Overview: Module 2

English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels:

 Beginner
 Elementary
 Pre-intermediate
 Intermediate
 Upper intermediate
 Advanced

However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications. The

Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is widely accepted in European
countries, as well as increasingly on an international scale, and aims to standardise
language learning, teaching and assessment. There are three general categories (A-
Basic User, B-Independent User, C-Proficient User) which are further broken down into
two levels.

 Basic User

A1 – Breakthrough or Beginner
A2 – Waystage or Elementary

 Independent User

B1 – Threshold or Intermediate
B2 – Vantage or Upper Intermediate

 Proficient User

C1 – Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced C2 – Mastery or Proficiency Another

method commonly used is grouping students into classes named after the exams they
are preparing for, particularly in the case of the Cambridge ESOL examinations. These
are:

 KET – Key English Test

 PET – Preliminary English Test
 FCE – First Certificate in English
 CAE – Certificate in Advanced English
 CPE – Certificate of Proficiency in English

There are additionally two Cambridge exams for young learners (ESOL YLE) known as
Starters, Movers and Flyers.

More about the CEFR

The CEFR is very important, so it’s crucial that we explore this further.
You may teach in a school where their approach and syllabus is fully built on the CEFR
classifications and terminology; thus, it’s paramount that you have a solid grasp of it.
It’s not difficult.

Background

Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a student’s

proficiency/competency in language as compared to mainstream English classes in, for
example, the USA or the UK.

 As you’ll already know, measuring a student’s proficiency in language is not an

exact science.
 No universal system of rating exists.
 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or CEF) is,
perhaps, our best guide. There are other guides.
 Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels.

Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which level the materials are
intended for and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what level the
students are studying. So, there’s no need to worry!

1. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR;

sometimes called the CEF): What is it?

The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It has 6
levels in ascending order from A1 to C2.

The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a language-neutral
format. Because it is language-neutral, it can actually be used for any language in the
world.

It is a useful reference document for school directors, syllabus designers, teachers,

teacher trainers and proficient learners.

Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as their scale
of levels, though some give each level their own name.

The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of those
bands divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes (provides descriptors)
which represent what a student should be able to do at each level.

You may have heard of other student level terminology in EFL, i.e. Beginner,
Intermediate and Advanced. Very loosely, you can see the CEFR levels as similar to
Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced – though the CEFR levels are more precise than
these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and Proficient).

2. The CEFR’s approach: Communicative language competence

The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language competence–

the increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively in the target language
It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of communicative
language competence.

Communicative language competence has a number of component parts: it includes

linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. Each of these competences is
made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills.

Linguistic competence

Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to:

 lexis (generally, words and phrases)

 phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
 syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed
sentences in a language)
 and other features of language systems, considered independently of the
sociolinguistic impact of variations in use and of the pragmatic functions of the
utterances produced.

It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the range and
precision of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive organisation and the way this
knowledge is stored in memory (for example, the question of how a lexical item fits into
the networks of associations the speaker has available) and the accessibility (for
example, how an item can be recalled, activated and its availability for use).

Socio-linguistic competence

Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in using

language functionally in a social context.

Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social norms and
customs which affect to an important degree all linguistic communication between
representatives of different cultures, even if the participants are frequently unaware of
them.

These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings and
politeness, the way in which relations between generations, sexes, people of different
social status, social groupings are expressed through special language markers,
linguistically codified rituals, differences in register, dialect and accent, through vocal
rhythms, for example.

Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters and the
way in which they influence language use.

Pragmatic competence

Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources (carrying out
language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or predetermined scripts of
interactional exchanges. It also involves mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence,
the recognition of text types and genres, using irony or parody. Even more than in the
case of this factor than for linguistic competence, the development of pragmatic skills is
strongly influenced by interactive experience and by the cultural environment.

Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global Level

You will find the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s not difficult.
It’s an excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track when you start on
your TEFL journey.

CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors - Global Level

Level Level Descriptors

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can
summarise information from different spoken and written sources,
C reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can
2 express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most complex
situations.
Proficient
User Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and
recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and
spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can
C
use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and
1
professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text
on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns,
connectors and cohesive devices.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and
abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of
specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity
B
that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible
2
without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a
wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving
Independe the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
nt User Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar
matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal
with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the
B
language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which
1
are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and
events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and
explanations for opinions and plans.
Basic User Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to
areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family
information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can
A
communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
2
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe
in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment
and matters in areas of immediate need.
A Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic
1 phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can
introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions
about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows
 and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other
person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example, ‘B1+’ means the
top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention followed in various course books.

3. Why do we need the CEFR?

Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts there can be a lot of
variety in what is meant by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘advanced’. This
variability increases significantly across different languages, in different countries, with
different age ranges of learners, etc. The CEFR makes it easier for all of us to talk about
language levels reliably and with shared understanding.

4. What is it used for?

The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes:

 Developing syllabuses
 Creating texts/exams
 Marking exams
 Evaluating language learning needs
 Designing courses
 Developing learning materials
 Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment
 Teacher training programmes

5. Is it just about levels?

The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching because its
impact goes beyond merely describing learner levels. It has underpinned a particular
approach to language learning as the one most commonly recommended or expected in
language teaching today. This is the Communicative Approach we explored earlier.

It not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based and take
the form of Can Do statements, as in the examples below. These descriptions of
ability focus on communicative purpose and make for a very practical approach, which
looks at what people can do – rather than on specific linguistic knowledge.

The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all the
various sub-skills and areas of competence:

 the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening)

 communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification)
 types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing)
 and more linguistic skills (e.g. vocabulary range, phonological control)

It allows you link up skills in each of these areas with the student’s overall level.

Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR

Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment
and matters in areas of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]

Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics
beyond his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details,
especially if the accent is unfamiliar.[C1, Listening]

Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle
distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]

Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of
immediate relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to be important.[B1, Written
interaction]

Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain time and
keep the turn whilst formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]

You can view a list of Can Do statements

at https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?
documentId=090000168045b15e

6. What’s in it for you? How can the CEFR be useful for teachers?

Understanding language levels better

The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing language
levels. National, local and school policies are increasingly being described in CEFR levels
– and so it’s important to understand what they mean.

Seeing more clearly what learners need to work on

The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next level. You will
find it particularly useful in showing how different component skills are described at
each level. You have an idea of what a B2 student is like, but what should they be able
to do in terms of listening to lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken
fluency? The CEFR helps you see what is needed for different aspects of learning
English.

Curriculum plan

If a teacher responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class – just her
own or for the whole school – it is very helpful to use the CEFR as a broad framework.
Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you need – not just the Global Scale, but
component scales as well where relevant.

What do you want your students to achieve in each course on their path to the target
level? This can be further elaborated by looking at the information coming from English
Profile, which we’ll come to in a moment. Of course, most teachers do not need to
create their own curriculum. By choosing a course book that is aligned to the CEFR, you
have a syllabus created by experts – which you may then choose to adapt for your own
circumstances.

7. Should you introduce your students to the CEFR?

Yes, it’s very useful for students to understand how mastery of a language builds up
from beginner to mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for their level and age,
and it is probably adults and teenagers that will find it useful.

Scales – adapted to their language level – are really useful for self-assessment, which
can be very helpful in developing language skills.

8. English Profile

The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all working
towards a reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of
each CEFR level.

Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English Vocabulary
Profile is now complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate research team is developing
a similar resource, the English Grammar Profile, which describes the gradual mastery of
grammar across the six CEFR levels.

Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to their
research into vocabulary learning across the CEFR.

Go to the English Profile website – www.englishprofile.org and click on Free Registration

English Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which words and phrases – and
individual meanings of each word – are typically mastered by learners at each CEFR
level.

This is a really valuable tool to make decisions about what to teach students as they
progress. Cambridge University Press authors and editors make extensive use of this
research in developing their course materials. Use it well!

In this module we’re going to look at an overview of the grammar taught at

each level as well as going over some key grammatical terms and what they
actually mean, and see how to teach the different tenses.

Unit 1: Grammar at every level

Needless to say, your teaching will change according to the level of the group or
individual, particularly in terms of grammar. Have a look at the following table to get an
idea at what is taught when.

