A-level AGRICULTURE

Crop Science
Study Notes

Module 3
Prepared by: Chingwa A.

@ Sagambe High School (10-12/2017)

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A-level AGRICULTURE

Crop Science

© Chingwa Abel CROP SCIENCE SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

chingwaabel@gmail.com.

(2017) By the end of the learning phase learners should

Sagambe High School be able to:

P.O. Box 37  Demonstrate the socio-economic importance

of crop science to the agricultural development
Hauna of the country.
ZIMBABWE  Demonstrate understanding of crop science
concepts, principles and terminology.
 Apply scientific principles of crop science in a
sustainable manner.
 Apply problem-solving skills in challenges
encountered in crop science.
 Design experiments and investigate problems
Unedited in crop science.
E. & O. E.  Design and manage a cropping project
sustainably.
 Apply safety precautions in agricultural
practice.

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CONTENTS

TOPIC 1: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY: pg.3

TOPIC 2: SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NURTITION: pg. 37

TOPIC 3: PRINCIPLES OF CROP BREEDING AND

BIOTECHNPLOGY: pg. 58

TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION: pg. 71

TOPIC 5: CROP PRODUCTION: pg. 89

Reference Pg. 98

Typical Examination Questions Pg. 98

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TOPIC 1:
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
 Describe the effects of growth regulators on plant growth and development.

Plant growth regulators

 Plant regulators are hormones that control plant growth and development.
 A plant hormone is an organic substance produced in one part of the plant and
translocated to a target part, where it evokes a physiological response.
 Growth regulators can be placed into five groups:

a) Abscisic Acid,
b) Auxins,
c) Cytokinins,
d) Ethylene,
e) Gibberellins.

1. Abscisic Acid (ABA):

 These are growth inhibiting substances whose site of synthesis is not clear.
 They move in all directions within plants.

Developmental and Physiological Effects of ABA

 Regulates seed maturation.
 ABA inhibits precocious (early germination of seed before maturity) germination and
viviparity (germination of seeds before they are shed from the parent plant).
 Promotes seed storage reserve accumulation and desiccation tolerance.
 Induces bud and seed dormancy that requires scarification.
 Inhibits GA-induced enzyme production.
 Promotes root growth and inhibits shoot growth at low water potentials.
 Promotes leaf senescence independently of ethylene.
 ABA accumulates in dormant buds.
 Closes stomata in response to water stress.
 Promote fruit abscission.
 Regulates ion channels and the plasma membrane ATPase in guard cells.

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2. Auxins:
 Auxins are synthesised in meristemic tissues, and their transport is polarised in aerial
organs.
 They are transported along the longitudinal axis of the plant more rapidly in one
direction than in the opposite direction. Examples of auxins are indole-3-acetic acid
(IAA) and 4-chloro-indoleacetic acid.

Actions of Auxin: Cell Elongation

 Auxins promote growth in stems and coleoptiles, while inhibiting growth in roots.
 The outer tissues of dicot stems are the targets of auxin action.
 The minimum lag time for auxin-induced elongation is ten minutes.
 Rapidly increases the extensibility of the cell wall.
 Auxin-induced proton extrusion increases cell extension.
 Auxin-induced proton extrusion involves activation and protein mobilization.

Actions of Auxin: Plant Tropisms

 Phototropism is mediated by the lateral redistribution of auxin.
 Gravitropism involves lateral redistribution of auxin.
 Auxin application on one side of coleoptile cause the coleoptile to bend in opposite
direction.

Developmental Effects of Auxin

 Regulates apical dominance.
 Auxin transport regulates floral bud development and phyllotaxy (arrangement of
leaves on a stem).
 Promotes the formation of lateral and adventitious roots.
 Increase fruit set and influence the sex of unisexual flowers.
 Induces vascular differentiation.
 Promote rooting of cuttings.
 Promotes parthenocarpic (development of fruit without fertilization) fruit
development in some species.
 Delays the onset of leaf abscission and leaf senescence.
 Promotes fruit development, and stimulate synthesis of ethylene.

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3. Cytokinins:
Regulators of Cell Division
 They stimulate cell division in plant tissues.
 They are synthesised in the roots, and there is evidence of upward movement in the
stem.

Cell Division and Plant Development

 Differentiated plant cells can resume division.
 Diffusible factors control cell division.
 Plant tissues and organs can be cultured.

The Biological Roles of Cytokinins

 Promote fruit set, parthenocarpy and flowering.
 Control apical dominance.
 Delay senescence in leaves.
 Inhibit root growth by promoting the exit of cells from the root apical meristem.
 Regulate specific components of the cell cycle.
 The auxin/cytokinin ratio regulates morphogenesis in cultured tissues.
 Modify apical dominance and promote lateral bud growth.
 Promote movement of nutrients and delay leaf senescence.
 Affect light signalling via phytochrome.
 Regulate vascular development.
 They are involved in the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules in legumes.

4. Ethylene:
The Gaseous Hormone
 Ethylene is a gas produced by any plant tissue.
 It does not move between different parts of the plant in significant amounts.

Developmental and Physiological Effects of Ethylene

 Ethylene promotes the ripening of some fruits.
 Fruits that respond to ethylene exhibit a climacteric (fruit ripening stage).
 The receptors of never-ripe mutants of tomato fail to bind ethylene.
 Stimulates leaf epinasty that results when ACC (1-aminocyclopane-1-carboxylic acid)
from the root is transported to the shoot.
 Ethylene induces lateral cell expansion, thus reducing stem elongation.
 Inhibit polar transport of auxin.
 Stimulates flowering in pineapples.
 Breaks seed and bud dormancy in some species.
 Promotes the elongation growth of submerged aquatic species.
 Induces the formation of adventitious roots and root hairs.
 Accelerates leaf senescence and abscission.
 Ethylene mediates some defence responses, and acts on the abscission layer.

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5. Gibberellins (GA):
Regulators of Plant Height and Seed Germination
 They are mainly synthesised in young leaves.
 They are transported through the circulatory system of the xylem and phloem tissues.
 The gas do not exhibit the polarity of transport exhibited by auxins.

Effects of Gibberellins on Growth and Development

 Break dormancy or promote seed germination and early seed development.
 Can stimulate stem elongation and root growth.
 Regulate the transition from juvenile to adult phases.
 Influence floral initiation and sex determination.
 Promote pollen development and tube growth.
 Promote fruit set and parthenocarpy (without fertilization) in some species.
 Delay leaf senescence and inhibit leaf abscission.
 Stimulate flowering in short night plants (vernalisation).

Gibberellin Responses: Stem Growth

 Gibberellins stimulate cell elongation and cell division.
 GAs regulate the transcription of cell cycle kinases.
 Reducing GA sensitivity may prevent crop losses.

The uses of plant regulators in agriculture

Growth regulators are used to:
o Increase the rate of growth or as “growth triggers”.
o Break dormancy, and initiate floral induction and rooting induction in cuttings.
o Increase or decrease fruit set, and control fruit ripening.
o Modify apical dominance to encourage lateral growth.
o Reduce crop loss by lodging through interfering with internode elongation.
o Accelerate senescence and abscission of leaves and fruits.

Use of growth regulators in field crops

o A plant regulator such as Chlormaquat chloride is used to prevent lodging in wheat,
maize and barley by internode shortening. This reduces yield loss through lodging.
o Spraying an indeterminate soyabean variety, such as Impala, with an antigrowth
substance, retards vegetative growth. More nutrients are available for pod and bean
development and thus increases seed yield.
o Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) is used to initiate root growth in cuttings of woody species.
o Defoliants such as Sodium chlorate and Magnesium chlorate, are used to remove leaves
from the cotton plant.
o Antitranspirants, e.g. ABA and Phenyl mercuric acid (PMA) are applied to the transpiring
plant surfaces so as to reduce water loss. They induce stomatal closure.

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Summary: Effects of Plant Growth Regulators

PROCESS PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR

AFFECTED AUXIN GIBBERELLINS CYTOKININS ABA ETHYLENE
Stem Promote Stimulate Promote Inhibit or Promotes the
growth elongation growth and growth of slows shoot elongation
growth of elongation of lateral buds. growth. growth of
coleoptile and buds/ stem. submerged
hypocotyl of aquatic
seedlings. species.
Root growth Promotes Promote root inhibit High Promotes
lateral and growth. formation of concentrations root growth.
adventitious lateral roots inhibit root
roots growth. growth.
Root Promote Used to induce Inhibit root Inhibit lateral Induces
initiation rooting of adventitious root induction or root initiation. formation of
cuttings. formation in formation of adventitious
tissue culture. lateral roots. roots and
root hairs.
Fruit growth Promotes fruit Promote fruit set Promote Inhibit fruit Promotes
development or growth. parthenocarpy growth. fruit
and or stimulate development.
parthenocarpy. fruit growth.
Apical Active or Reverse the Counter Inhibits shoot Inhibits.
dominance promote apical inhibition of apical growth at low
dominance. shoot growth dominance water
induced by ABA. and promote potentials.
lateral bud
growth.
Abscission Inhibits or Inhibit leaf Inhibit Promote Accelerates
delays leaf abscission. abscission abscission. stem leaf
abscission. abscission.
Flower Regulates Promote Promote inhibit Stimulates
initiation floral bud flowering. flowering. flowering in
development. pineapples.

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Demonstration on the effect of auxin on growth of root and stem

Materials

 0.25% lanolin paste (wool fat) of auxin or Indole acetic acid [IAA]

Method

 Apply a small quantity of paste to one side of some young stem of tomato or
sunflower or just at the base of stem to form a ring or girdle.
 Leave some days.

Observation

 Stem bends towards untreated region.

 Rootlets come out where an auxin girdle has been made.

Inference

 Auxin increases the plasticity of the walls of elongating cells and thus reviving the
stage of growth.
 Greater elongation of the cells occurs at the auxin treated region of the stem then
the untreated region causing the bending of stem.

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Revision Exercise

QUESTIONS
1. Define plant growth regulator.
2. State the main groups of plant growth regulators.
3. Discuss the role of plant regulators in agriculture.
___________________________________________________________________

Possible Answers

1. Plant growth regulator.

-hormones that control plant growth and development;
-produced in one part of the plant and translocated to a target part;

2. Groups of growth regulators:

 Abscisic Acid;
 Auxins;
 Cytokinins;
 Ethylene;
 Gibberellins;

3. Role of plant regulators in agriculture.

- Increase the rate of growth / triggers growth/ bud growth/regulates apical
dominance; e.g. Auxin;
- Break dormancy; e.g. gibberellins/ethylene; promote root induction in cuttings;
e.g. auxins/Cytokinins;
- Initiate floral induction Gibberellins (GA);
- Increase fruit set; e.g. gibberellins/auxins/Cytokinins; control fruit ripening; e.g.
ethylene;
- Modify apical dominance to encourage lateral growth; e.g. Cytokinins/
- Reduce crop loss by lodging through interfering with internode elongation; e.g.
ethylene; when produced in large amounts;
- Accelerate senescence and abscission of leaves and fruits ;e.g. Abscisic Acid
(ABA)/ethylene;
- Auxins are used in herbicides since they are toxic in large amounts;
__________________________________________________________________________________

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SEED AND SEED GERMINATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Test seed for viability.
2. Discuss the different types of seed dormancy.
3. Describe methods of overcoming dormancy.

SEED VIABILITY

 Seed viability is a measure of how many seeds are alive and could develop into plants
which will reproduce themselves, given the appropriate conditions.
 A viable seed is a seed which is able to live and develop. Viable seeds that do not
germinate are said to be dormant.
 A non-viable seed, is either metabolically dead or has suffered irreparable damage and
cannot germinate under any conditions.

Why do we test seed viability?

It is important to know that the seeds that are stored in a gene-bank will grow to produce
plants. Therefore they must have a high viability at the start and during storage. The viability
of seeds at the start of storage will also determine, within the environmental conditions, the
storage life of the accession.

Test for seed viability

a) Tetrazolium chloride(TZ) test

Method:
 Seeds are soaked in water overnight.
 Remove seed coat of legumes.
 Add 2.3.5 triphenenyl-tetrazolium to water to form a colourless solution.
 Place seeds in 1% solution of 2.3.5 triphenenyl-tetrazolium chloride.

Results:
 Embryos of living seeds are stained deep red, purple or orange.
 Dead embryo of non-viable seed will remain white or unstained.

b) Soaking seed in distilled water

 Viable seeds will sink because they are denser.
 Dead seeds will float.

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SEED DORMANCY

Dormancy is defined as a state in which viable seeds are prevented from germinating, even
under environmental conditions normally favourable for germination. These conditions are a
complex combination of water, light, temperature, gasses, mechanical restrictions, seed coats,
and hormone structures. Dormancy can be regulated by the environment or by the seed itself.
If a seed is not exposed to sufficient moisture, proper temperature, oxygen, and for some
species light, the seed will not germinate.

Dormancy serves a protective function in permitting plant survival under extremes of

temperature, water deficit, and other environmental stresses, and species differ in their
manifestations of dormancy. It also safe-guards some seeds and seedlings from suffering
damage or death from transient herbivores. Dormancy allows seed to germinate when
competition from other plants for light and water might be less intense.

Types of seed dormancy:

1. Innate dormancy/true dormancy is the failure of viable seed to germinate when

exposed to favourable conditions for germination when they are shed from the plant.
Some seeds are “born dormant”. Innate or primary dormancy may be associated with
either (i) embryo dormancy or (ii) coat-imposed dormancy.

 Embryo dormancy is the failure of a viable mature embryo in the seed to germinate or
grow. Cotyledons may produce hormones or inhibitors which suppress embryo
activity. Abscisic (ABA) is the prominent inhibitor.
 Coat-imposed dormancy is imposed by structures surrounding the seed, e.g. the seed
coat or testa, pericarp, perisperm endosperm and glumes.

2. Induced dormancy is the failure of viable seed to germinate when exposed to favourable
conditions for germination caused by exposure of the seed to some conditions, like high
temperatures and high carbon dioxide concentrations, after ripening.

3. Enforced dormancy is the failure of viable seed to germinate due to unfavourable

environmental conditions, such as shortage of water, low temperatures and poor aeration.

Seed dormancy is divided into two major categories based on what part of the seed produces
dormancy:

(a) Seed coat or external dormancy and/or

(b) Internal (endogenous) dormancy.

Seed coat/Exogenous dormancy

Seed coat (external) dormancy results from a seed’s hard seed coat that is impervious to
water and gases. It is divided into three sub-groups:

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i. Physical dormancy
It forms as a result of impermeable layer(s) (seed coat) that develops during
maturation and drying of the seed or fruit. The seed coat prevent the seed from taking
up water or gases. It is common in angiosperm families including, Convovulaceae,
Cucurbitaceae and Legumeinosae. The methods to break this physical dormancy are
high temperature, passing through the digestive tract of animals freezing and thawing,
fire and fluctuating temperatures.

ii. Mechanical dormancy

Mechanical dormancy occurs when seed coats or other coverings are too hard to allow
the embryo to expand during germination.

iii. Chemical dormancy

Includes growth regulators that are present in the coverings around the embryo. They
may be leached out of the tissues by washing or soaking the seed.

Endogenous dormancy

Endogenous dormancy is the type of dormancy caused by conditions within the embryo
itself. It is also broken down into three sub-groups:

i. Physiological dormancy
It occurs when changes can make the seed embryo abnormal and weak to germinate.
The chemical inhibitor does this damage. Heat, light, and dryness are the factors that
force the seeds to go into physiological dormancy. Seeds from arid plants need dry
environment than moisture to germinate. Some seeds have thin seed coat and need
light to germinate and when these seeds are planted deep into the soil, the light cannot
penetrate blocking the germination. There are some seeds that need high temperature
to germinate. Some others will require cool temperature to germinate.

ii. Morphological dormancy

The seeds has embryo inside that is differentiated into type of tissues and each type
has its duty while growing. In some seeds this differentiation does not occur while the
fruit formation which makes the seeds a failure. These seeds will need time to develop
themselves and then germinate, it may take some months.

iii. Combined dormancy

This is when the same seed suffer two dormancies at a time. The seeds may be under
developed and also have physiological barriers. These seeds will have to grow
themselves and then undergo many treatments to break all those barriers.

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How seed coat structures prevent germination

 Interference with gaseous exchange, “Gas-hard seeds”, e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris and Pisum
sativum.
 Presences of chemical inhibitors in the seed covers.
 Interference with water uptake.
 The modification of light reaching the embryo by the outer covers. The seed covers
physically or mechanically constraining the embryo from expanding.
 The prevention of escape of inhibitors from the seed by seed covers.

Significance of dormancy

 Helps seed shed from the same plant to germinate at different times during the season.
 Gives seed ample time to be dispersed to new habitats.
 Allows seeds to pass through drought, cold and other unfavourable conditions.
 Enable grains, pulses and other edibles to be stored, making them available throughout
the year and transport to the areas of deficiency.
 It prevents viviparity and precocious germination.

Overcoming dormancy (Techniques to Break Dormancy)

a) Seed Scarification:

Scarification is any process of breaking, scratching, or mechanically altering the seed coat
to make it permeable to water and gases.
In nature, this often occurs by:
 Freezing temperatures or microbial activities that modify the seed coat during the
winter.
 Seeds passing through the digestive tract of various animals.

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Commercial growers scarify seeds by soaking them in concentrated sulphuric acid.

 Seeds are placed in a glass container and covered with sulphuric acid or vinegar.
 The seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak for 10 minutes to several hours,
depending on the species.
 When the seed coat has been modified (thinned), the seeds are removed, washed, and
sown.
 Vinegar is safer (but less effective treatment) and can be used for species that do not
have an extremely hard seed coat.

For mechanical scarification, seed coats can also be filed with a metal file, rubbed with
sandpaper, or nicked with a knife.

b) Stratification:
Stratification in the process of pretreating seed to stimulate natural conditions that a seed
must endure before germination, e.g. exposing the seeds to cold temperatures in the
refrigerator, simulates a short winter. When brought back to room temperature, they
germinate readily.
Seeds are spread between layers of moist substrate under cold temperaturs (1-10°C) for a
period of 1-6 months.

c) Water:
Soaking seeds in water over night softens a hard seed coat enough to allow moisture
inside so that the seed can germinate. For quicker results, pour boiling water over the
seeds and let them soak until the water cools. Many types of legumes benefit from this
treatment, including the garden pea (Pisum sativum).

d) Light:
Exposure to light breaks down the germination inhibitors in some types of seeds,
particularly wildflowers that produce small seeds. Weed seeds in the under canopy of the
crop will not germinate unless exposed to full light.

e) Counteracting inhibitors:
Inhibitors are destroyed by dipping seeds in 0.2% solution of potassium nitrate (KNO3),
ethylene and gibberellin.

f) Shaking and pressure

Vigoruos shaking and hydraulic pressure are used to weaken seed coats.

g) Double dormancy:
Some seeds require two conditions to be met before they germinate. For example, some
seeds require a period of stratification, followed by exposure to light.

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METHODS OF BREAKING DORMANCY

1. Breaking dormancy of hard seed coat.

a) Scarification process. Seed coat is punctured or mechanically raptured by

rubbing.
b) Treating seed with hot water or concentrated sulphuric acid for very short
duration to soften seed coat.
c) Action of soil micro-organisms makes hard wall soft.

2. Breaking dormancy of light sensitive seeds.

a) Exposure to light promotes germination of tobacco, and tomato seeds after

imbibing 30-40% moisture.
b) Exposure to very low intensity of light for short duration of 1-2minutes is
sufficient to overcome dormancy.
c) Use of plant hormones, gibberellic acid and kinetin can make seeds germinate in
the total darkness.

3. Breaking dormancy of chilling requiring seeds.

a) Stratification: Seeds are exposed to low temperature after being allowed to

imbibe water. Dry seeds cannot be stratified.
b) Use of plant hormones gibberellic acid which promotes growth in seeds. This
replaces chilling requirements.

4. Use of growth promoting substances for breaking seed dormancy

Application of the plant hormones like gibberellic acid, cytokinin and ethylene
promote germination. www.biologyboom.com
________________________________________________________________

Revision Task

a) Define the terms ‘seed dormancy’ and ‘viable seed’.

b) State two methods that may be used to test for seed viability.
c) Name and describe two methods of overcoming seed dormancy.
d) Suggest three ways in which the dormancy of seeds is of benefit to plants.

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BIOENERGETICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Explain the factors affecting photosynthesis.
2. Describe light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
3. Describe photosynthetic electron transport.
4. Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP.
5. Explain the role of ATP as the energy 'currency'.
6. Describe the structural differences between C3 and C4 biochemical pathways.
7. Discuss Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathways.
8. Describe the process of respiration.
9. Describe the two distinct pathways for the breakdown of starch.
10. Explain the universal role of ATP as the energy 'currency' in all living organisms.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Photosynthesis is the process that transforms the vast energy of the sun into chemical
energy and is the basis for most food chains on Earth.
 The Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis in photosynthetic eukaryotes.

 All the chlorophyll is contained within internal membranes known as thylakoids, which
is the site of the light reactions of photosynthesis.
 The carbon reduction reactions, which are catalysed by water-soluble enzymes, take place
in the stroma (plural stromata), the region of the chloroplast outside the thylakoids.
 Most of the thylakoids appear to be very closely associated with each other. These
stacked membranes are known as grana lamellae (singular lamella; each stack is called a
granum), and the exposed membranes in which stacking is absent are known as stroma
lamellae.
 Two separate membranes, each composed of a lipid bilayer and together known as the
envelope, surround most types of chloroplasts.
 This double-membrane system contains a variety of metabolite transport systems.

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Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. Temperature

If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise
if it gets too hot. Photosynthesis hardly starts at about 5°C in tropical plants, but desert
plants like cactus can carry on photosynthesis even at 55°C.

2. Carbon dioxide concentration

Photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. If there is

plenty of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insufficient carbon dioxide. The
atmosphere contains only 0.03% of the gas by volume. Increase in CO2 concentration
from 0.03%0 to 0.3-1% raises rate of photosynthesis. Higher concentrations have an
inhibitory effect on photosynthesis.

Co2 compensation point

• Compensation point is the point reached in a plant when the rate of photosynthesis is
equal to the rate of respiration.
• This means that the Carbon dioxide released from respiration is equivalent to that which
is taken up during photosynthesis.
• The compensation point is reached as light intensity increases.

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• If light intensity is increased beyond the compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis
increases proportionally until the point of light saturation is reached, beyond which the
rate of photosynthesis is no longer affected by sunlight intensity.

What does the CO2 compensation point indicate?

• At this point, the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is equal to the
respiratory release of carbon dioxide, and the uptake of O2 by respiration is equal to the
photosynthetic release of oxygen.
• In assimilation terms, at the compensation point, the net carbon dioxide assimilation is
zero. (Ref. graph below)

• At very low carbon concentration rates the rate of CO2 evolution due to dark respiration
exceeds the rate of net carbon dioxide assimilation. This results in a negative CO2
uptake, or net CO2 evolution.
• As fluence rate increases, photosynthesis also increases and so does CO2 uptake until the
rate of CO2 exchange equals zero.
• This is the fluence rate, known as the light compensation point, at which the competing
processes of photosynthesis and respiration are balanced. The light compensation point
for most plants falls somewhere in the range of 10 to 40 μmol m−2 s−1, roughly
equivalent to the light level found in a well-lighted office, laboratory, or classroom.
• At fluence rates above the compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis continues to
increase until, at least in C3plants, it reaches light saturation.
• When the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration or photo respiration, the
compensation point occurs.

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3. Light
i. Light Intensity

Without enough light a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there is plenty
of water and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of
photosynthesis. High light intensities affect the rate of photosynthesis. It increases the
temperature of the leaves, therefore rate of transpiration increases. The stomata are
closed. It stops the entry of CO2, thus photosynthesis is stopped. Light is a limiting factor
at low intensity.

ii. Light Quality

The quality consists of rays of different wavelengths. Only red and blue light are effective
for photosynthesis. Green light does not play a role in photosynthesis since it is reflected
or transmitted. Light of wavelengths longer than 700 run is not effective for
photosynthesis for green plants.

iii. Light duration

A plant will carry out more photosynthesis when exposed to long periods of light. When
source of light is removed, the rate of CO2 fixation falls to zero immediately.

The light compensation point is the light intensity on the light curve where the rate of
photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of cellular respiration. At this point the uptake of
CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is equal to the respiratory release of CO2, and the
uptake of O2.by respiration is equal to the photosynthetic release of O2.

4. Oxygen

Photosynthesis does not take place in cells which lack oxygen because of the following
reasons:
i. The energy produced in oxygen respiration is necessary for photosynthesis.
ii. Oxygen is required for the production and maintenance of some substance,
essential for photosynthesis.
High concentrations of oxygen inhibit the rate of photosynthesis in C3 plants, and
promotes photorespiration in C4 plants.

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5. Water
 Water is one of the raw materials of photosynthesis.
 Only 1% water is absorbed by the plant, therefore, it cannot be a liming factor
directly.
 Water content of the leaf acts as a limiting factor indirectly. It maintains the turgor of
the assimilatory cells.
 The rate of photosynthesis decreases in the cells which have lost their turgor.
 The loss of turgor of guard cells closes the stomata.
 This reduces the rate of photosynthesis.

6. Leaf anatomy

The following factors of leaf anatomy affect the rate of photosynthesis:

i. Thickness of the cuticle and epidermis.
ii. Sizes and distribution of the intercellular spaces in the palisade.
iii. Sizes, positions and distributions of the stomata.
iv. Types of chlorenchyma and the vascular tissues.
These factors influence the diffusion of carbon dioxide through the stomata. They also
affect the amount of light reaching the chlorenchyma.

7. Chlorophyll contents

Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis depends on the

concentration of enzymes and chlorophyll. Leaves having high chlorophyll content do not
photosynthesise rapidly since they lack the enzymes or co-enzymes to use the products of
the light reactions to produce available CO2.

Sequence Stages in Photosynthesis

1. Carbon dioxide moves from the atmosphere into the chloroplasts of green plants where
photosynthesis occurs. It enters the leaf through specialised structures called stomata.
2. Water is moved from soil into plants via the roots and is transported by vascular tissues.
3. Light is captured by the leaves of plants.

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Photosynthesises consists of two stages: - the light reaction and dark reaction.

A. Light reaction (Light-dependent)

1. Photosystem II
 Light-dependent reactions require light, and take place in the thylakoids
membranes of the chloroplasts.
 Energy from the sun is absorbed by photosystem II and the energy is converted
into chemical energy.
 Light powers the splitting of water molecules into hydrogen ions, oxygen and
free energized electrons.
 Photosystem II generates ATP.

2. Electron Transport Chain

 High energy electrons from Photosystem II move through the electron transport
chain to photosystem I.

3. Photosystem I.
 Electrons released by Photosystem II are energized again in Photosystem I.
 Enzymes in the membrane use the electrons to form or generate nicotinamide-
adenine-dinucleotide-phosphate (NADPH), which is used by Calvin cycle
enzymes in chloroplast to convert CO2 to carbohydrates.

4. Hydrogen ion Movement

 The inside membrane of the thylakoid membrane fills up with H+ ions.
 This makes the outside of the thylakoid membranes negatively charged, and the
inside positively charged.

5. ATP Formation
 As hydrogen ions pass through adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase, their
energy is used to convert ADP to ATP.

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 Plants organize their photosynthetic pigments into two separate light-absorbing molecules
called photosystems: Photosystem II (PSII) (P680), and Photosystem I (PSI) (P700).
 They use special proteins, called light harvesting complexes, to absorb the protons with
very high effectiveness. The thylakoid membrane absorbs photon energy at different
wave length of light.
 In PSI, it absorbs protons with a wave length of 700nm, and it is called P700.
 In PSII, it absorbs protons at 680nm, and it is therefore called P680. “P” means pigment
and the number following it is wavelength of light absorbed.
 The light dependent reactions begin in photosystem II.

B. Dark reaction (Light-independent)

 During the light-independent reactions or dark reactions, products of the light reaction
are used to form carbohydrates.
 Carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere is captured and bonded with the hydrogen of
water molecule split during light reaction, and a carbohydrate is formed by a process
called Calvin Cycle. This part of photosynthesis is known as carbon fixation.
 These reactions occur in the stroma. These reactions take the products [ATP and
NADP] of light dependent reactions and perform further chemical reactions on them.

Calvin Cycle
 The Calvin Cycle is a process that uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent
reactions to produce high-energy sugars.
 The cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts and does not require light (light-
independent reactions).

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How the Calvin Cycle works

1. Six CO2 molecules enter the cycle and combine with six 5-carbon molecules to produce
twelve 3-carbon molecules.
2. The twelve 3-carbon molecules are converted into higher-energy forms, using energy
from ATP and high-energy electrons from NADPH.
3. Two 3-carbon molecules are removed from the cycle to produce sugars, lipids, amino
acids and other compounds needed for plant metabolism and growth.
4. The remaining ten 3-carbon molecules are converted back into six 5-carbon molecules,
which are used in the next cycle.

Glucose transportation and storage

 Glucose is moved out of the leaves and distributed to the rest of the plant by diffusion
in simple plants and through vascular tissues in more complex plants.
 Glucose can then be immediately be used or stored.

1. Structure of ATP :

The ATP molecule is a nucleoside triphosphate, composed of three components, a

nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the 3 phosphate molecules. It is used in
cells as coenzymes.

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2. Synthesis of ATP:

ATP synthase is an important enzyme that provides energy for the cell to use through the
synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the most commonly used "energy
currency" of cells from most organisms. It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate (Pi), and needs energy.

3. The role of ATP as the energy 'currency' in all living organisms.

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide that performs many essential roles in the
cell. It is used as the main energy source for metabolic functions. ATPs are consumed by
energy-requiring (endothermic) processes and produced by energy-releasing (exothermic)
processes in the cell.

4. CO2 Assimilation

Carbon fixation or carbon assimilation refers to the conversion process of inorganic

carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms. The most prominent
example is photosynthesis

Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs in the cytoplasm of cells during

glycolysis and mitochondria during the Krebs cycle under both aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. In the pay-off phase of glycolysis a net of 2 ATP are
produced by substrate level of phosphorylation.

The relationship between the light dependent and light independent reactions in a chloroplast.

Light dependent
H2O Reactions O2

Reduced ATP
NADP

CO2 Calvin cycle Sugar

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The diagram below shows some ways in which ATP may be synthesised and used in cells.

1. Water is the molecule that is required to react with ATP in order to convert ATP into ADP and an
inorganic phosphate.
2. ATP synthase is the membrane-bound enzyme responsible for phosphorylating ADP to make ATP.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS
 Plants have evolved three photosynthetic pathways, each in response to distinct
environmental conditions, resulting in their ecological patterns of growth and distribution.
The pathways are: C3, C4 and CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism).
 All three forms of photosynthesis are based on two pathways (1) light reactions and (2)
dark reactions.

a) C3 pathway

 C3 pathway is a metabolic pathway where CO2 is converted to a 3-carbon molecule

called 3- phosphoglyeric acid.
 C3 is best under moist conditions.
 Plants use the C3 pathway to fix carbon via the Calvin Cycle.
 During the process, the enzyme RuBP carboxylase (ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase) grabs CO2 in one of the first steps of photosynthesis.
 It works fine as long as there is plenty CO2 and little O2.
 If there is too much oxygen, RUBP carboxylase acts on it instead of CO2, and a
process known as photorespiration will occur.
 Photorespiration causes some of the energy used in photosynthesis to be lost, and
hence growth stops.

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Leaf anatomy in C3 plants

 Show one type of cell called mesophyll cells which contain mesophyll chloroplast
cells.
 Leaves contain one type of chloroplasts (monomorphic).
 In higher plants, chloroplasts have both photosystem I and II.
 Chloroplasts do not have peripheral reticulum.
 Bundle sheath does not contain much chlorophyll.

C3 Plants
These are plants in which the CO2 is first fixed into a compound containing three carbon
atoms before entering the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis.
Examples of C3 plants:
 Rice (Oryza sativa),
 Wheat (Triticum spp.),
 Barley (Hordeum vulgare),
 Soybean (Gycine max),
 Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris),
 Groundnut(Arachis hypogaea),
 Cotton (Gossypium spp.),
 Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris),
 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum),
 Spinach (Spinacea oleracea), and
 Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum).

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b) C4 pathway (Hatch-Slack pathway)

 It is a metabolic pathway where CO2 is first added to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by

the enzyme, PEP carboxylase to produce 4-carbon intermediate molecules, such as
malic acid or aspartic acid, hence the name C4.
 C4 pathway has one step before the Calvin Cycle which reduces the amount of carbon
that is lost in the overall process.
 The CO2 that is taken in by the plant is moved to bundle sheath cells by the malic or
aspartic acid molecules. The molecules at this stage are called malate and aspartate.
 The malate and aspartate molecules release the carbon dioxide in the chloroplasts of
the bundle sheath cells and the Calvin Cycle begins.
 Buddle sheath cells are part of the Kranz leaf anatomy that is characteristic of C4
plants.

Leaf anatomy in C4 plants

 Leave of C4 plants show two types of cells (outer mesophyll and inner spongy bundle
sheath cells) arranged in a circular manner, Kranz anatomy.
 Leaves contain two types of chloroplasts (dimorphic) viz, grana mesophyll
chloroplast and agranal bundle sheath chloroplast.
 They lack photosystem II.
 Chloroplasts have peripheral reticulum.
 Bundle sheath cells usually possess prominent chloroplasts.

C4 Plants
These are plants in which the CO2 is first fixed into a compound containing four carbon
atoms before entering the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. C4 is best under warm, sunny,
dry conditions. Stomata are open at night and largely closed during the day.

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 A C4 plant is better adapted than a C3 plant in an environment with high daytime

temperatures, intense sunlight, drought, or nitrogen or CO2 limitation.
 Most C4 plants have a special leaf anatomy (called Kranz anatomy) in which the
vascular bundles are surrounded by large bundle sheath cells, with abundant
chloroplasts.
 In the C4 pathway initial carbon fixation takes place in mesophyll cells and the
Calvin Cycle takes place in the bundle sheath cells.
 The enzyme PEP carboxylase attaches an incoming CO2 molecule to the 3-carbon
molecule PEP, producing oxalcetate (a 4-crbon molecule).
 Upon fixation of CO2 into a 4-carbon compound in the mesophyll cells, this
compound is transported to the bundle sheath cells in which it is decarboxylated and
the CO2 is re-fixed via the C3 pathway.
 In this mechanism, the tendency of rubisco (the first enzyme in the Calvin cycle) to
photo-respire, or waste energy by using oxygen to break down carbon compounds to
CO2, is minimized.

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf, through stomata, and into mesophyll cells, where it is fixed by the C4
enzyme PEP carboxylase.

Examples of C4 plants are:

 Maize (Zea mays),
 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum),
 Cabbage (Brasicca oleracea),
 Pineapple (Anananus comosus),
 Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare),
 Nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus),
 Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
 Pigweed (Amaranthus spp.), and
 Couch grass (Cynodon dactylon).

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Q? Explain how the anatomy of a C4 plant is adapted to make it efficient

in photosynthesis
• Palisade cells are arranged radially around bundle sheath cells/ Kranz anatomy;
• Numerous chloroplasts in in palisade mesophyll;
• Cells are closely packed, with small intercellular spaces;
• Large bundle sheath cells with abundant chloroplasts;

c) CAM pathway

 It is a photosynthetic pathway that uses crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).

 The CAM plants are succulents that are efficient at storing water due to arid and dry
climates they live in. Examples are cacti and sisal.
 Crassus from Latin means “thick”.
 CAM plant keep their stoma closed during the day to prevent water loss.
 They open at night to take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and store it in
vacuoles.
 This causes a build-up of oxaloacetate (acidic) in those vacuoles.
 The carbon dioxide is converted to a molecule called malate.
 Malate is stored until daylight returns and photosynthesis begins via the Calvin Cycle.

Leaf anatomy in CAM plants:

 Large undifferentiated mesophyll leaf.
 Large vacuoles.
 Thick and succulent leaves, or leaves with hairy coating to help prevent
evaporation.

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Characteristics of C3, C4 and CAM plants

FEATURE/ C3 Plants C4 Plants CAM Plants

CHARACTERISTIC
Type of photosynthesis C3 photosynthesis C4 photosynthesis CAM photosynthesis
via C3 cycle only via C3 and C4 cycles, spatially (C4 via C3 and C4
CO2 fixation pathway in the mesophyll cell then C3 in the cycles, both spatially
bundle sheath cell) (in different parts of
same cell) and
temporally (C4 at
night, C3 at day
time)
Large air spaces Generally thinner leaves, closer Thick and fleshy
Leaf anatomy bordered by arrangement of vascular bundles, leaves, mesophyll
loosely arranged smaller air spaces than C3; veins cells having large,
spongy mesophyll surrounded by thick-walled BSC water-filled vacuoles
cells; mesophyll further surrounded by thin-walled
cells but not mesophyll cells (wreath-like
bundle sheath arrangement of BSC is called Kranz
cells (BSC) anatomy); mesophyll cells and BSC
contain contain chloroplasts, those of the
chloroplasts BSC much larger
Stomatal movement Stomata open at Stomata open at daytime, close at Inverted stomatal
daytime, close at night cycle (open at night,
night close in the day)
Typical Environmental Temperate Tropical or semi-tropical, high light Desert or arid (xeric)
/ Geographical intensity, high temperature, drought habitats
adaptation (where most conditions
common)
Photorespiration Yes Little None
Site of Calvin cycle Mesophyll cells Bundle sheath cells Mesophyll cells
Site of light reactions Mesophyll cells Mostly in mesophyll cells Mesophyll cells
First stable product 3-PGA 4 Carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid) Oxalic acid
Water use efficiency Less High Very high
Photosynthetic Less Very high High
efficiency

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy by breaking down molecules in the
presence of oxygen. The process is made up of Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain.

1. Glycolysis:

 Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose (C6H12O6) into two three-
carbon molecules called pyruvates (Pyruvic acid).
 It is the first stage of cellular respiration and takes place in the cytoplasm.
 There are two main phases: energy-requiring phase, and the energy-release phase.
a. The energy-requiring phase

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 The starting molecule of glucose gets rearranged, and two phosphate groups are
attached to it.
 The phosphates make a modified sugar called fructose-1,6-biphosphate unstable,
allowing it to split in half and form two phosphate-bearing 3-carbon molecules that
are isomers of each other (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone
phosphate [DHAP] ).
 Two ATP molecules are spent, since the phosphates used in this process come from
ATP.
 DHAP is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by an enzyme called triose
phosphate isomerase.

b. The energy-release phase

 Each 3-carbon sugars formed in the first half, is converted into another 3-carbon
molecule, pyruvate, through a series of reactions.
 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is converted into 1.3-bisphosphoglycerate.
 In these reactions two ATP molecules and one NADH molecule are made.
 In total, four ATP and two NADH are made because this phase takes place twice,
once for each of the two three-carbon sugars.
 Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen.
 In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration.
 In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP
through the process of fermentation.

2. Krebs cycle or Tri-carboxylic cycle (TCA):

The Krebs cycle is the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy
during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming
oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to
energy-rich ATP.

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How the Krebs cycle works

 Pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, releases a carbon dioxide molecule (CO2).
The resulting two-carbon compound enters the Krebs cycle and continues with a
four-carbon compound.
 CO2 is released from the six-carbon compound, which leaves a five-carbon
compound. Then, a second CO2 is released, which leaves a four-carbon
compound.
 The resulting four-carbon compound is rearranged in several steps to form a
different four-carbon compound. The four-carbon compound combines with a new
two.-carbon unit from pyruvate.

3. Photosynthetic Electron transport:

An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of compounds that transfer electrons from
electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer
with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane.The electron transport chain uses
the high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP.

 High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed from one carrier protein to
the next along the electron transport chain.
 At the end of the electron transport chain, an enzyme combines these electrons with
hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
 Oxygen is essential for getting rid of low–energy electrons and hydrogen ions, the
wastes of cellular respiration.
 H+ ions build up in the intermembrane space, during electron transport, making it
positively charged. The other end, where the H+ have been taken, becomes negatively
charge.
 The ATP synthases (protein spheres) in the inner membranes of mitochondria, rotates
and grabs a low-energy ADP, and attaches a phosphate, forming high-energy ATP.
 This ATP is used to construct organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

Starch mobilization:

The two distinct pathways for the breakdown of starch are hydrolytic and phospholytic
pathways.

• Hydrolytic pathway
.
 Starch degradation is initiated by the addition of phosphate group at C6-position and
C3-position of individual glucosyl residues.
 These disrupt the packing of the glucan at the granule surface.
 Phosphate additions are catalysed by two enzymes: glucan water dikinase (GWD)
and phosphoglucan water dikinase (PWD).
 The hydrolysis of the resulting glucan and phosphoglucan chain is carried out by a
suite enzymes, including phosphoglucan phosphatase(SEX4/LSF2), -amylases

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(BAM3/LDA), -amylase (AMY3), -glucan phosphorylase, and the

disproportionating enzyme 1(DPE1, an -1,4-glucanotransferase).
 The product of hydrolytic pathway are maltose and Glutamic acid.
 These are exported to the cytosol by glucase transporter (pGlcT) and maltose
transporter (MEX1), to make Sucrose.

• Phospholytic pathway

 The product of phospholytic pathway is Glc-1-P (G1P), which is converted to Glc-6-P

(G6P), which is used by the pentose phosphate pathway at night and may be used to
regenerate the Calvin cycle intermediates during the day.

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Revision

1. Which of the following represents a correct sequence during photosynthesis?

A. Photosystem I - ATP production - Photosystem II - NADPH production

B. Photosystem I - NADPH production - Photosystem II - ATP production
C. Photosystem II - ATP production - Photosystem I - NADPH production
D. Photosystem II - NADPH production - Photosystem I - ATP production
E. Photosystem I - Photosystem II - ATP production - NADPH production

2. The electrons excited by sunlight are replaced by electrons from _______ in

photosystem I, and by electrons from ________ in photosystem II.
3. The high-energy electrons of photosystem I are directly passed on to _______
4. How do ATP and ADP differ in structure?
5. Why does the hydrolysis of ATP and ADP involve the release of energy?
6. Is ATP organic or inorganic molecule?
7. ATP contains high energy _________ bonds.
8. How many phosphate groups does ATP contain?
9. What is produced when the last phosphate bond of ATP is broken?
10. What carries energized electrons from glucoses in cellular respiration?
11. The diagram below outlines the early stages of respiration.

With reference to the diagram above,

a) Explain why ATP is needed at the start of glycolysis. [1]

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b) State the role of NAD in glycolysis. [1]

c) State how many molecules of ATP are produced from one molecule of glucose during
glycolysis. [1]
d) Name the two types of reaction that occur during the conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl CoA in the link reaction. [2]
e) Name the location, in the mitochondrion, of the link reaction. [1]
f) Describe what happens to the hydrogen released during the link reaction. [2]
g) Explain why ATP is regarded as the universal energy currency in organisms. [5]

© UCLES 2012 9700/41/O/N/12

*********************************************

Possible Answers
a) raise chemical PE of glucose / provide activation energy;
b) removes hydrogen / hydrogen carrier / coenzyme;
c) net 2;
d) dehydrogenation; A oxidation decarboxylation/ ‘oxidative decarboxylation’;
e) matrix ;
f) accepted by NAD ; passed to ETC ;for oxidative phosphorylation; ref. proton pump /
chemiosmosis;
g) found in all organisms; loss of phosphate / hydrolysis, leads to, energy release /
release of 30.5 kJ (per mole) ; ADP + Pi ATP / reversible reaction; small packets of
energy; small / water soluble, so can move around cell ; (used by cells as) immediate energy
donor; link between energy yielding and energy requiring reactions; high turnover; example of
use ; (e.g. active transport / muscle contraction / Calvin cycle /protein synthesis)

 _______________________________________________________________

* Answers: 6: organic; 7: phosphate; 8: 3; 9: ADP; 10: NAD+

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Experiment to demonstrate Moll’s half-leaf experiment for showing that CO2,

light, chlorophyll and water are necessary requirements for photosynthesis
Materials

 Potted plant; Caustic potash; Wide-mouthed bottle; Iodine; Split cork; Water;
grease.

Method

1. De-starch a potted plant by putting it in complete darkness for two days.

2. Fill partly a wide-mouthed bottle with strong solution of caustic potash and fit a
split cork on its mouth.
3. Insert about half of the de-starched plant into the bottle through the split
cork.

4. Place the whole apparatus in light after applying grease on the upper portion of
split cork, and test the leaf for starch after about 10hours.

Observations

 Portions of the leaf inside the bottle as well as in between the split cork, show
negative test for starch indicating absence of photosynthesis.
 Portions outside the slit cork show positive test for starch indicating the
presence of process of photosynthesis in this region.

Results

 Photosynthesis is absent in the leaf portion inside the bottle because CO2 is
absorbed by the caustic potash.
 Negative test of starch shown by the leaf portion between the spilt of split
cork is due to lack CO2 and light.
 Positive test of starch shown by the leaf portions outside the bottle indicates
photosynthesis process going on because of all the essential requirements (light,
water, chlorophyll and CO2).

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TOPIC 2:
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Describe the formation of clay and humus colloids.
2. Describe the basic structure of clays.
3. Explain the source of negative charges on clay and humus colloids.
4. Explain the origins and significance of cation exchange and anion exchange capacity.
5. Determine cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation percentage.
6. Discuss the significance of base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).
7. Discuss the causes of soil acidity and salinity.
8. Discuss the effects of soil acidity and salinity on crop growth.
9. Explain methods of correcting soil acidity and salinity.
10. Carry out experiments on soil analysis.
11. Determine soil pH and calculate liming requirements.

Chemical soil properties

1. Formation of clay and humus colloids

 Clay fraction and humus are referred to collectively as the colloidal fraction, because
of their small size and colloid-like properties.
 A colloid is a mixture where at least two types of substances (particles) are placed
together. The particles do not change, do not settle out of the mixture, and cannot be
seen.
 The important functional properties of these colloids may include high specific
surface area, electrostatic charges (cations and anions) and adsorption of water.
 Mineral colloids came from various stages of weathering of primary materials or
inherited from sediments of old clay formation.
 Humus came from various stages of organic residue decomposition.

Types of Colloids

Any given soil contains a mixture of both crystalline and amorphous state.
 A crystal is a piece of homogenous substance having natural geometrically
regular form with symmetrical arranged plane faces.
 An amorphous material is non crystalline, with no regular geometric form, such
as allophane and humus.

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Characteristics of Soil Colloids

• High surface area:

–Smectites and vermiculites: 1 g = 800 m2
–Range: 10 - 800 m2 g–1.

• Electrically charged surface:

–Usually net negative surface charge.
–In low pH soils dominated by sesquioxides, allophane, imogolite, surfaces, may be
net positive.

2. Basic structure of clays

Clay minerals can be classified as 1:1 or 2:1, because they are fundamentally built of
tetrahedral silicate sheets and octahedral hydroxide sheets.

1) 1:1 clay lattice consist of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet, such as
kaolinite and serpentine. They have strong hydrogen bonds between layers.

Properties:
• Form large aggregates which water or cations cannot penetrate.
• Exhibit little plasticity, shrinkage, stickiness or swelling.
• Low surface area: 10 to 20 m² g–1.
• They have no colloidal properties.
• Low negative charge :
–Mostly pH dependent
–Very little or no isomorphic substitution
–< 10 cmolc kg–1.
• Pedogenic and common to moist, warm, weathered soils (kaolinite is present in
almost all soils; halloysite present in volcanic soils).

2) 2:1 clay lattice consist of an octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral
sheets, such as smectite, montmorillonite and vermiculite. Layers are not strongly
bonded. They are bonded by a weak oxygen bond.

Properties:

• Allows water to penetrate and exhibit swelling.

• Internal surface area is high.
• Low water holding capacity, non-swelling.
• Has high isomorphous substitution.
• Surface charge from isomorphic substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ in Si-sheets and
pH-dependent edge sites: 10 to 40 cmolc kg–1

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2:1 Expanding: Smectites

Characteristics:

- –Smectites are secondary minerals.

- –Smectites are a chemically and structurally complex group of minerals →
numerous species.
- –Common species: montmorillonite Ca0.2 (Al1.6Mg0.4)Si4O10(OH)2
- –Extensive surface area, 600 to 800 m2 g–1.
- –Large water holding, extensive swelling.
- –Moderate surface charge 80 to 150 cmolc kg–1.

2:1 Expanding: Montmorillonite

Characteristics:

- Shrinking and swelling constantly.

- Expanding clays.
- Poor physical characteristics.
- Abundant charges and surface.
- Rich in nutrients.
- Good soils for crops if managed properly.
- Not affected much by pH.

2:1 Expanding: Vermiculites

Characteristics:

–Vermiculites are secondary minerals

–Extensive surface area, 600 to 800 m2 g–1
–Intermediate water holding, intermediate swelling
–Extensive surface charge 100 to 200 cmolc kg–1

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Structure of the silicon tetrahedron and the aluminium tetrahedron

o A silicon tetrahedron consists of 4 oxygen atoms surrounding one silicon atom

(SiO44-) in a tetrahedral (4-sided) shape. The tetrahedral are then joined together
through shared oxygen atoms to form a tetrahedral sheet.
o The aluminium octahedron consists of 6 oxygen or OH atoms surrounding an
aluminium ion in an 8-sided block. These are joined together through shared
O/OH to form an octahedral sheet.

Sources of negative charges on clays

1. Isomorphous substitution (IS).

 Isomorphous substitution is defined as the replacement of one atom by another of

similar size in the clay lattice, e.g. magnesium (Mg²+) replacing aluminium (Al³+).
 The magnesium is a divalent (Mg²+) while aluminium (Al³+) is trivalent. This
produces a negative charge in a clay lattice.
 This can be balanced by clay adsorbing (to gather on the surface) a positively charged
ion called cation, from the soil solution. If it has a negative charge it is called an
anion.
 Ions are atoms or molecules which have gained or lost, one or more valence electron,
giving the ion a net positive charge.
 Cations and anions attract one another. Conversely cations repel one another, as do
anions.
 However, 2:1 clays have more substitution than 1:1.

An example of isomorphous substitution (IS) and subsequent cation adsorption:

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2. Exposed crystal edges.

 The second source of charge involves unsatisfied valencies found at the broken ends
or edges of the silicon tetrahedral and aluminium octahedral layers.
 The hydrogen ions ma dissociate from the OH groups in the lattice in alkaline
solutions and H+ reacts with the free OHˉ ions on solution to form water.

Importance of isomorphous substitution in soils

 Source of negative charge.

 Increase in attraction of cations or nutrients.
 Reducing leaching of C²+, Mg²+ and K+.
 Source of positive charge.
 Al substitute Mg in tetrahedral sheet in vermiculite or chlorite.

Sources of positive charge on clays

 Hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium and some aluminosilicate clays can develop
positive charges at their crystal surfaces.
 When positive charges develop on clays, clays then adsorb negatively charged ion
(anions) to neutralise the charge. The process is called anion adsorption.

Cation exchange
i. Cation exchange refers to the process which cations are exchanged equally
between a solid and a solution, OR
ii. The replacement of adsorbed cations by other cations in solution.

 Surfaces of clay minerals and humus usually have negative charges due to either
isomorphous substitution, or weak organic acids
 The negatively charged clay is often called a clay colloid or micelle as the clay particles
are small and are finely dispersed in soil solution.
 Cations are obtained from fertilisers, breakdown of organic matter and weathering rocks.
Cations are adsorbed (loosely held) in preferential order of:
Al³+ >Ca²+ >Mg² >K+ >Na+ >H+.
 If a clay micelle with high calcium ions is exposed to a high concentration of potassium
ions, then these calcium ions are exchanged for potassium ions.

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 From the above example, the charges on the colloid are initially balanced by 6 positive
charges from the 3 divalent calcium ions, and the latter balanced by 6 positive charges
from 6 univalent potassium ions.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) can be defined as:

1. the ability of the soil to hold onto nutrients and prevent them from leaching beyond
the roots, OR
2. the sum total of the exchangeable cation that a soil can adsorb per unit weight of dry
soil, often expressed in millimoles of positive charge per kilogram of exchanger
(mmolesc /kg). (1 cmolc/kg = 1 milliequivalent /100g).

 The higher the clay content, the higher the CEC since clay particles have the greatest
surface area per unit volume of soil and, therefore, can hold the most cations.
 The more cation exchange capacity a soil has, the more likely the soil will have a higher
fertility level.
 Sandy soils rely heavily on the high CEC of organic matter for retention of nutrients in
soil.
 Thus, CEC is important for maintaining adequate quantities of plant available calcium
(Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) in soils.

Anion Exchange

 Anion exchange is a chemical process in which anions, in the form of acids, are adsorbed
by a basic substitution.
 They undergo exchange on the positively charged sites.
 Anion exchange is less common, but may occur in acid solutions. The diagram below
illustrates an example of an anion exchange reaction.

 The reaction is balanced and reversible but proceeds to the right due to excess of nitrate
ions.

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Basic and Acid Cations

Exchangeable cations can be divided into basic and acid groups according to their reaction
types.

 Base cations are Ca, Mg, Na and potassium K.

 Acid cations are H and Al.
1. CEC = sum of all exchangeable basic + acidic cations, (CEC = TEA + TEB).
2. Total Exchangeable Bases (TEB) = Ca + Mg + Na + K (cmolc /kg).
3. Total Exchangeable Acids (TEA) = H + Al (cmolesc /kg).
4. % Base Saturation (BS) = TEB/ CEC x 100.
 The Percent Base Saturation could be defined as the fraction of CEC occupied
by cations, expressed as a percentage.
 Base saturation has an influence on pH:-
- When TEB is high, pH is high.
- Adsorbed cations are in equilibrium with solutions cations.
- The base substitutes H+ ions on exchange sites.

5. % Acid Saturation (AS) = TEA/ CEC x 100.

The Percent Acid Saturation could be defined as the relative availability of each of
these cations.
6. % saturation of ion z = exchangeable concentration of z /CEC x 100.

What is cmolc?

 Units of CEC are cmolc kg–1 (centimoles of charge per kilogram) of soil.
 Mole is a standard scientific unit for measuring large quantities of very small entities such
as atoms, molecules, or other specified particles.
 There are 12g in 1 mole of carbon. There are three steps to converting moles of a
substance to grams:

1. Determine how many moles are given in the problem.

2. Calculate the molar mass of the substance.
3. Multiply step 1 by step 2.

 1 cmol K+ = 1 cmolc
 1 cmol Ca 2+ = 2 cmolc
 1 cmol Al 3+ = 3 cmolc

A soil with a CEC of 10 cmolc kg–1 would require: 10 cmol kg–1 of K+, or 5 cmol kg–1 of
Ca2+, or 3.3 cmol kg–1 of Al3+ to neutralize the soil exchange complex.

 If concentration of an exchangeable basic cation is known along with CEC, it is possible

to calculate % of exchangeable sites occupied by each basic cation.

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Calculating Cation Exchange Capacity and the Percent Base Saturation

a) The list below is some typical data for a soil from Sagambe High School.

- Exchangeable Ca (mmolesc/kg) = 60
- Exchangeable Mg (mmolesc/kg) = 42
- Exchangeable K (mmolesc/kg) =3
- Exchangeable Na (mmolesc/kg) =2
- Exchangeable H (mmolesc/kg) = 11
- Exchangeable Al (mmolesc/kg) = 40

Calculate,
i. Total exchangeable bases,
ii. Total exchangeable acids,
iii. CEC,
iv. Percentage base saturation,
v. Percentage acid saturation,
vi. Percentage K saturation.

Solution
i. TEB = Ca + Mg + K + Na (60 + 42 +3 + 1) = 106 mmolesc/kg
ii. TEA = H +Al (11 + 40) = 51 mmolesc/kg
iii. CEC = TEB + TEA (106 + 51) = 157 mmolesc/kg
iv. % BS = TEB/CEC x 100 = (106 ÷ 157) x 100 =67.5%
v. % AS = TEA/CEC x 100 = (51 ÷ 157) x 100 = 32%
vi. % K saturation = K/CEC x 100 = (3 ÷ 157) x 100 = 1.9%

b) Assume soil with CEC = 20 cmolc/kg

–Ca-saturation = 45%
–Mg-saturation = 20%
–K-saturation = 10%
–Al-saturation = 25%

• How many kg of Ca per hectare per 15 cm of soil?

CEC Calculations
 cmolc/kg as Ca2+ = 20 cmolc/kg x 0.45 = 9 cmolc
 9 cmolc (Ca2+)/kg × 0.2 g Ca/cmolc= 1.8 g Ca
 1 hectare (ha) per 15 cm = 2 x 106 kg soil

Some applications of soil cation/anion exchange properties

a. Use the concept of percent saturation to determine the relative distribution of different
cations or anions in a soil, especially to assess the influence of complementary cations, or
neighbouring effect.

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b. Most exchangeable cations and anions are considered available for uptake by either plant
roots or microbes.
c. The formation of an inner-sphere complex may contribute to the “fixation” of phosphate,
sulphate, and the likes. The key feature of an inner-sphere complex is the share of
element(s) between the solid clay and the reacting group (anion).
d. As a rule of thumb, the degree of weathering seems to relate to the CEC and AEC of a
soil: mildly weathered soils tend to have higher CEC and lower AEC than strongly
weathered soils.
e. Soil CEC is a major determinant of the soil’s capacity to retain/absorb organic/inorganic
pollutants. Distribution coefficients are often used as a measure of such property, which is
defined by the ratio of the amount of the pollutant retained by the soil to the amount
remaining in solution.
f. CEC provides an indication of soil texture.
g. Concentrations of individual cations gives information about various plant nutrients. Low
ESP indicate non sodic soils.
h. Higher acid saturation implies greater level of leaching of bases.
i. Soil with a high base saturation implies low leaching and a high nutrient supply.

CEC and Soil Texture

Soil Texture CEC (m.e. /100 gm.)

Clay loam 20-30+

Silt loam 15-20
Loam 12-15
Sandy loam 10-12
Loamy fine sand less than 10

Sodic and Saline soils

 Sodic soils, are soils with a level of sodium that dominates the other soluble salts.
 They are usually defined as containing an exchangeable sodium percentage [ESP] greater
than 9%.
 Sodium is a cation that is held loosely on clay particles in soil.
 The amount of sodium as a proportion of all cations in a soil is the main measure of
sodicity used, and is termed the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).

To calculate ESP = (exchangeable Na ÷ CEC) x 100.

 Salinity is a measure of the concentration of the soluble salts contained in the soil.
 Soils with excess salts, where sodium chloride (NaCl) predominates, are saline.
 These salts are free to move in the soil water and can be readily taken up by plants.
 These salts, which move freely in the soil solution, are made up of positive and negative
ions (cations and anions).
 Saline soils contain mainly Ca and Mg salts. They have an ESP less than 15.
 Saline-sodic soils have high quantities of Ca/Mg and enough Na to affect plants.

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The significance of base saturation and exchangeable sodium percentage

(ESP).
o Base saturation indicates the balance between acid and base cations adsorbed by the
cation exchange complex (CEC) of soil.

o Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is used to distinguish between sodic and non-
sodic soils. Sodic soils have an ESP greater than 9, within the top 800mm of soil.

o Sodic soils have very high Na concentrations. The soil pH is greater than 8.5 due to the
hydrolysis of water by sodium.

Clay-Na exchangeable + H2O-----------Clay-H+ exchangeable + Na + + OH-.

This reaction produces hydroxyl ions. The high pHs that develop in these soils, inhibit or
cause fixation of many plant nutrients. The sodium also destabilises the clay, causing its
dispersion. Infiltration of rainfall is reduced due to dispersion of clay which blocks soil
pores. On drying the soil may set into very dense and hard prismatic or columnar units
which inhibit root penetration.

o Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) is used to separate out sodic soils, where:

SAR= [Na +] cmoles /ckg -1

√0.5 ([Ca2+] + [Mg2+])

It shows the relative concentration of sodium to other to ions, [Ca2+] and [Mg2+].

Problems that can be experienced in soils with high exchangeable sodium

(ESP)
 High pH:
o Soil pH is usually high, often greater than 8.4.
o Carbonate become dominant form of alkalinity.

 Cause injury or poor plant growth:

o Salts at high concentrations, seriously impair plant growth or can kill plants.

 Destroy soil structure:

o Sodic soils tend to develop poor structure and drainage over time because sodium
ions on clay particles cause the soil particles to deflocculate, or disperse (move
apart from each other).
o Sodium affected soils tend to swell when wet and to harden and crack when dry.
When dry, sodic soil develops a hard dry crust on the surface.

 Reduced water uptake:

o The presence of salt in the soils reduces the availability of water to plants. Water
and air movement through sodic soils is severely restricted due weakened

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aggregates in the clay soil, causing structural collapse and closing-off of soil
pores.

 Salinization:
o In saline soils, the soil solution has a high osmotic potential and cause plasmolysis
of plant cells.

 Deficiency of other nutrients:

o Salt affected soils are generally low in available nutrients.

 Soil crusting:
o Sodicity of the surface soil is likely to cause dispersion of surface aggregates,
resulting in surface crusts.
o Hard crust restricts root growth and seed emergence.

 Subject to erosion:
o Soil erosion results in soil and nutrient loss.
o The runoff containing the nutrients and pesticides which are adsorbed on the clay
particles, might reach drinking water sources and contaminate them.

 Affect micro-organisms:
o Poor soil aeration affects microbial activity.

Leaching for Salinity Management

• When irrigation water has a high salt content salts must be kept moving downward.
• Must use leaching to do this – either via irrigation or rainfall.

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SOIL pH

 Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is

measured in pH (potential Hydrogen ions) units.
 Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in
soil solution.

 The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of
hydrogen ions in the soil increases the soil pH decreases thus becoming more
acidic.
 From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is
increasingly more alkaline or basic.

Factors affecting soil pH

The factors can be grouped as those that increase acidity (lower the pH) and those that
increase the alkalinity (increase the pH).

a) Factors increasing acidity

1) Rainwater leaching away basic ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium and
sodium).
2) Carbon dioxide from root respiration dissolving in soil water to form a weak
organic acid.
3) Organic acids, from decaying organic matter.
4) Oxidation of ammonium and sulphur fertilizers. When Ammonium nitrate is used
frequently, and to excess, soil becomes more acidic or soil releases fewer nutrients
due to H ions.
5) Uptake of bases that are replaced by hydrogen ions.
6) Pollution by gases dissolved in rain water that infiltrates the soil.

b) Factors causing alkalinity

1) Addition of alkaline materials such as lime will cause the pH to rise.
2) Weathering of basic minerals in soils provide a slow release of bases. For
example, Limestone as a basic parent material, will weather to give alkaline
soils.
3) Bases dissolved in water, ca also be moved up to the surface from the subsoil
by the process of evaporation.

Alkaline soils are placed into three broad groups based on other chemicals
properties that include pH, Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) and Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR).

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Measurement of Soil pH

 Using certain indicators or dyes.

 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) Method.
 By a pH sensitive electrode coupled to a pH meter.

USING A CALCIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION FOR SOIL TEST

 CaCl2 test method is considered to approximate average soil solution calcium and salinity
levels.
 Measurements are carried out in 0.01Mol CaCl2 solution with a soil/solution ratio of 1/5.A
dilute CaCl2 solution (0.01M) is used to for pH measurements to stimulate actual field
conditions in preference to distilled water.
 When soil is diluted with water, most of the H+ ions tend to remain attracted to the soil
particles and are not released into the soil solution.
 Therefore, addition of small amounts of calcium chloride provides Ca²+ ions to replace some
of the H+ ions on soil particles, forcing the hydrogen ions into the solution and making their
concentration in the bulk solution closer to that found in the field.
 The pH measured in CaCl2 is almost always lower than pH of the same soil measured in
water due to the higher concentration of H+.

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HOW TO TEST SOIL pH WITH A DIGITAL PH METER

Materials

 Soil sample
 Distilled water
 Container
 Cleaning pad/paper towel
 Digital pH meter

Method

 Put soil in a clean container.

 Add distilled water to the soil until it is damp enough that you can firmly compact it inside
the container.
 Clean the probe on digital pH meter with a paper towel.
 Turn on the digital pH meter on and insert the probe into the soil, twisting it to make sure it
has good contact with the soil. Keep it away from the container.
 Let it sit in soil sample for about 60 seconds.
 Note the reading.

Conclusion.
 Make changes to your soil indicated by the reading on the pH meter.

pH Tester H196107 Digital pH meter

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Other options: When you do not need exact pH numbers

1. Scoop some soil into a container and add ½ cup of vinegar to the top. Bubbles or fizz
indicate alkaline soil.
2. Scoop some soil into a different container and mix with distilled water until the
mixture is runny. Pour in ½ cup of baking soda and watch for bubbles. This
indicates acidic soil.

Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain pH ranges for Zimbabwe soils
are:
 Extremely acid: < than 4.0,
 Very strongly acid: 4.0–4.5,
 Strongly acid: 4.5–5.0,
 Moderately acid: 5.0–5.5,
 Slightly acid: 5.5-6.0
 Neutral: 6.0-6.5,
 Mildly alkaline: 6.5,-7.0,
 Moderately alkaline: 7.0-7.5,
 Strongly alkaline: > 7.5

The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of
hydrogen ions in the soil increases, the soil pH decrease, thus becoming more acidic.

Effect of pH on Nutrients, Minerals and Plant Growth

 Most minerals and nutrients are more soluble or available in acid soils than in
neutral or slightly alkaline soils.
 Phosphorus is most available in soil with a pH range centred on 7.0.
 Extremely and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of
soluble aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) which may be toxic to the
growth of some plants. Al inhibits root growth and root tips become thickened.

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 A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes availability of most plant nutrients.

 Bacteria activities are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents organic matter
from breaking down, resulting in an accumulation of organic matter and the tie up
of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, that are held in the organic matter.

Sample Question: Using the diagram above, at which pH are N, P and K all most available?

Correction of soil acidity

Liming
Agricultural lime is usually added to acid soils to increase soil pH. It is broadcast on
cultivated land before planting, and then disced. Some commonly used liming
materials are oxides, hydroxides or carbonates of Ca or Mg.
1. Calcitic lime or Carbonate of lime: a ground limestone composed mostly of
calcium carbonate[CaCO 3 ]
2. Dolomitic lime: a ground limestone containing a mixture of calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate [CaCO 3 ], [MgCO 3 ].
3. Hydrated or slaked lime: a liming material composed of calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH) 2 ] or mixture of calcium and magnesium hydroxide.
4. Quick lime or burnt lime: a liming material composed of calcium oxide [CaO] or
mixture of calcium and magnesium oxide [MgO].

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Neutralising capacity / Neutralising index

Neutralising capacity is the measure of the capacity of a liming material to reduce acidity. It
may be defined as the difference between cations of strong bases and anions of strong acids.
Two factors are used to calculate the quality of liming material: (a) purity (percent calcium
carbonate equivalent) and (b) fineness (particle size).

PURITY (percent Calcium Carbonate Equivalent)

Neutralizing values of liming materials are calculated on the basis of pure CaCO3 being
100% effective.
 CaCO3 has a molecular weight of 100 i.e. [40 + 12 + 16(3)], as Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16.
 The molecular weights of Ca (OH) 2 and CaO are 74 and 56 respectively.
 Therefore, 100kg pure CaCO3 is equivalent to 74kg of pure Ca (OH)2 and this is
equivalent to 56kg of pure CaO, as they all contain the same amount, relatively of Ca.
The neutralising power is often expressed as Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE). This is
obtained by calculating reciprocal values.

The CCE of Ca (OH) 2 = 100 x 100% = 135%

74
This means that pure Ca (OH) 2 is 135% as effective as CaCO3 in reducing acidity and less is
needed to achieve the same reduction in acidity.

Activity: What is the neutralising value of pure magnesium carbonate with a molecular
weight of 84?

FINENESS (Lime particle size)

The fineness of liming material plays an important role in lime’s effectiveness at neutralising
soil pH.
• Finely ground limestone has a large surface area, hence dissolves rapidly and reacts with
the soil increasing pH.
• Limestone ground to medium thickness is the best.
• The hydroxides and oxides are more soluble than the carbonates.
• However, grinding increases cost and reduces the length of time that lime remains in soil.
• Very fine lime is difficult to handle and apply.

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Effects of lime on the soil.

o Reduces toxicities, i.e. the solubility of Fe, Al, Mn declines.

o Reduces deficiencies, i.e. the availability of P and Mo increases.
o Exchangeable Ca and perhaps Mg increases.
o The percentage base saturation increases.
o Structure is increased by increased clay flocculation and aggregation.
o Nodule formation in legumes is promoted.
o Biological activity increases, favouring the production of humus.
o H+ decreases whilst OH- increases.

The lime requirement

The lime requirement is the amount of lime of a given type that is required to raise the level
or base saturation of the soil to a certain value. This is determined either by a chemical
titration method or by using the pH method.

Titration is the addition of one solution of a known concentration (called a titrant) to a

known volume of another solution of unknown concentration until the reaction reaches
neutralisation, which is often indicated by a colour change.

Titration with Ca(OH) 2

 It is a direct method, applicable to any soil, but slow and laborious.
 Titration is performed in 1:1 soil/water ratio with Ca(OH) 2 as the base.
 Add incremental amounts of lime {calcium hydroxide} to soil, allow to equilibrate and
construct response curve.

The amount of lime to apply depends on:

• Type of crops to be grown.
• Soil factors, such as pH, texture, structure and amount of organic matter.
• The kind and fineness of lime to be used, and
• The economic returns of applying the lime.

Application of lime

• Broadcast the lime evenly over the fields.

• Thorough mix with the soil by discing before planting.
• Clay soil soils require larger amounts than sands, because of many exchange site on clays.
• Over liming cause deficiencies of trace elements, and phosphorus.

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SOIL SAMPLING

Soil sampling is a process of collecting quantities of soil from the various parts of the field
for the purpose of analysing it in the laboratory.
Sample locations can be chosen using (a) haphazard or zigzag sampling pattern or (b)
traversing pattern.

The importance of soil sampling

 It provides information on the average nutrient status of the soil. This is important in
determining the type and amount of fertilizer to apply.
 It helps in knowing the soil pH number. This is important in determining whether
nutrients are available or less available to plants.

What to consider when taking soil samples

To help ensure accurate recommendations, the sampler should avoid sampling areas such as:

 cultivated furrows, anthills, old roadways and yards,

 water channels, manure piles, and eroded knolls,
 depressions, terrace channels, saline areas, fence lines, and field edges.

Reasons why farmers would send soil sample for analysis

 To determine soil factors such as pH, structure, texture, organic matter and fertility.
 To establish type and amount of lime and fertilizer to apply.
 To produce high economic returns.

a) Highlight the three most important functional properties of soil colloids.

b) Explain why soils carry negative charges.

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TOPIC 3:
PRINCIPLES OF CROP BREEDING AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY

PLANT BREEDING METHODS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Explain plant introduction as a breeding method.
2. Describe types of plant introduction.
3. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of plant introduction.
4. Explain selection as a method of plant breeding.
5. Describe types of selection in plant breeding.
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of plant selection.
7. Explain methods of hybridization
8. Describe advantages and disadvantages of hybridization.
9. Describe hybrid seed production.
10. Compare hybrid seed and, traditional and commercial open- pollinated varieties (OPVs)
performances.
11. Describe genetic engineering as a breeding method.
12. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified crops.

1) Plant introduction

Meaning of plant introduction.

 Plant introduction is the movement of new varieties from one environment into
another of similar characteristics, within a country or from other regions.
 The process may involve new varieties of crop or the wild relatives of the crop
species or totally new crop species for the area.
 These new varieties can be used as they are or can be used in breeding programmes to
improve local varieties.

Types of plant introduction.

a) Based on adaptation

i. Primary introduction: Variety is well adapted to the new environment, released for
commercial cultivation without any alteration in the original genotype.

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ii. Secondary introduction: Introduced variety may be subjected to selection and

hybridization to isolate a superior variety.

b) Based on utilisation

i. Direct introduction: New variety takes no time for establishment.

ii. Indirect introduction: New variety takes some time for establishment.

 Objectives of plant introduction.

 To get new sources of resistance against both biotic and abiotic stresses.
 To enrich the germplasm (living genetic resources such as seed or another plant
part) collecting e.g. groundnuts.
 To introduce high yielding varieties to increase food production.
 To introduce new plant species thereby creating ways to build up new industries.

 Advantages of plant introduction.

 It protects the variability from genetic erosion by collecting germplasm.
 It provides superior crop by introducing into new disease free areas.

 Disadvantages of plant introduction.

 Introduction of noxious weeds e.g. water hyacinth.
 Introduction of disease e.g. late blight of potatoes from Europe, and Bunchy top of
Banana from Ceylon.
 Introduction of pests, e.g. potato tuber moth from Italy.
 Ornamentals turned weeds, e.g. Lantana camara.
 Threat to ecological balance, e.g. Eucalyptus species introduced from Australia.

2) Plant selection

a. Selection in plant breeding

• Selection is a process of allowing certain plants to be parents of future
generations.
• The chosen plants are supposed to be carriers of desirable genes that make them
produce better.
• The rejected ones are supposed to be carriers of undesirable genes that depress
there productivity.

b. Types of plant selection

i. Natural selection
It is a process that operates in nature without human interference. Plants that
survive through the adversities of nature are preferred and the weaker are wiped
out (Survival of the fittest).natural selection has given the cultivated crops and
“ecotype” in plants.

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ii. Artificial selection

• Eye is the powerful tool in artificial selection.
• Man decides on which crop individuals to use in the next generation.
• