, and women are
deprived of rights. Feminist scholars advocate for equal rights for women.

3. Exclusion of Women in Military and War : Feminist scholars argue that men dominate
war and the military, and women are excluded. Thinkers like Machiavelli and Hobbes also
considered war and the military as male domains. Feminist scholars challenge this and call for
the recognition of women's roles in the military.

4. Postcolonial Feminism and Global Inequalities : Postcolonial feminism highlights the

status of women during colonial times. According to feminist scholars, colonialism exploited
women and increased inequalities based on gender and race, showing the need for
improvements in women's status.

5. Inclusive Approach and the Need for Change : Feminism prioritizes inclusivity and
equality. Scholars like Catharine A. MacKinnon argue that understanding the diverse
experiences of women can lead to societal change. Feminists call for equal opportunities and
rights for women in all sectors to ensure gender equality.

Criticism of Feminist
A Perspective

1. Unequal Focus on Women : Critics argue that the feminist perspective focuses only on
women's experiences while ignoring men's experiences and pressures. This can result in an
unbalanced viewpoint.

2. Lack of Theoretical Framework : Feminist theories do not present a single, unified theory.
Unlike traditional theories, which are clear, feminists are criticized for having an inconsistent
framework.

3. Criticism of Universal Femininity : Feminists argue that women's experiences differ in

every society. Western feminism often fails to understand these diverse experiences,
presenting a limited viewpoint.

4. Lack of Diverse Realities : Critics claim that Western feminism overlooks the diverse
realities of different cultures, affecting the global perspective.

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5. Overlooking Gender Inequalities : Feminist scholars acknowledge gender inequalities and

violence, but critics argue that Western perspectives do not view these issues equally across
all societies.

Conclusion

Feminism aims to provide women with equal rights and opportunities. In international
relations, a feminist perspective emphasizes women's rights and gender equality. However,
criticisms exist, such as an unequal focus on women and the overlooking of the diversity of
femininity across cultures. Nevertheless, feminism plays a crucial role in bringing about societal
change and equality.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q 4 - What is the meaning of state and sovereignty? Explain the perspective of

the state and the challenges faced by a sovereign state.

Answer – Introduction

The state and sovereignty are the basic concepts of politics and
international relations, which shape power, governance, and global
cooperation. Historically significant, these concepts are relevant even in
the midst of globalization, technological progress and international
challenges in the modern era. Today, Studying the state and sovereignty is
key to understanding their influence on evolving politics, governance, and global
power dynamics.

Meaning of State : A state is a political organization that governs the people living

within a definite geographical area. It encourages economic, social and cultural

development while maintaining law and order.

There are four main elements of the state:

1. Population - the citizens of a state.

2. Geographical area - a certain demarcated territory.

3. Government - the system of governance.

4. Sovereignty – independent power to make decisions and enforce its own rules.

Meaning of Sovereignty : The word “sovereignty” is derived from the Latin word
“suprenus,” meaning “supreme” or “paramount.” It is a fundamental characteristic of a

state that gives it supreme and independent power within its territory.

▪ The historical development of the concept of sovereignty is associated with the

Aristotle, who described the "supreme power of the state" as important.

▪ Today, sovereignty not only symbolizes the independence and power of the state,
it also establishes state's role in international relations and global politics.

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Perspective of the state :

1. Liberal-pluralist view of the state: In the liberal-pluralist view the state is

considered to be an impartial institution that maintains the balance of power

among different groups. It believes that the state only protects the rights of citizens
and plays the role of a referee in power struggles. If the state misuses its power,

citizens have the right to hold it accountable.

2. Social-Democratic View of the State: In the social-democratic view, the main

purpose of the state is to address social issues such as poverty, unemployment and

disease. It expects the state to manage health, education and other social services,
so as to ensure equality and social justice in society.

3. Marxist View of the State: In the Marxist view, the state is considered to be a

result of class struggle, which only protects the interests of the ruling class. Marxists
believe that the state will act in the interest of society only when it is controlled by

the working class. The state will cease to exist in a communist society.

4. Feminist View of the State: The feminist view sees the state as an instrument of

male domination. According to it, women are still excluded from major decisions,

and achieving equal opportunities for them is a challenge, while the state primarily
prioritises the interests of men.

5. Self-Servant State: In the 19th century, as monarchy declined, the state gained
more power over citizens. In the 20th century, the state began to intervene in all

aspects of society, and under many regimes its power posed a threat to freedom.
Critics believe this growing state power can infringe on individual liberty.

Challenges faced by a sovereign state :

1. Sovereignty and international treaties: The tradition of the 'Westphalian state' is

now being challenged. Earlier, sovereignty meant that the state was independent in its
internal affairs, but now this situation is changing, as international cooperation is
necessary to solve global pollution and poverty.
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2. Dominance of superpowers: Superpowers like the US affect state sovereignty. In

the post-Cold War era, the dominance of a powerful state further weakens the
autonomy of smaller states, thereby challenging state sovereignty.

3. Globalization and economic interdependence: Globalization and technological

progress have blurred national boundaries. Global economic relations have become

so intertwined that national economic independence is now being questioned, and

states are finding it difficult to maintain control within their borders.

4. Weapons of mass destruction: The traditional role of military power has been

challenged by weapons of mass destruction. Now even the most powerful states are
vulnerable to devastating attacks, which threaten their sovereignty.

5. Informal ties and digital connectivity: Religious affiliations, tourism, and digital

connectivity are now leading people to form their identities and allegiances outside
national boundaries, threatening traditional state sovereignty.

6. New transnational actors: Non-state actors such as multinational companies,

terrorist organisations, and NGOs now exert significant influence. Their agendas may

differ from those of states, creating conflicts over state sovereignty and authority.

7. Role and sovereignty of the state: Despite these challenges, the state still remains
a powerful actor in global politics. Sovereignty needs to adapt to the complexities of

the modern world, but it remains a fundamental aspect of the state.

Conclusion

Understanding the state and sovereignty gives us an opportunity to know the

complexities of modern politics and governance. In modern times, the state and its

sovereignty are facing many challenges, despite this, the state still plays an important
role in protecting the rights of its citizens and solving global problems. With changing

circumstances, the state needs to adapt its role and policies according to modern
challenges.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q.5 - What is Global Governance? Evaluate the effectiveness of international agreements and

mechanisms in addressing climate change.

Answer – Introduction

Global Governance means countries of the world working together to solve major

issues. It includes international organizations like the United Nations. Climate

change is a major issue that countries have addressed by making agreements, such

as the Paris Agreement. These agreements are designed to help countries protect
the environment and reduce pollution. However, there are questions about the

success of these agreements because some countries do not fully adhere to them.

Global Governance

Global Governance refers to the cooperation and coordination of different countries and
international organizations to collectively address global issues such as peace, security, and
development. This process works through the collaboration of countries, organizations, and
civil society.

History and development of Global Governance

Global Governance began in the 19th century, but it became significant after World War II.
Countries came together to address global issues by establishing organizations such as the
United Nations (UN), IMF, and WTO. Today, states, international organizations, NGOs, and
other groups collaborate to solve these problems.

Main features of Global Governance

1. Multilateral Institutions and Mechanisms : International organizations such as the UN,

WTO, and WHO aim to address global issues related to peace, health, and trade.

2. Global Agreements : Agreements between countries, like the Paris Agreement and NPT,
set shared commitments to resolve global problems.

3. Sovereignty and Cooperation : Countries need to cooperate with each other to address
global issues while maintaining their sovereignty.

4. Civil Society and NGOs : Civil society and NGOs monitor governments, raise awareness,
and work on global issues.

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The Global Governance Gaps

1. Knowledge Gaps : Differences in knowledge between global actors hinder solutions, such
as cooperation on climate change.

2. Global Norms and Cultural Differences : Cultural differences create disagreements on

human rights and other standards, making it difficult to accept global norms.

3. Policy Effectiveness : The effectiveness of policies depends on their formulation, adoption,

and implementation, which often face political obstacles.

4 . Lack of Institutions : Global organizations often lack the resources and authority to take
effective action on important issues.

Global Governance and Climate Change Negotiations

Global Governance and Climate Change negotiations are based on collective efforts, justice,
equality, and financial support to address environmental crises, with the participation of
various countries, organizations, and civil society.

Key International Agreements and Mechanisms on Climate Change

1. Paris Agreement (2015) : The goal of the Paris Agreement is to limit global temperature
rise to below 2°C. Countries are committed to reducing carbon emissions.

2. Kyoto Protocol (1997) : The Kyoto Protocol required industrial countries to reduce
emissions by 5%, but developing countries had no such obligations.

3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) : Established in

1992, UNFCCC is the platform for international cooperation on climate change, with COP
meetings where country representatives discuss climate issues.

4. International Mechanisms on Nuclear, Non-Proliferation, and Climate Change : These

mechanisms view nuclear energy as a solution to climate change, as it helps reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.

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Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Climate Change Agreements and Mechanisms

1. Legal Obligation and Monitoring : The Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement have some
legal provisions, but lack of monitoring and penalties makes it difficult for countries to meet
emission targets.

2. Financial Support and Technology Transfer : Financial and technical assistance from
developed countries helps developing countries tackle climate change, but it is often not
timely or fully provided.

3. Geopolitical Changes and Shifts : The success and stability of climate agreements depend
on global politics and domestic issues of countries. For example, the U.S. withdrawal and re-
entry into the Paris Agreement affects climate cooperation.

4. Global Cooperation : The Paris Agreement has brought countries together to take steps
against climate change, but the lack of legal enforcement makes it difficult for some countries
to fulfill their promises.

Conclusion

Global governance and climate change agreements are crucial for solving global problems,
but their effectiveness faces many challenges. Legal constraints, financial disparities, and
geopolitical changes obstruct the implementation of these agreements, creating difficulties in
achieving long-term solutions.

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Q.6 - What is the non-Western perspective? Explain its history and main ideas.

Answer - Introduction

A Non-Western perspective is an approach that is based on societies,

cultures, and traditions outside of Western civilization and ideologies. This

perspective presents the process of understanding and evaluating the

experiences, beliefs, and ideologies of other societies in comparison to

Western civilization. Its study is crucial in today's global context, as it offers

a new viewpoint on contemporary politics, culture, society, and economy.

The simple meaning of a non-Western perspective is

an approach that is based on the experiences and
thoughts of other cultures and traditions, which are
separate from Western civilization.

History of non-Western perspective:

1. Emergence of Non-Western International Relations Thought : The roots of non-Western

International Relations (IR) thought can be traced back to the late 1990s when scholars began
to challenge Western dominance in the study of international relations. In the 2000s, this
discourse gained momentum, and after 2007, discussions became more widespread. The idea
developed that international relations should not be limited to the history and ideas of
Western countries alone.

2. Amitav Acharya and His Contributions : Amitav Acharya is one of the leading scholars in
this field who criticized Western dominance in ethnocentrism and international relations
theory. Through his 2007 paper, "Why Is There No Non-Western Inte rnational Relations
Theory?" he demonstrated that existing theories marginalize non-Western societies. He
argued that this inequality leads to overgeneralization and misinterpretation.

3. Neglect and Challenges of Non-Western Perspectives :

Due to the weak representation of non-Western perspectives in international relations:

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▪ Western epistemology and Eurocentrism have suppressed non-Western perspectives.

▪ Language and cultural barriers have kept non-Western theories outside the mainstream.

▪ Local political, historical, and cultural factors have created obstacles to the development of
these theories.

4. Contributions of Other Key Scholars :

Barry Buzan - Buzan, along with Amitav Acharya, emphasized the need to move away from
a Western-centric view of international relations.

John Hobson - Hobson highlighted the influence of Eastern civilizations and challenged the
Eurocentric narrative of Western history.

Arlene Tickner and Ole Wæver - These scholars stressed the importance of incorporating
multidimensional perspectives in the study of international relations.

5. Future of Non-Western International Relations : To make non-Western thought more

relevant in global politics, it is necessary to integrate regional studies with international
relations. Amitav Acharya, who became the first non-Western president of the International
Studies Association in 2014, emphasized inclusivity. For the development of this field, it is
essential to incorporate diverse historical, cultural, and geographical perspectives.

Key Ideas of Non-Western Perspectives :

1. Traditional Western International Relations Theory and Non-Western Perspectives :

Traditional Western International Relations (IR) theories are generally based on European
history and conflicts, such as Wars, Peace, & European Integration. In contrast, the priorities
and concerns of non-Western regions are related to anti-colonialism, anti-racism,
development, and regionalism.

2. Sub-Systemic and Domestic Perspectives : Non-Western scholars support developing

theories based on their own historical and political contexts, rather than relying on Western IR
theory. Acharya and Buzan (2007) call this a "Sub-Systemic" approach, which focuses on
creating theories specific to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Aydýnlý and Mathews (2008)
refer to this as "Domestic" theory, where local contexts and experiences are emphasized.

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3. Six Dimensions of Global International Relations :

Acharya presented six key features of global international relations:

1. Pluralist Universalism : Recognizing and respecting global diversity, rather than imposing
a single universal standard.

2. World History Perspective : Giving importance to global history, rather than focusing
solely on Western history.

3. Incorporation of Existing Theories : Integrating existing theories with new ideas, rather
than replacing them.

4. Emphasis on Regional Studies : Recognizing the importance of regional and cultural

contexts.

5. Rejection of Exceptionalism : Rejecting claims of superiority.

6. Recognition of Diverse Forms of Agency : Acknowledging agents beyond physical power,

such as other forms of actors.

5. Role of Non-Western Actors in Contemporary International Relations : The role of non-

Western actors in global international relations is emphasized. This perspective challenges the
notion that only Western powers are the major players in global politics. Instead, it
recognizes the contributions of non-Western countries and stresses the need for them to play
an active role as agents. This is a significant step towards understanding shared destinies and
mutual relations in a globalized and interdependent world.

Conclusion

Non-Western perspectives critique Western ideologies and societies, offering a pluralistic and
inclusive approach to understanding the world. This ideology not only makes significant
contributions to contemporary politics and society but also guides the development of an
equitable and global outlook for the future.

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Q 7 - Evaluate India's growing global stature and its impact on international

politics, and critically analyze the challenges posed by the ‘inside-outsider’ binary
in Indian International Relations literature.

Answer - Introduction

India has made significant progress in the last few decades from an
economic, diplomatic, and military perspective, making it an
emerging global power. This change reflects the growing global role
of India, which is now playing an influential role on the international
stage. At the same time, the challenges posed by the 'inside-out'
binary are also significant in the Indian international relations
literature, highlighting the complex interrelationships between
domestic determinants of foreign policy and global commitments.

Evaluating India's growing global stature and its impact on international politics :.

1. Initial Phase: Dominance of British Tradition and Realism: The first phase of
international relations in India was after 1947, when international relations in India were
dominated by the British tradition, which focused on decolonisation, disarmament and the
Cold War. Hans Morgenthau's realism was adopted, which reflected the pragmatic needs of
foreign policy.

2. Intermediate Phase: Influence of American and British Education: In the second phase,
people working in Indian universities brought a mix of subject-centred studies and area
studies. These combined area studies and realism. Realism was dominant, but the end of the
Cold War in the 1980s ushered in new theories.

3. Contemporary Phase: Impact of Diversity and Global Participation: Today India is

witnessing a new turn in international relations, where India's role has changed with global
participation and a growing economy. In the 1990s, there was a shift from traditional realism
to a more nuanced approach, with new think tanks and courses. This time, a change was seen,

reflecting the global dynamism and the maturation of the Indian educational landscape.

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India's global stature has grown rapidly in the last few decades, and
it is playing an important role in international politics. The main reason
for its growing influence on international politics is the progress it has
made in its economic, political, and strategic aspects:

1. Rising economic power - India is now one of the world's leading economies, playing an
important role in global politics due to economic growth, technological advancement and
large market. India is active in groups such as WTO and BRICS and is increasing trade relations
with the US, EU and China.

2. Military and security outlook - India's military power and security policies are important
in global politics. India contributes to the United Nations peacekeeping forces and is
increasing its participation in regional and global security through its "Act East Policy" and
"Secure Indian Ocean" policies.

3. Influence in global politics - India's global stature is rising, and it is actively participating
in the United Nations, climate change and other international agreements. Ideas such as
"Gandhian principles" and "non-alignment" in India's foreign policy have also been influential
globally.

A critical analysis of the challenges posed by the ‘inside-outside’ binary :

The concept of the “Inside-Outside’ binary” is an important theme in the Indian

International Relations literature. It refers to the division of the Indian approach to the study
of international politics into a duality.

 Inside : Internal politics, social structure and culture of India.

 Outside : India's global or international position and relations.

Some key challenges of binary in Indian international relations literature:-

1. Imbalance between internal and external policies - There is often an imbalance between
India's internal policies and its global policy. For example, there is sometimes a contradiction
in the process of reforms in India's domestic politics and its relations on the global stage. If
India is unable to solve its domestic problems, it affects its global position.

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2. The problem of oligarchy and international relations - It is seen in Indian international

literature that the binary of 'inside' and 'outside' often promotes oligarchy (elite-driven
politics) in India's international politics. The participation of the general public in India's
leadership is very low, and it becomes out of relevance in international relations.

3. National identity and international influence - The conflict between India's national
identity and its global stature is also a big challenge. The situation of cultural and religious
diversity in Indian politics is difficult to understand and implement in policy in international
politics.

4. Double standards for developing countries - Despite India's global position, the issue of
binary for developing countries sometimes comes into existence. India's internal issues, such
as poverty, inequality, and human rights in comparison to Western countries, are often
presented negatively in an 'outside' context, making Indian policy challenging.

Conclusion

India's growing global stature and influence are bringing about significant changes in

international politics, but challenges posed by the 'inside-outside' binary still exist.
India needs to strengthen its presence on the global stage while solving its internal

problems. At the same time, a critical analysis of this binary in the international

relations literature makes it clear that India must strike a better balance between its
foreign policy and domestic policy to establish itself as a stable and influential power

globally.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Q.-8

SHORT NOTES

(i) Marxism

(ii) War and Peace

(iii) Human Rights

Hamne Apni Study Hamesha Manish Verma Sir Ke Notes Se Hi Ki Hai &
Sir Aur Unki Team Ke Notes Bahot Helpful & Easy Hote Hai……

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

(i) Marxism

Answer – Introduction

Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. Its central idea is that the development of society occurs through
class struggle, in which one class (the bourgeoisie) exploits another class (the

proletariat). Marxism believes that capitalism will ultimately collapse due to its
inherent contradictions, leading to the creation of socialism and communism. This

ideology works towards achieving equality and justice in society.

Meaning of Marxism

Marxism is an ideology that critiques capitalism to understand the class struggle in society. It
holds that changes in history primarily occur due to economic factors and class struggle. Its
key proponents include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Major types of Marxism

Traditional Marxism Neo-Marxism

1. Traditional Marxism : According to this, society is divided into two main classes: the
bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (those who sell their
labor).
Z

• Marxism believes that capitalism contains inherent contradictions, which will eventually
cause this system to collapse, and the proletariat will establish communism, where the
means of production will be shared among all.

2. Neo-Marxism : This applies the traditional ideology to global politics. Bill Warren argues
that imperialism is not the final stage of capitalism but a step that promotes it.

Z
• Justin Rosenberg believes that traditional international theories like realism are not
entirely correct, as they focus only on the balance of power and ignore other aspects of
society.

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Role of Marxism in International Relations

1. World-System Theory : According to Wallerstein, the world is divided into three classes:
the Core (rich countries), Semi-Periphery (average countries), and Periphery (poor countries).
S
Rich countries exploit poor countries, and they gain more in the global economy, while the
poor countries suffer losses.

2. Hegemony and Globalization : Gramsci argues that those in power use both consent and
coercion to maintain their authority. In globalization, rich countries benefit from exploiting
poor countries, making the poor countries weaker. Poor countries should resist this system.

3. Development and Dependency Theory : The Dependency Theory asserts that the
development of developing countries depends on the wealthy countries. Poor countries sell
their resources, but in return, they do not get enough profit, which stunts their development
and makes them poorer.

4. Imperialism and Exploitation : According to Marxism, imperialism involves the

exploitation of poor countries by rich countries. This exploitation happens through
colonization and trade, making rich countries prosperous while poor countries face poverty
and exploitation.

Conclusion

Marxism has made significant contributions to understanding international relations and

global politics. This theory highlights exploitation, inequality, and the uneven distribution of
power. Both traditional and neo-Marxist perspectives, such as imperialism, development, and
dependency theories, help explain the structure and issues of the global society.

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 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

(ii) War and Peace

Answer – Introduction

"War and Peace" are crucial concepts in international relations. Causes of war
include resource scarcity, political differences, or cultural conflicts. War
increases tension and violence between nations. Peace means resolving
conflicts through dialogue and understanding. Peace missions, such as United
Nations peacekeepers, work to prevent war and maintain peace. The goal of
these missions is to safeguard global stability and humanity.

Definition of War : War is a violent conflict that begins when there is no dialogue between
two parties. Its purpose is to impose the will of one party on the other.

Definition of Peace : Peace does not mean only the absence of violence, but it means creating
a world where there is stability, cooperation and justice. It is the name of avoiding conflict and
increasing cooperation between countries.

Underlying Causes of War

1. Individual Level of Analysis : To understand the causes of war, it is essential to understand

the thought process and decision-making of leaders. Tension and biases can influence their
decisions, increasing the likelihood of war.

2. State Level of Analysis : States make independent international decisions, but domestic
politics and internal conditions can also affect decisions to go to war. This often starts from
internal conflicts.

3. Domestic Economic Systems and War : A country's economic system impacts the
likelihood of war. In capitalist countries, competition and economic struggle can lead to war,
but they now maintain peace.

4. Domestic Political Institutions and Governmental Processes : In democracies,

institutional and general constraints prevent war decisions. Citizens stop their leaders from
going to war, while authoritarian leaders might use war to maintain power.

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Major Approaches in Peace Missions

1. Peace Making : This includes the "Agenda for Peace" proposed by Boutros Boutros-Ghali
in 1992. Its aim is to use United Nations military forces to prevent conflicts after peace
agreements.

2. Peace Keeping : After 1989, peace missions increased with the aim of preventing war and
promoting negotiations.

3. Peace Enforcement : According to the Security Council's 1995 guidelines, the UN or

regional organizations use military forces to enforce peace.

4. Peace Building : After the 1992 "Agenda for Peace," peace-building aimed at improving
political, economic, and security frameworks after conflicts.

MainPhases in the Development of Peace Missions

1. Cold War Era (1948-1988) : During this period, peace missions monitored ceasefire
agreements. "Blue Berets" (UN peacekeepers) were deployed, and in 1956, "Blue Helmets"
took a more active role. The mission's goal was to maintain peace.

2. Post-Cold War Period (1989-1993) : The number of peace missions increased, with 17
new missions launched. The Security Council intervened in humanitarian assistance, and
missions became multidimensional, including peacekeeping, building, and enforcement.

3. After 1994 Period : Peace missions focused on reconstruction and democratization.

Increased use of force in peace enforcement, especially in Afghanistan, Bosnia, and Kosovo,
occurred. Regional organizations also provided support.

Conclusion
The study of the causes of war is connected to individual thinking, domestic politics, and
economic systems. Approaches in peace missions, such as peace-making, keeping,
enforcement, and building, have played a crucial role in preventing conflicts and maintaining
peace. Missions expanded during the Cold War and post-Cold War periods.

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(iii) Human Rights

Answer – Introduction

Human Rights are the rights inherently granted to every individual, such as
the right to life, liberty, and equality. The purpose of human rights is to
establish a just and equitable society where every individual receives respect
and dignity. However, the protection and implementation of these rights
often face various social, legal, and political challenges. These rights are
safeguarded through international agreements.

Global Human Rights Structure

1. United Nations and the Human Rights Commission : The establishment of the United
Nations in 1945 and the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in
1948 significantly strengthened the global recognition of human rights. In 2006, the Human
Rights Commission was restructured into the Human Rights Council, which holds states
accountable for violations.
2. International Covenants and Treaties : Based on the UDHR, two significant international
covenants were created: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and
the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Their purpose is
to protect individuals' fundamental rights and ensure inclusive social participation.
3. Human Rights Mechanisms and Responsibility : Various mechanisms have been
established to prevent human rights violations, such as reporting procedures, individual
complaint mechanisms, and Universal Periodic Review. International and regional courts, such
as the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the European Court of Human Rights, also
intervene in cases of human rights violations.
Human Rights in Ethics, Law, and Social Activism

Human rights are significant from ethical, legal, and social perspectives. They are implemented
through reasoning, norms, and laws. Legally, they aim to protect liberty and equality, while
social activism drives movements to bring about change. All these perspectives are
interconnected.

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1. Human Rights as an Ethical Concern

Human rights, based on moral principles, reflect ideals of justice, empathy, and altruism.
According to Amartya Sen, they are not just legal rights but also concepts of human dignity
and social justice. This ethical discourse also highlights the tension between political ideologies
such as liberalism and democracy.

2. Human Rights as Legal Rights

From a legal standpoint, human rights are recognized through treaties, international
agreements, and formal systems. The positivist legal tradition views human rights as practical
and standards-based. Their universality depends on historical and political factors, making
their implementation feasible.

3. Human Rights as Social Claims

Human rights emerge as social claims supported by civil society and non-governmental

organizations. These claims mobilize against injustice and promote the rights of marginalized
communities. Social movements help ensure the legal recognition of these rights and the
delivery of justice.

Conclusion

Human rights are fundamental rights of every individual to life, liberty, and equality. They aim
to create a just and equitable society and are crucial from moral, legal, and social perspectives.
The United Nations, international agreements, and social movements play a central role in
their protection and advancement.

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