Beginner Subject pronouns (I, you, he/she…)

Object pronouns (me, you, him/her…)
Verb ‘be’ – present tense (I am, you are…)
 This, that, these, those
Basic prepositions (in, at, to…)
Articles (a, an, the)
Singular/plural nouns
Possessive adjectives (my, your, his/hers…)
Possessive ‘s’
Likes and dislikes

Verb ‘be’ – present tense questions and negatives

Present simple (I walk, she walks…)
Present continuous (I’mwalking, she’swalking…)
Adverbs of frequency (sometimes, often, never…)
Elementary Possessive pronouns (mine, yours…)
Past simple, regular and irregular (play> played, go>went)
Like + -ing (I like swimming)
Want, like and would like
Telling the time

Past simple, regular and irregular verbs

Past continuous (she was going, they were walking…)
So, because, but, although
Future forms: ‘going to’/present continuous for future
arrangements/‘will/won’t’
Pre-
Present perfect + ever, never, for and since
Intermediate
Comparatives (more/less…than, as….as)
Superlatives (the most/least….)
Modals of obligation (have to, don’t have to, must, mustn’t…)
‘Used to’
‘so/neither’ + auxiliaries (so do I, neither has he…)

Present perfect vs continuous

Past simple vs past continuous vs past perfect
Future forms: ‘going to’ vs present continuous vs ‘will/shall’
Usually vs used to
Reported speech (“I’m going to the park” > he said he was going to
the park)
Intermediate Passives (the church was painted by Michelangelo)
Relative clauses (the girl who is sat over there…)
Modals of obligation and deduction (must, may, might, can’t…)
Can, could, be able to (ability)
First conditional and future time clauses (If I pass the exam,
I’llcelebrate)
Second conditional ((If I was famous I’dgive money to charity))

Upper The...the… + comparatives (themore you learn themore you

Intermediate know…)
Using adjectives as nouns (rich people are privileged > the rich are
privileged)
Adjective order
 Narrative tenses
Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Passive structures (it is said that…, he is believed to…)
Future perfect and continuous (the ice caps will have melted,
we will be using solar powered cars)
Reporting verbs (recommend, threaten, advise…)
Third conditional (if I had known, I would have come)
Past modals, ‘would rather’ and ‘had better’
Gerunds and infinitives
Used to, be used to, get used to
Structures after wish Quantifiers

Inversion for emphasis (little did he know that the dog had escaped)
Linkers (although, nonetheless, whilst…)
Mixed conditionals (If her eyesight was better she would have
seen the squirrel)
Cleft sentences (the reason why I’ve come is…, the thing that
annoys me most is…)
Compound nouns
‘So’ and ‘such’
Advanced
Gerunds and infinitives
Phrasal verbs (go up, go in, go out, go on, go for…)
Unreal uses of past tenses (it’s time we left, suppose we opened our
own shop…)
Uses of the verb ‘get’
Participle phrases (the horse, trotting up to the fence, hopes you
have a carrot)
Passive and active voice

Although this may look a bit overwhelming, you will never be left without resources to
work from and many teacher’s books even give a step-by-step guide of how to teach all
the grammar listed above. Today we’re going to look together at an example from each
level so that you have an idea of how to teach appropriately at every stage.

Beginner Level
When teaching absolute beginners it is crucial to ‘grade’ your language as much as possible
because even some of the simplest sentences may confuse your students. At this level you really
need to be animated and reduce the complexity of anything you say.

If, for example, you start your lesson with, “Okay guys, today we’re going to cover subject
pronouns” you will probably be greeted by a sea of blank stares. Instead, it is essential to use
visuals, for example, “Look (point to eyes) at the board (point to board)” before clearly writing
the title ‘subject pronouns’.

This is a technique called ‘modelling’ and is really necessary at this level.

Basically, it means demonstrating exactly what you’re talking about by pointing and using
visuals. In case you’re unsure, subject pronouns are used to replace the noun which is the subject
of the sentence.

If we take the sentence “Mary is American”, we can replace the noun (Mary) with ‘she’, a
subject pronoun. The subject pronouns in English are:

 I – 1st person singular

 you – 2nd person singular
 he/she/it – 3rd person singular
 we – 1st person plural
 you – 2nd person plural
 they – 3rd person plural

Rather than simply writing this list on the board and getting your students to copy it, you first
need to demonstrate. Look at the example below of how to present a lesson on subject
pronouns…

 “I (point to yourself) am a teacher”. Write the word ‘I’ on the board, then repeat the
sentence, again pointing at yourself as you emphasis the word ‘I’.
 “you (point to an individual student) have a red bag (e.g.)”. Write ‘you’ on the board
underneath ‘I’ and repeat.
 Say both sentences together, always demonstrating as you speak, “I am a teacher. You
have a red bag”
 “he (point to a male student) is tall (indicate height with your hand)”.
 Continue with this pattern until you have demonstrated all the subject pronouns.
 Get the students to repeat after you and drill pronunciation.
 At this point there are a variety of activities you could do from matching activities to
sentence completion but remember not to ignore the visual aspect: any handout should
include clear pictures that the students can relate the pronouns to.
Match the following pronouns to the pictures.
you (plural)
they
I
you (singular)
she
we
he

Elementary Level
At elementary level your students should already be able to grasp the absolute basics
but don’t get carried away thinking you can present a lesson to them in the same way
you would to an English native speaker!

Your students should hopefully be familiar with the subject pronouns and the verb ‘be’
in positive sentences (I am, you are, he/she/it is…) but it’s always useful to do a quick
recap. At this stage you can also introduce whatever vocabulary theme you are linking
the lesson to e.g. nationalities (I am English, you are Italian…) or feelings perhaps (she
is happy, they are tired…).

 Write "+" on the board and a variety of sentences with the verb 'be' using all the
subject pronouns.
 Next to this list write " - " symbol and try to elicit from the class the negative
equivalent of each sentence, e.g:
+
I am English -
You are Italian I am not English
He is Scottish You are not Italian
She is French
  At this stage you can show the negative contractions, highlighting the fact that
with every subject pronoun except ‘I’ there are two possibilities (I’m not…
compared to you’re not/you aren’t… etc.). Get the class to practice writing a
variety of sentences about themselves and other students to then read aloud.
Drill pronunciation.
 You can then introduce the question statements using a listening task where the
students must complete the gaps with the correct form of the verb be for
example:

Teacher gives this instruction: "Listen and complete the dialogue"

Man: ____ you Scottish?

Woman: No, I’m Irish! Where ___ you from?
Man: I’m from the USA.
Woman: ___ he from the USA too?
Man: Yes, we ___ both from California.

 Elicit correct answers on the board then write:

 + You are Scottish
 ?Are you Scottish?
 Ask, ‘What’s the difference?’ Highlight the inversion of subject and verb using
arrow symbols
 Again once the grammar point has been presented there are any number of
different task-based activities you can give to the class to ensure they have
understood and to practice.

Pre-intermediate Level
At pre-intermediate level we often introduce modal verbs of permission and
obligation.

Modal verbs are verbs such as can, must, may etc. which are always followed by
another verb but they tell us the function of that main verb.

For example, ‘you can run’ is very different in meaning from ‘you must run’. Many pre-
intermediate students will have heard a lot of these verbs before but may not be
completely sure of their meaning.

Especially because some of the modals of permission/obligation (must, may, can,

should, have to) have negatives (must not, may not, don’t have to etc.) which aren’t
exactly opposite in meaning.

There are numerous resources online and in EFL books which cover this topic but an
idea of how to present the lesson is shown below.

 Write the title ‘School Rules’ on the board and try to elicit as many as possible
from the students e.g. ‘you must switch off mobile phones in class’, ‘you have to
wear a school uniform’ etc.
  Go back through the rules and highlight all the modals of permission/obligation. If
there are any missing you can try to elicit them by writing the first letter of each
in hangman-style (e.g. m_ _ ) until all are on the board.
 Write a list of definitions on the board or have a handout prepared and ask
students to match the modals (positive and negative versions) up with each
definition.

Lets look at some modal verbs. Please note, as will all these question types, you need to
drag all the answers into the correct zones.

Drag and drop the modal verbs.

It is obligatory
It is possible
It is advisable
It is forbidden
It isn't necessary
It is inadvisable
must
may not
may
cannot
must not
should
can
have to
shouldn't
don't have to
Check answer
It’s then important to highlight that whilst certain modals have the exact opposite
meaning in the negative form (should/shouldn’t) others change meaning in the negative
(have to=obligation/don’t have to=possible but not necessary NOT forbidden).
 After this you can ask students to imagine their ideal school and write their own
set of rules using a variety of the modals covered, bringing together ideas from
each individual/group to make a full set which have a general consensus.
Intermediate Level
Relative clauses are used to give additional information about something without
starting a new sentence. They combine sentences in a way that is natural and avoids
repetition. Without relative clauses, speech and writing can sound heavy and strange,
for example:

Mark is talking to a girl. Do you know the girl?

Here we have two very short sentences, repeating the word ‘girl’. Instead we could join
the two together using the relative pronoun ‘who’

Do you know the girl who Mark is talking to?

There are five different relative pronouns (who, which, whom, that and
whose) and three relative adverbs (where, when, why) which can be used to
link sentences together.

A typical exercise used to present relative clauses is to give students a number of

sentences that they have to link together using an appropriate relative clause. At
intermediate level the essential ones are who, which, that, where and when. Whom,
whose and why can be taught at higher levels.

Link the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun. Choose all that apply.
In defining relative clauses, ‘that’ can be used as an informal substitute for ‘who’ or
‘which’.

Upper-Intermediate level
At upper-intermediate level your students should be comfortable writing and conversing
in English but will most likely continue to make small mistakes particularly with verb
patterns.

An important feature of any upper-intermediate course should be the distinction

between gerunds and infinitives.

In sentences where more than one verb is used, the first verb determines the form of
the second.

Native English speakers do this automatically, without thinking, but for EFL students it’s
not so obvious. You would know instinctively, for example, that it is incorrect to say ‘I
enjoy listen music’. This is because the first verb ‘enjoy’ is always followed by the
gerund (the -ing form of the verb).

Likewise, the sentence ‘I’ve decided going to university’ doesn’t sound right at all
(although we do understand the meaning of the sentence). Here we need the infinitive
form of the verb (the verb in its original state) with ‘to’ : ‘I’ve decided to go to
university’.

A good way to introduce upper-intermediate students to this topic is to first off give
them a variety of sentences and use their instinct to tick the correct verb form. This is
because at this level they will already have been exposed to a lot of English and will feel
satisfied to know that their subconsciouses have absorbed some valuable information!

Look at the following exercise and choose the correct verb form.

As you can see, some verbs are followed by the gerund, some by the infinitive with ‘to’
and some by the infinitive without ‘to’.

Unfortunately, there aren’t any set rules for learning which (apart from knowing that
modals, amongst others, are always followed by the infinitive without to).

It’s a case of trying to memorise which verbs take which and practice, practice,
practice!

Advanced Level
As an example of advanced level content we’re going to look at active and passive
sentences. An active sentence is one which follows the usual formula of subject + verb
+ object/complement:
  He built the stadium in 1998

A passive sentence, however, inverts this order, placing the object at the beginning.

 The stadium was built (by him) in 1998

We use passive sentences to place emphasis on the object, rather than the subject of
the sentence, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant.

In passive sentences, we call the subject the ‘agent’ and stating the agent is optional,
as in the above example.

To form a passive sentence we always use the verb ‘be’ (in the same tense as the verb
from the active sentence) + past participle. If we look at the previous example, the verb
is ‘built’ which is the past simple form of the verb ‘build’.

Therefore, in the passive sentence, it is the verb ‘be’ which must change to the past
simple form ‘was’ + the past participle which in this case is ‘built’.

To recap how to form passive sentences with your class you could give them a list of
active sentences and ask them to re-write them in the passive.

Example Grammar Practice

Whilst most of your students should feel comfortable forming passive sentences in a
controlled exercise, they may still make mistakes in their writing by using the passive
form in an active sentence or vice versa.

It can therefore be useful to find a text which uses a variety of active or passive
sentences, erase all the verb forms and have students write the correct active or
passive verb in the blank spaces.

Look at the following example which you are free to use with your own lessons.

Student instruction "Fill the gaps with the active or passive form of the verbs
in brackets"

Reuters 'News Agency

Martin Webb_________(work) for the Reuters News Agency for ten years. He describes
the company. "Reuters is one of the world's biggest news agencies. It__________(supply)
news and stock market price to media and financial institutions all over the
world__________ (start) by Paul Reuters in 1849 - with pigeons.

Reuter________(be) born in 1816 in Germany. During the 1840's he _________(employ) as

a bank clerk in Berlin. German bankers _________(need) to know the price on the Paris
stock exchange, but the French telegraph system only went as far as Belgium. From
there the information______________(send) to Germany by train. The
journey________(take) nine hours. The same information_______ carry by Paul Reuter's
pigeons in only two hours!"

"Reuters _________(change) a lot since those days. Over the past fifty years, we
_________(open) offices in many different countries and we _______still_______(expand).
Now, news and stock market prices__________(send) all over the world within seconds."

*text taken from www.busyteacher.org

Again there are variety of resources available to teach the various grammar points but
the important thing to remember is how to teach appropriately at each level!

Unit 2: Key grammatical terms

and their functions
Many novice EFL teachers are afraid of teaching grammar because, although they can
intuitively sense if a sentence is correct or incorrect, they often don’t know how to
explain why because they themselves are unfamiliar with all the jargon.

If you struggle recognising your nouns from your pronouns, your adjectives from your
adverbs then you’re not alone. But grasping these key concepts is essential to EFL
teaching.

Here we’re going to focus on the nine parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs,
conjunctions, determiners, exclamations, nouns, prepositions, pronouns and verbs) and
look at them in a bit more detail than the typical “a verb is a doing word” approach we
all learned at school.

Part Of
Function Examples A Few Subcategories
Speech

to describe a noun, a pronoun or comparative (taller) superlative

Adjective tall intelligent
part of a sentence (most intelligent)…

frequency (sometimes), time

to describe a verb, adjective or
quickly finally (yesterday), manner (angrily),
another adverb by giving more
Adverb sometimes degree (completely), quantity
information about how, when
yesterday (few), attitude markers
something happens
(apparently)…

addition (and), condition (since),

but
Conjunction to connect a clause, sentence or contrast (yet), purpose (so that),
and
s word reason (because), result
so
(therefore), time (before)..

articles (the), demonstrative

this
Determiner to clarify which noun is being adjectives (that), possessive
my
s referred to adjectives (his), quantifiers (both)
both
…

ouch
Exclamatio to express strong feeling
wow doubt (erm), pain (ouch)…
ns (informal, spoken language)
oh no

abstract (hope), countable

milk
to name things, people, places, (people), uncountable (sugar),
Nouns parents
concepts proper (Liverpool), collective
beauty
(army)…

cause/effect (due to), contrast

to link a noun/noun at
Preposition (unlike), dependent (wait for),
phrase/pronoun to another word until
s movement (towards), place
or phrase throughout
(under), time (during)…
 I personal (subject pronouns he,
to replace/refer to a noun or him object pronouns them…),
Pronouns
noun phrase ours possessive (mine), reflexive
herself (himself), relative…

walk
Verbs to show an action or state believe Transitive, intransitive…
try

Further grammatical terms

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also
have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done. In contrast,
an intransitive verb never takes an object.

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an object.

He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)

She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)

In these sentences, something is being done to an object.

A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct object. The
indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, although the words to and for are
not used. In the following examples, notice the difference between the direct and
indirect objects.

The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object ( Robert) is the
person to whom the letter is sent.

He sent Robert the letter.

The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object ( class) is the
group to whom the lecture is given.
She gave her class the lecture.

Learn to recognise words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When these
words are pronouns, they must be in the objective case.

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb does not take an object.

She sleeps too much.

He complains frequently.

In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and complain.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)

She sings rock 'n' roll tunes. ( rock 'n' roll tunes receives the action of sings = transitive)

Gerunds

Gerunds are words that are formed from verbs but act as nouns.

You can spot them because they will be verb+ing acting as a noun.

E.g. I love shopping!

The word ‘shop’ is a verb. Shopping is a verb with an –ing ending acting as a noun.

It is the subject of this sentence.

Back to top

Root words
Word ‘trees’ or ‘maps’ can also be useful for identifying different parts of speech and
helping students increase their vocabulary. You essentially start with a ‘root’ word, then
try to find as many different variations on that word by adding prefixes (e.g. un-, mis-),
suffixes (e.g. –ly, -ful) or by adapting different parts of the word. Take a look at the
example below using the root word ‘believe’
Before clicking onto the next page, and using a pen and paper, see how many words
you can write down from the root ‘understand’.

Root words continued

You will hopefully have written some of the below:

Understanding
Understandable
Understandably
Misunderstand
Misunderstanding
Pre-understood

Unit 3: Sentence Structure

In this Unit, we will explore the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word, phrase,
clause, subject and predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences and the key
elements of sentences in your class without having any great hang-ups or difficulties
with meaning.
If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something like
this:

A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate,
conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command and consisting of a main
clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.

Basically, a sentence is made up of different words to complete a purpose. There are

several purposes: one might be to make a statement or another might be to ask a
question.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Sentence

A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its conclusion
marked by a full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).

In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There is
no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence. The
only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb.

For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the worm.

2. Morpheme

A morpheme is the lowest unit of language that can convey meaning. You cannot break
a morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning. Many simple words are
morphemes, e.g. boy, hut, talk.

Some words consist of two or more morphemes:

 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind +ness

ren, s and ness all convey some meaning, even though none of them is a word in its
own right. If we try to break them down any further, we just end up with graphemes or
phonemes:

r + e+ n

A grapheme is a term from linguistics meaning the smallest unit in writing that can
change meaning. This is a letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme, e.g.

b ng ea
A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In writing,
each word is made up of letters, and in speech a word is made up of a series of
phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in standard modern English, fairly evenly divided
between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a word do not correspond to the
letters with which we write it.

For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds : s-i-ng-i-ng.

3. Word

A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words has a
different job to do. Here are four words:

roared, mighty, lion, the

Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.

Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have to have an
adjective in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.

Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a sentence.

The is called a definite article. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we
believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to or because there is
only one of this thing in that place or in those surroundings. As you know, articles form
part of a larger class of words known as ‘determiners’.

So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about. We
don’t have to have a definite article in a group of words when we are trying to make a
sentence.

We put words together to make a phrase.

4. Phrase

A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of

words, that forms a meaningful unit within a sentence:

mighty lion

Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.

Noun phrase

The noun phrase can be a word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can
function in a sentence as a subject object or prepositional object; it can be very simple
or very complex. A noun phrase is built around a single noun or pronoun; for example
(bolded):
A pile of books lay on the table.

He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.

Verb phrase

In grammar a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more
helping (auxiliary) verbs and one main verb:

 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)

 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main
verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present participle of
main verb plan)

The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are there
only to help it.

The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form changes as in
the last two examples in which send becomes sent and plan becomes planning.

We use phrases to make a clause.

5. Clauses

A clause is a larger word group that includes a little more information. It consists of at
least two phrases - one is a noun phrase known as the subject, and the other is
the verb.

A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words which makes a sense unit, but it
might not be concluded by a full stop. A sentence may consist of two or more clauses,
e.g. She left (1) because it was late (2) and she was tired (3); this sentence contains
three clauses.

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. For example:

The mighty lion / roared.

In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion and the verb is roared.

A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count main verbs. For each
main verb there will be a clause.

This all leads us to the sentence.

6. Subject

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being
something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb.
For instance, in the sentence The computers in the Learning Centre must be replaced,
the verb is must be replaced. What must be replaced? The computers. So the subject
is computers.

A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers. Remember: Modifiers

are any word or group of words that change or add to the meaning of another word. The
simple subject of the following sentence is issue:

The really important issue of the debate, stripped of all other considerations, is the
morality of the nation.

Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire clause:

What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes.

The simple subject is not computer repair, nor is it what he had forgotten, nor is it he.
Ask what it is that could fill whole volumes. Your answer should be that the entire
bolded clause is the simple subject, i.e. What he had already forgotten about
computer repair

7. Predicate

A predicate is the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label the part of a
sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something about the subject.

So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’ of the sentence; the predicate does the rest
of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb
(all bolded):

The glacier melted.

The glacier has been melting.

The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.

More Examples

The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:

 People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.

 Sebastián and Alejandro/went on vacation.
 I/love eating cocido madrileño.

8. More about sentences and clauses

Now that you’ve grasped the terminology and usage, particularly ‘sentence’ and
‘clause’, we’re sure you’re ready to move on a bit further to types of sentences and
clauses.
If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we've used, and a full stop at the
end, we have a sentence. From a linguistic point of view sentences are the largest
grammatical units.

They are also intuitively complete in two senses:

 first they may stand alone as informative units

 second and more importantly they include all required grammatical elements

The mighty lion roared. (has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a meaningful
unit)

This is a simple sentence.

Simple sentences
A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb. A simple
sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a complete unit of
meaning.

Here are some examples of simple sentences:

 Carlos smiled. (Carlos is the subject; smiled is the verb)

 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)

There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a

sentence. Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb. For
example, He phoned is as much of a sentence as is Atlético Madrid is one of the best
teams in Europe.

Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a
verb. It may have other words which help to make up the meaning.

But look at this group of words:

Made in France.

This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To make it into
a complete sentence with a subject and verb, we would need to change it to something
like:

My fridge was made in France.

So, that’s simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences too.
Compound sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called a compound
sentence. This is a sentence of two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction (also called a connective).

Compound sentences contain two or more pieces of information and the pieces are
linked by connectives. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives which link text
together, such as:

 but
 and
 or

Two simple sentences can be joined together with a connective to make a compound
sentence. For example:

I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.

I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.

If we join them together we have a compound sentence:

I do not like eating strawberries but I love eating carrots.

Note: but is the connective

Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written in bold:

 The boys walked down the road and they met their friends at the bus stop.
 The postman came to the door so the dog barked loudly.

One advantage of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety into her
writing. However, one problem is that some writers can get carried away and write long
rambling sentences:

We went the park and we met some friends and then we went into town which was not
too far but I was quite tired when I got there so I sat down.

Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is usually
adequate, and they don't need to be used in every sentence.

There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.

Complex sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex sentence
contains one main clause that can make sense on its own and one or more minor or
subordinate clauses that are linked to it. We’ll call these minor clauses subordinate
clauses from now on. It just sounds better.

When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.

The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb
and makes sense by itself.

The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a clause with a
subject and a verb, it doesn't make sense on its own. It needs to be attached to a main
clause for it to make sense.

We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the
following examples the main clause is in bold and the two subordinate clauses are
underlined.

When the vehicle passedthe mighty lion roaredbecause it was annoyed.

We can even split the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex
sentence.

When the vehicle passed, the mighty lionwhich was annoyedroared.

Another example

In a complex sentence there is one main idea and one or more subordinate ideas. We
can take the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its own.
Let’s consider this sentence:

The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.

We can cut out the main idea (the main clause) and it will stand on its own as a
meaningful unit:

The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own, has a
subject and a verb)

What we are left with is:

as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause
cannot stand on its own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore regarded
as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is a subordinate clause.

Note:

The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It contains
both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.
The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It contains a
subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s dependent on the main
clause for it to make sense.

Unit 4: Tenses
Part of the difficulty of teaching tenses is not only that many of us take for granted
subtle distinctions (‘I went to Brazil in 2006’ vs ‘I’vebeen to Brazil’).

It’s also the assumption that many of us have that other languages have neatly
corresponding tenses. This, unfortunately, is not the case.

Whilst there are obviously overlaps, especially with many of the European
languages, other cultures may have entirely different concepts of the
relationship between time and tense.

Rosemary Aitken suggests an approach known as CASSIAL (Choose, Analyse, Sequence,

Select, Identify context, Auxiliary materials, Learner error).

Although this acronym may seem a tad long-winded, her approach is relatively self-
explanatory: you need to think about the tense you’ve chosen to teach (what’s its
purpose? When do we use it? Are there any exceptions).

Make sure you have enough material to illustrate your point and pre-empt any problems
your students may have with grasping the nuances of that particular tense.

A deeper understanding of tenses will develop as you become more and more familiar
with teaching them and the contrast between each but here we will see an overview of
the various English tenses for you to get to grips with.

Look back at the two example sentences given in the first paragraph of this unit.

The first “I went to Brazil in 2006” is an example of a past simple sentence, it’s the
verb ‘go’ in its past form.
The second, “I’vebeen to Brazil” is the present perfect tense. We form the present
perfect by using the have/has + the ‘past participle’ of the verb.

In this case the past participle of the verb ‘go’ is ‘been’. Don’t get confused with the
name ‘present perfect’ though, we’re still referring to the past. But if we’re talking
about the past in both cases, why do we need two different tenses? Why can’t we say
“I’ve been to Brazil in 2006”? This is where your ‘Analyse’ and ‘Identify context’ steps
come in.

See if you can answer the following questions.

Present and Past Tenses
Now let’s look at the other English tenses in more detail...

Present

Present simple: routine/habitual actions or things which are generally true

 e.g. ‘I work every Saturday’, ‘cats chase mice’

Present continuous/ Present progressive: happening now or around now

 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘John is working today’

Past

Past simple: completed, finished actions with a specific time reference

 Form: use the past tense of the verb

 e.g. ‘I wrote 10 letters yesterday’

Past continuous/ Past progressive: actions in progress at a particular time in the

past, actions interrupted in the past, two actions happening simultaneously in the past

 Form: was/were + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘What were you doing at 10.00 last night?’, ‘I was writing letters’

Future Tense
Future

Present continuous: fixed future plans/arrangements with a specific time reference

 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘He’s seeing Jim on Sunday afternoon’

‘going to’ + infinitive verb: future intentions and predictions

 e.g. ‘She’s going to have a baby!’

‘will/won’t/shall’ + infinitive verb: predictions, instant decisions, promises,

suggestions and offers

 e.g. ‘I think it will rain tomorrow’, ‘I promise I’ll do my homework later’

Future Continuous/ Future Progressive: an action in progress at a particular time in
the future

 Form: will + be + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘In 2050 we will all be driving electric cars’

Perfect Aspect
Present Perfect (simple): general past experiences with no specific time reference,
past actions that have importance in the present, in expressions with yet, since, for,
already, just, actions which started in the past and continue now (non-action verbs only)

 Form: have/has + past participle

 e.g. ‘I’ve worked here for 3 years’, ‘a car has crashed into a house’, ‘I’ve known
her since I was at school’

Present Perfect Continuous: actions which started in the past and continue now
(action verbs), recent continuous actions

 Form: have/has + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘I’ve been learning English for 4 years’, ‘You’re all red, what have you been
doing?’ – ‘I’ve been sunbathing in the garden’

Past Perfect (simple): when we’re already talking about the past but want to refer to
an earlier past time

 Form: had + past participle

 e.g. ‘I couldn’t get in because I had forgotten my keys’

Past Perfect Continuous: an action in progress in the past leading up to another past
moment

 Form: had + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘He had been cleaning the car for an hour before he stopped because of the
rain’

Future Perfect (simple): an action that will have already happened before a specific
point in the future

 Form: will + have + past participle

 e.g. ‘I’ll have already left by the time you arrive’

Future Perfect Continuous: an action that will continue up until a certain future point

 Form: will + have + been + verb + -ing

 e.g. ‘I’ll have been working here for 10 years when I retire’

FULL Tense Table: Introduction

You will already have a reasonably good grasp of tenses from the introductory materials
above. But it’s wise go a bit deeper into this.

So, we have provided you with a FULL Tense Table which you should always keep by
your side, just in case you are asked a question and your mind goes blank for a
moment. It happens to us all!

The table covers the 3 main verb structures for each tense:

 Positive: You like Edinburgh.

 Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
 Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.

This is useful when you decide to cover, say, the positive form and the negative form
one after the other. The table will keep you right.

Also, you may get an off-the-wall question from an advanced student: What’s the
difference between the two forms of the Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense: will be
or be going to?

Again, your mind may go blank for a moment, particularly when you’re deep into
another tense. You have your table to keep you right.

In this scenario, you could give the student a copy of the relevant pages for her to read
later and she can ask you questions later if she’s still not sure. Just for interest, there’s
little difference between the two forms!

In addition, the table has been constructed so that you can copy a page for a specific
tense and give this out to your class. This will save you time rummaging around and
making up your own table for that particular tense.

Here is the tense table. Study it well and keep it by your side. It’s not difficult; it just
takes a bit of time if you’re a little bit rusty.

FULL Tense Table: Twelve tenses in modern English

A. There are three simple tenses:

1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs

2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred

3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur

B. There are three perfect tenses

4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has occurred relative to the
present
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative to the
past

6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have occurred relative to
the future.

C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:

7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is occurring in

the present

8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was occurring in

the past

9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will be

occurring in the future

10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition has
been occurring relative to the present

11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition had
been occurring relative to the past

12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will
have been occurring relative to the future.

FULL Tense Table

Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)

In regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the third
person singular (he, she, it).

Subject Verb Stem

I like
you (singular) like
he/she/it likes
we like
you (plural) like
they like

Positive: You like Edinburgh.

Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.

Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)
This tense refers to actions in the past. In regular verbs, it is formed by adding –ed to
the verb stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e):

Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed) Verb stem (adding -d)

I requested liked
you (singular) requested liked
he/she/it requested liked
we requested liked
you (plural) requested liked
they requested liked

Positive: You played tennis.

Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became, blow
→ blew, catch → caught. These just have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, i.e. was and
were, is used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.

Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1

For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:

Subject will, shall Verb Stem

I ‘ll, will, and also shall close the door.
you (singular) ‘ll, will close the door.
he/she/it ‘ll, will close the door.
we ‘ll, will, and also shall close the door.
you (plural) ‘ll, will close the door.
they ‘ll, will close the door.

Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We
shan’t. Shall is much more common in British English than in American English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday
Question: Will you see her on Sunday?
Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense)
Form 2

Often called the goingto future, this form is a combination of be + going to + verb
stem.

Subject am/is/are going to Verb Stem

I am; ‘m going to object.
you (singular) are; ‘re going to object.
he/she/it Is; ‘s going to object.
we are; ‘re going to object.
you (plural) are; ‘re going to object.
they are; ‘re going to object.

Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.

Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed by combining the present tense of the
verb have with the past participle of the main verb.

Present Tense of the Past Participle of the Main

Subject
verb have Verb
the
I have washed
dishes.
you the
have washed
(singular) dishes.
the
he/she/it has washed
dishes.
the
we have washed
dishes.
the
you (plural) have washed
dishes.
the
they have washed
dishes.

Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve

Positive: You have visited the Prado Museum before.

Question: Have you visited the Prado Museum before?

Negative: You have not visited the Prado Museum before.

Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense

This tense is formed by had, followed by the past participle:

Subject had Past Participle of the Main Verb

I had failed again!
you (singular) had failed again!
he/she/it had failed again!
we had failed again!
you (plural) had failed again!
they had failed again!

Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t

Positive: You had studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.

Question: Had you studied Spanish before you went to Madrid?

Negative: You hadn’t studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.

Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense

This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.

Subject will have Past Participle of the Main Verb

I will have finished my work by 7pm.
you(singular) will have finished my work by 7pm.
he/she/it will have finished my work by 7pm.
we will have finished my work by 7pm.
you (plural) will have finished my work by 7pm.
they will have finished my work by 7pm.

Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?

Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past participle]:

Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.

Either form can usually be used.

Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive

Tense)

This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle of the main verb.

Subject am/is/are Present Participle of the Main Verb

I am drinking Coke.
you (singular) are drinking Coke.
he/she/it is drinking Coke.
we are drinking Coke.
you (plural) are drinking Coke.
they are drinking Coke.

Positive: You are watching TV.

Question: Are you watching TV?

Negative: You are not watching TV.

Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive Tense)

This tense is formed by was or were followed by the present participle of the main verb.

Subject was/were Present Participle of the Main Verb

I was drinking Coke.
you (singular) were drinking Coke.
he/she/it was drinking Coke.
we were drinking Coke.
you (plural) were drinking Coke.
they were drinking Coke.

Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.

Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?

Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.

Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense)
Form 1

There are two forms. Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the present
participle.

Subject will be Present Participle of the Main Verb

I will be dining late.
you (singular) will be dining late.
he/she/it will be dining late.
we will be dining late.
you (plural) will be dining late.
they will be dining late.

Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?

Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future

Progressive Tense) Form 2

Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle

Subject am/is/are going to be Present Participle

I am going to be jogging to work.
you (singular) are going to be jogging to work.
he/she/it is going to be jogging to work.
we are going to be jogging to work.
you (plural) are going to be jogging to work.
they are going to be jogging to work.

Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?

Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to create the
Future Continuous tense. There’s not much difference.

Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present Perfect
Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by combining the present perfect of the verb be with the present
participle of the main verb.

has/have Present Participle of the Main

Subject
been Verb
customers for nine
I have been serving
hours.
you customers for nine
have been serving
(singular) hours.
customers for nine
he/she/it has been serving
hours.
customers for nine
we have been serving
hours.
customers for nine
you (plural) have been serving
hours.
customers for nine
they have been serving
hours.

Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.

Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?

Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.

Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past Perfect
Progressive Tense)

This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.

Subject had been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I had been waiting for four hours.
you (singular) had been waiting for four hours.
he/she/it had been waiting for four hours.
we had been waiting for four hours.
you (plural) had been waiting for four hours.
they had been waiting for four hours.

Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?

Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived.
Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the present
participle.

will have Present Participle of the Main

Subject
been Verb
for three
I will have been studying
hours.
for three
you (singular) will have been studying
hours.
for three
he/she/it will have been studying
hours.
we will have been studying for three hours
for three
you (plural) will have been studying
hours.
for three
they will have been studying
hours.

Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.

Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?

Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.

Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is not used as
much as the usual form above.

Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the
time you get back.

Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours by the
time you get back?

Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by
the time you get back.

NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in meaning.

Unit 5: Teaching grammar

Well, now you know all the requisite grammar. But how do you teach it?

We’re going to show you how so that you’ll be able to handle this from Day 1 – and get
it right first time.
We’re going to cover the 3 key areas which will ensure you get it right first time:

1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar

2. Different modes of presenting grammar
3. Teaching grammar to different levels

If you take your time with this and absorb it all, it’s unlikely you’ll ever have
to check any book or site about teaching grammar. Unless, of course, you
really like reading grammar books!

Understanding prescriptive and

descriptive grammar
1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar

The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which words are
ordered and changed to form a sentence.

Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.

Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write
‘correct’ or ’good’ English. Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on observation of the
way in which ‘educated’ speakers actually use the language.

At other times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school, many years
ago. For example: My teacher always said you should never start a sentence
with And orBut. Oh, really?

Prescriptive grammar rules are the right rules, according to some ‘experts’, e.g. Never
start a sentence with And or But.

Prescriptive rules make a value judgment about the correctness of an utterance.

Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world.

Descriptive rules accept the patterns a speaker actually uses and try to account for
them. Descriptive rules allow for different varieties of a language; they don't ignore a
construction simply because some prescriptive grammarian doesn't like it.

Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar is a
reaction to the way people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking forms.

Descriptive rules also tend to change since language itself is always undergoing change.

Have a look at these example sentences:

1. Let’s start at the very beginning.

Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the beginning is a
specific start point and you can’t make it any more specific by using very. But
descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English, So, we’ll
align with the descriptive side and we’ll keep very in.

2. That’s very true, absolutely true.

Native speakers also say very true or absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules of
grammar would tell us that this is wrong because you can’t have anything stronger
than true. Something cannot be more true. But, again, descriptive rules say that this
type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again we’ll align with the descriptive
side and use very true and absolutely true.

3. Who do you want to speak to?

A proponent of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.

A proponent of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should never
end a sentence with a preposition (i.e. to). To satisfy the prescriptive group we would
need to change this to: To whom do you want to speak?

To us, this seems a bit cumbersome and out-dated but you decide which is best.

4. Never start a sentence with And or But.

Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these sentences:

It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those changes go far
enough?

It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those changes go far
enough?

The first sentence fits with the prescriptive rule. The second does not and fits with the
descriptive approach. There’s no doubt in our minds that the second sentence creates a
more forceful effect. The introductory conjunction But gives more weight to the thought
expressed in the sentence and is more emphatic.

So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side in this particular context.

But don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not important:

1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard form of a

language that is accepted by most speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows
us to be understood by the greatest possible number of individuals.

2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign language. It
just wouldn’t work if there were no guidelines for, say, learning English.
3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn the rules of
the standard dialect and employ them in appropriate social circumstances – if they wish
to. Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by
many groups and can inhibit a person’s progress in society, and in business.

Here are some common prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t exist, there
would be lots of confusion:

The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb. We mustn’t say He go to school.

In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t working. It needs
to be fixed.

Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It wasI who phoned you NOT It was me who
phoned you.)

Use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas but not
before the names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Lake Superior,
Europe).

Being able to distinguish between the two types is important since you will need to
ensure that your learners are familiar with some prescriptive grammar rules, while also
alerting them to alternative or more informal descriptive uses.

Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which in all
probability suggests that both have their strengths and weaknesses.

You need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.

Different modes of presenting

grammar to learners
2. Different modes of presenting grammar to learners

There is no doubt that a sound knowledge of key grammatical rules is essential for the
mastery of a language. But it’s the way that you teach these rules that paves the way to
success by better embedding the learning.

Here are some practical ideas you can use to do this:

1. Present material visually

One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means, and how it is
used is to present the material visually, using board drawings, illustrations, pictures,
objects or props.
You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the pictures?
To practise, for example, must/must have (as in He must have fallen.) and could/could
have (as in He could have been hit by a car.).

2. Use timelines

Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board. Timelines are
simple diagrams that can help learners see relationships between verb forms and their
time reference. They are a visual representation of the passage of time. Students can
see how the verb works.

We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.

Yesterday, I walked to school.

There are is no set format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it first of
all. You can use an X or any symbol to mark the event.

Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous) tense:

Next year he is climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you huge opportunities for embedding timelines – and it
will make grammar learning interesting and fun. The key point is the grammar part is
integrated into the key skills of speaking, reading, writing, listening as much as
possible.

Exercise –Timelines

As they get used to these, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline where students
draw up a timeline of important events in their lives from the past till now.
Older students will easily come up with a range of important events. Young students
could ask their parents/carers for important dates in the students’ short lives– when the
student was born, when the student first walked and talked, when the student first went
to school, etc.

And you could add in when the student did something silly (this last one will create a lot
of fun later when they read out what they’ve completed).

Then you can change the format – student A interviews student B and draws up a
timeline for student B. Then they change roles, and after this they read out the other
student’s timeline to the class.

You can also give them a short list of important historical past events that have
happened in their country and future events the country hopes to accomplish by some
date in the future and get them to plot them on the timeline.

These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’ events
such as attempted coups. Or you could centre it on a world event such as space
exploration or the Olympic Games or the key successes in the development of
medicine.

You could also give the students a short written text and ask them to read it for
comprehension and then they prepare a timeline based on the important facts in that
text.

As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded to marking
future events on their personal timeline, for example: when will they be going to the
‘big’ school, when they hope to accomplish something; when they think they will start
working etc.

Remember. Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and their time
reference – is integrated into, and reinforced by, the key skills of speaking, listening,
reading and writing.

3. Present material through situations

Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the board with
a name under it. Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her. Introduce Maria.
Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking about something nice. I wonder what it is.

Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next week. (Using
gestures of forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an aeroplane. She’s going to fly.
Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class repeats.

Say: I wonder where she is going.

Draw or show a big picture of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona – elicit until you get the
response. Yes, she’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Repeat this class: She’s going
to visit the Sagrada Familia. Class repeats.
Say: She’s so lucky. I wonder what she will do there.

Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to take
pictures. What is she going to do? Class repeats.

Say: I wish I was her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.

When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk around Barcelona, drill
this (with the whole class and some individuals). Write this response on the board.

Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then writing the
correct response on the board. Then check with concept questions (checking
understanding) at random. So, tell me: What is Maria going to do next week. Where is
she going to visit?

You can then recap on the structure avoiding metalanguage (language about language,
e.g. noun, verb), and move them on to practising it with different activities, e.g. a gap-
fill exercise and then move them on to producing the correct structure, say, by
conversation in pairs and a writing activity.

By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context, you help
the class to build up a clear idea of what the structure means and how it is used. After
giving a few examples, you can simply present the situation and try to get the students
to give the example.

This will verify how well the students have understood the concept, and this also helps
to get the class more involved.

4. Present material through demonstration

Yet another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material through
physical demonstration.

Let’s just use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate the
concept of going to. You could tell them that you’re:

 going to open the door

 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open to the window because it’s too hot
 going to close the window because it’s too cold

and so on.

Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way for you to
get them to grasp the grammatical concept.
Teaching grammar to different
levels
3. Teaching grammar to different levels

Presenting grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other skills, in
that you need to take into account a range of factors, e.g. age, level of competence,
previous grammar experiences in the native language and the like.

It would be foolhardy for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure should always
be presented to a specific learner at a specific age. There are several variables at play.

So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly general age
groups. You’ll soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar when learners start asking
you questions, such as: Mr. Brown, why does this word have an extra letter (dogs) but
the other one hasn’t (dog)?

Here is a pretty useful grouping:

1. Young learners: younger young learners

2. Young learners: older young learners
3. Teenagers
4. Adults

Teaching grammar to younger

young learners
1. Teaching grammar to younger young learners

1. Key points

Here’s what to do and what not to do:

1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly to

students under the age of, say, 8-9 years old. That’s a general age guide. But that
doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar activities!

2. You should not use any metalanguage with your younger young learners. However,
there is the possibility that your younger young learners may already be aware of some
metalanguage, e.g. naming word, noun, and adjective – from their learning in their
native/first language (L1) classes.

You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming
word and noun etc.
3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use them
automatically after lots of practice.

4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful contexts and
there should be some sort of meaningful communication that leads to a focus on
grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a story or singing a song such as This is the way
we wash our hands.

Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger

young learners. This would be a recipe for disaster.

5. Younger young learners need to be able to see (gradually) the relationship between
form, function, meaning and use, i.e. what form is used to express what functions and
meanings, e.g. Please Miss, can I have a pencil?

You should strive to balance form, meaning, function and use. Learners should
understand not only the mechanics of the language, but also (gradually) the how, why,
and where a particular structure, word, or phrase gets used.

6. Where grammar progress is slow, don’t think that this is all down to influences of, and
differences in, the learners’ L1. Some learners have difficulties with grammar in their L1.
In addition, some aspects of difficulty in grammar are pretty universal.

7. Developing foreign language knowledge, understanding and application skills is a

lengthy and complex process. It is not a linear process, so take your time with them.

Your key role is to help them to notice grammar. Here’s an extended example
of how to go about this:

An extended example: Noticing grammar

Younger young learners need grammar to take their language learning forward to the
next step. They won’t know they are getting grammar input. Unknown to them, you will
be selecting grammatical features in stories, dialogues, songs, chants, rhymes etc. so
that you can bring their attention to these features in non-formal ways.

At this early stage the form-focusing techniques you use will be very simple but very
important at the same time.

Imagine you are reading them a story that goes like the one below.

Note:

 The words in bold should be emphasised.

 Take into class three real apples and hold up the requisite number when each
number is mentioned.

One day, Piggy the pig ate one apple

One day, Lionel the lion ate two apples

One day, Ellie the elephant ate three apples.

Remember: Here our goal is form-focusing, grasping a correct structure. So, it would go
something like this:

T: Can anyone tell me what Piggy ate?

Camila: One apple.

T: That’s right Camila. One apple. Hugo, can you tell me what Piggy ate?

Hugo: One apple.

T: That’s right, Hugo. One apple. Let’s say it together – One apple.

SS: One apple. (We’re using SS to stand for all students.)

T: Well done, class. Can anyone tell me what Lionel ate? Yes, Alana?

Alana: Two apple.

T: Yes, Alana, he ate two apples. Listen everyone, he ate two apples. Again, who can
tell me what Lionel ate?

Camila: Two apples.

T: That’s right, Camila. Two apples. Two apples. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it
together. Two apples.

Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together: Piggy ate
one apple. Lionel ate two apples.
Good!

Can anyone tell me what they hear? Is it the same? One apple, two apples.

Alvaro: Not same.

T: Why is it not the same, Alvaro?

Alvaro: Two apples has sss sound.

T: That’s right, Alvaro. Two appleshas a sss sound at the end.

Everyone, when we have one apple we say apple. When we have two apples we
say apples – a sss sound at the end. If we have more apples than one, we
say apples – a sss sound at the end.

Can anyone tell me what Ellie ate?

Daniel: Three apples.

That’s right, Daniel. He ate more than one apple. He ate three apples. So, Piggy
ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Ellie ate three apples.

Then you could finish the story and recap with an oral exercise on the plural sound with
other animals, to reinforce the plural ending –s.

Of course, you wouldn’t mention the word plural. And you can leave exceptions to this
plural formation till another time.

Remember this: Do your research and find out beforehand how the plural
form is constructed in the learners’ native language (L1). This can help you
with your planning, particularly where the construction in the native language
is much different from English.

You may even be able to impress them by using a bit of their language to show
differences or similarities in plural forms. They will love that.

In this example, your prime role is to help the learners notice this aspect of form –
the –s at the end of plural nouns. Further fun exercises based on the topic will help to
internalise this grammatical point into their internal grammar system in their memory
bank.

Once it is internalised, they should be able to draw on this knowledge and form later as
required.

This is an example of learning-centred grammar, taking the opportunity to highlight and

help them notice some grammar form point whilst they are in the midst of the
learning process - listening to and speaking about a story.
So, at this very early stage of learning, we are taking an opportunity to attend to form,
without them being aware of it.

Also, remember this: Frequently, the best way to get a learning point over is
to make up your own material. At these early stages, a story may only last
one or two pages, with very few words.

So, it’s easy to construct something that fits the bill, using only a few words and
relevant pictures you can draw, download from the internet, or take in as realia,
particularly where you feel the class materials are not exactly what you want.

We just made up the apples bit when we got to this part of the course. It only took 10
minutes or so. If we had built a little story around it, we doubt if it would have taken
more than 20 minutes.

As children get older, you can introduce more explicit forms of instruction but with
younger young learners it’s much too early to bog them down with too much explicit
grammar input.

Abstract and formal presentations of grammar with difficult words and concepts such
as adjective just won’t work with younger young learners.

Softly, softly is the key. Your role for these learners is to help them notice and then try
and use some grammatical forms and items as they crop up, assuming they are ready
to take these on board.

In the early years, your teaching of English as a Foreign Language will centre mostly
on meaning, e.g. This is a dog. This makes sense. But it’s important that we do not
overlook accuracy, so opportune moments should be grasped to help the learners with
the form of the language.

Clearly, fun exercises and games will be useful tools to make the grammar input more
enjoyable and less abstract for your younger young learners.

Remember: They need to learn words and expressions in context.

2. Different practical techniques for increasing younger young learners’

grammar

1. Classroom routines

Younger young learners start to learn a language by picking up chunks of language,

primarily from you in the classroom, e.g. Good Morning, Mr Brown; Please Miss …

So, the first steps have been taken in building their internal grammar.

2. Whole class instructions

Whole class instructions can be fairly easily grasped and again you can introduce them
to patterns and new vocabulary. Backed up with gestures and mime from you and
perhaps a game such as Simon Says, these can be transferred to their grammar
memory banks:

1. Speak quietly, please.

2. Stand up, please.
3. Sit down, please.
4. Choose a partner, please.

3. Chants and rhymes

Chants and rhymes also provide excellent opportunities for introducing grammatical
constructions and patterns. You can use many of the traditional songs and chants,
e.g. This is the way we wash our hands or you can be more adventurous and write your
own to suit the targeted language form.

Your song/rhyme to the same tune as This is the way we wash our hands could easily be
something like:

This is the way we stand up quietly

This is the way we sit down quietly etc.

Use your imagination and don’t hang back from singing, even if you can’t keep a tune
very well. You could always try rapping!

4. Little planned conversations

With younger young learners, it’s important to build in planned little chats as an integral
part of your daily routine. You can do this with individuals, pairs or groups.

In addition to building bonds, these chats will bring out useful information about their
language competence and their interests. This is quality information for you.

You may learn about some structure that you can help them with:

My foot sore. (Oh, your foot is sore? Why is it sore?)

My books is wet. (Oh, your books are wet. Why are they wet?)

This corrective feedback is an essential tool for helping all learners of all ages.

Or your chat may give you useful information about their likes and dislikes. You then
have good information as to what your next topic might be – pets, football, superheroes
and so on.

5. Increasing their noticing skills

As their learning progresses, you can step up the work on their noticing skills. They may
now be ready for more controlled noticing activities. So the story you read is not just for
listening and improving their speaking skills, it is also for enhancing their noticing skills.

Example-noticing skills

Prepare a worksheet with statements and drawings:

1. The cup is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a cup on a table). Write
the words on, under beside the picture/drawing.
2. The plate is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a plate on a table). Write
the words on, under beside the picture/drawing.
3. The spoon is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a spoon under the
table). Write the words on, under beside the picture/drawing).

Teach them the meanings of the prepositions: on, under – via visual presentation,
miming, via puppets or dolls/action men, board work, a little bit of drilling etc.

Now read your prepared story, which might be something like this:

It was time for baby Alexa’s dinner.

Mummy put baby Alexa’s cup on the table.

Daddy put baby Alexa’s plate on the table.

Baby Alexa was watching. She wanted to help. She took her spoon to the table but she
put it under the table.

Now give your instructions re what they need to do to complete the exercise in pairs.
Read the story slowly, and then read it again at normal pace.

Guide them through the exercise. Read each statement through. Ask them to tick the
right choice – on or under.

You can then build on this simple exercise as time goes on, e.g. increasing the number
of prepositions, removing the drawings, putting the questions in a random order so that
they are not sequenced in line with the story sequence etc.

You could involve the learners by getting one of them to do the actions, e.g.
sitting on your chair, crawling under your chair etc.

6. Language practice activities for enhancing form/structure

Here are some examples of activities, most of which have been discussed before in
other units.

1. Story reading
2. Drilling
 3. Cloze Activities
4. Questionnaires, surveys and quizzes
5. Information gap activities - a worksheet activity where learners work out missing
and different information that each have on their worksheet.
6. Intentional little chats with individual learners to check their progress and give
corrective feedback on the spot
7. Projects. For example, if you are using an excellent story book such as The Very
Hungry Caterpillar you could extend this into project work and keep caterpillars
in the classroom. The opportunities for grammatical work would be immense,
e.g. Alejandra, your caterpillar is big. But, look, Pablo’s is bigger.

Teaching grammar to older young

learners
2. Teaching grammar to older young learners

As mentioned before, we hesitate to name an age range as all children are unique and
cultural approaches to learning grammar vary.

But to help you, some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are
best left until children are aged about 8 or 9 years old. So, this section
focuses on these older young learners from 8-9 up to the age of 12 or so.

If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some
metalanguage.

1. Key points

1. Everything we have said above for younger young learners applies

to older young learners. Similar activities can be used but they will be a bit more
in-depth and a bit more complex. So, continue to use activities such as:
1. Rhymes
2. Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst
themselves
3. Some drilling
4. Cloze activities
5. Questionnaires and surveys
6. Information gap activities
7. Presentations
8. Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners it will be possible to introduce some explicit
activities which focus on separating grammar for study. If a set curriculum is not
prescribed by the school organisation, you need to decide when to do this. You’ll
know it’s time to do it when your older young learners show an active interest in
grammar forms such as: Why is it that eat becomes ate but beat doesn’t become
bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in
their first language and make yourself aware of what metalanguage they know.
 Don’t overdo this. Of course, sometimes it may be necessary to introduce some
of these words.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and
may be ready for some self-correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover
some basic grammar rules for themselves, e.g. most nouns are formed in the
plural with adding –s or –es but other groups make the plural in different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun +
Verb + Noun, e.g. I like apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I like
green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp? So,
for example, you could give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and your
learners have to rearrange them to the order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are important for older young learners, so include puzzles
where students are encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g.
describing differences between two pictures, which can be used to practise
prepositions. Also use some of the grammar activities we will explore later,
adapting them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. To embed words and
meanings in their memory banks and recall them when they need them is
dependent on lots of factors, particularly the number of times they hear and
come across a word (frequency). This is language recycling: meeting and using a
word several times so that eventually it is remembered and recalled naturally.

Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs a lot of
meaningful practice, recycling and guidance in attending to language form.

Teaching grammar to teenagers

3. Teaching grammar to teenagers

The sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Young
teenagers up to age 16 to 17 or so will continue their progress in grammar in the school
environment, doing more of the type of study we have cited for the older young
learners but at a more complex level.

Some will continue to progress during the period, so for that group there’s not much to
add in terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the grammar syllabus.

Sometimes, though, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the learners
have reached a plateau or because some of them act as if they are a bit ‘too cool for
school’ and they lack interest in learning grammar.

Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more interesting, particularly

with those who are struggling a bit or are a bit disenchanted with grammar:

1. Avoid using metalanguage

Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing things
you’ll be doing tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)

2. Empathise with them

Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you were
younger. But, with a bit of extra effort, you came through. And look at you now!

Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and stories
that others will admire, for passing examinations (not only in English), for helping them
in later years when they may wish to travel or work in an English-speaking country, and
so on.

3. Play to their interests as much as possible

Make a huge effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action movies,
or soccer or fashion programmes on video. Catch their interest.

Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video at one or
two specific parts, to ask, for example, why the character made two similar meaning
statements but used different words for each statement.

4. Add in a bit of controlled competitiveness

Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that students are not
alone and may feel embarrassed if they can’t find the solution. Put time limits on these
types of activities to heighten the tension. The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any
way.

Using the am going to example above, it could be:

I’m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the sheet you’ll see the
words will and won’t several times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place
of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some parts where you can’t do this. (For
example, the text may include the construction Will you come back tomorrow?)

One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished the
exercise and checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get points added
for your end-of- term group prize. If it’s not fully correct, no points. I’ll then pass it to
the second group to have a go at getting points for the prize. Are you ready?

Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s not the
same group that wins all of the time. You may have to change the groups around from
time to time to achieve a better balance, but you wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.

5. Inspire them by giving them more autonomy

For example:

 Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a passage.
  On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach those who
haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story they want
to read (say, from a choice of three). With lots of effort beforehand, you will have
chosen areas of grammar in each of the three items that you want to major on.

6. Make it fun

Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where they pick
up cards you have prepared and they have to decide whether the sentence is correct or
not if they are to move up the board.

Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but you need
to be moving around, monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got it right.

Teaching grammar to adults

4. Teaching grammar to adults

In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults themselves.

Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may very
much be the same as we have discussed for older young learners above.

So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and approaches in
place for meeting the needs of this diverse group.

This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background (and
therefore competency), age, employment history and culture.

They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be immigrants
who need to grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and some may be young
adults who need this learning to help them secure entry to college or a vocational
programme.

Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job and some may be
young or older adults who want to travel, work overseas or just want to learn English as
it’s good to have. There may be other goals.

The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse group with
diverse goals? There is no easy answer to this. However, the challenge is lessened for
you due to one key characteristic of this group.

All of the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English. Otherwise,
why would they be there?

So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be resolved is
deciding on the best practices and approaches to meet their needs.
Here’s what you need to do:

1. Don’t assume adults are competent in grammar.

Remember this:Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and older adults
will be easier because they will have made more progress in grammar learning before
you have met up with them. It might be the case on some occasions; however, there is
no guarantee.

Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.

2. Don’t worry about the level.

When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all of the above information
about young learners and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key differences will be that
there will likely be more explicit sessions on grammar and you will be helping them to
be much more autonomous, identifying and fixing the errors themselves where possible.

And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed and
dangerous, ready to handle any query about the Present Perfect Continuous or Phrasal
Verbs.

3. Do a needs analysis.

This is imperative.

A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t make this
into a big formal event. Do it informally. You could do it during your first meeting with
the class or an individual where you explain that you need to find out their purpose for
attending your class.

What you’re trying to find out is:

1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?

Whilst chatting, think about questions such as:

 How good is her use of English at present?

 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target
situation?
 What are her grammar needs?

2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for learning
English?

Ask directly, questions such as:

 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?

 When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?
Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to done, via your teaching, to get the
learners to their desired situation in the future.

4. Help them to become grammar detectives.

In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle concepts much easier than
young learners. This is a key difference between adult and younger learner classes.

Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce them to some
concepts directly, whilst using the appropriate metalanguage. By doing so, all of this will
save time and get them faster to their goals. They will appreciate your plan.

Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put these
into practice.

Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They relate to
words and their positions and functions in a sentence. By understanding what these are,
your adult learners can quickly become grammar detectives.

They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the nature of words
themselves.

If you ensure that they are fully au fait with the terminology and meaning of these
concepts, you’ll be off to an excellent start. These concepts are:

 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function

If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning easier. Not
only that, it will involve them in analysing a sentence and working
out themselves where something may have gone wrong. They will be able to self-
correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit from this technique.

1. Meaning

This seems easy. But it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:

 A literal meaning - what the word normally means in everyday communication

 A meaning for the context it’s being used in

The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in water or
another liquid, as in:

Examples

I slipped on the wet floor.

However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to the
meaning above:

Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.

In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak character and
does not express any forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’ most of the time.

So, understanding meaning is crucial. But it’s not just dictionary definitions which help
us to know meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out meanings by creating
mental images in our mind which help us to work out meaning.

For example, when reading John was a tiresome… and coming to the last part of the
sentence, we expect the sentence to finish with some kind of complement, some kind of
explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s a wet.

We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-dry wet (adjective),
but a wet (noun), some kind of person. We know that it can’t be wet with the meaning
not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense after the word a.

So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and meaning are
intertwined. If the adult learner understands this process, in many cases she will be able
to identify the meaning of a word from grammatical analysis.

2. Form

Form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this sentence:

Example

The big boy took the small boy’s ball.

In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not just
because we know its meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add endings in the
plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue to this being a noun.

We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example that
adjectives, adverbs, determiners etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or possessive
endings.

There are other ways to confirm this is a noun but these are not related to form, e.g. it
immediately precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or pronoun. Then we can
eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes, it’s a noun

Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a sentence.

3. Function

Function is another key element.

Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught them that
nouns are primarily subjects, objects and complements in a sentence. That is, the noun
can function as a subject, the object or the complement in a sentence. (It can function
as other things too).

With this bit of knowledge, students can better analyse a sentence. Have a look at this
interesting sentence:

Example

The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.

Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work it out its function from
analysis. They know that nouns commonly function as subjects, so this is likely to be a
noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there is The before it.

Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us that
the ugggawagga is doing something, i.e., something is not being done to it. So, they
can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as the subject of the sentence and it is a
noun.

4. Setting

In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.

If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be placed in
that setting.

Examples

1. The/A/An ---------------- ate the apple.

We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete the sentence
is likely to be a noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective etc. We could work out again
that the missing word is the subject due to the action word ate and the object
word apple.

At this stage we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take away The, then
we know it’s singular. If we take away The and A, we know it’s singular and begins with
a vowel. In any case, we know it’s a noun that fits this frame.

2. The big boy ---------------the small boy’s ball.

If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy. Into the
frame steps a verb. We don’t know which verb it is but we do know it is a verb because
it can’t be a sentence without a verb. We also know it’s a transitive verb because there
is an object.

Encourage your adult students to become grammar detectives applying these four
tests/tools in order to work out word classes, to find what or who is doing what in the
sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of all to enable them to identify and repair
errors on their own, where possible.

5. Use games and drills sparingly.

Use games and drills sparingly with young adults and adult students. All of them are
there to achieve a goal within a time limit. Although you may see great benefit in these,
some of your students are unlikely to look at it the same way. This can have a
dampening effect on the class atmosphere.

You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end goal.

Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled look on
some of the faces. Why let this spoil the good atmosphere you have built up?

You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce these techniques now
and again, then we’re sure it will work out fine.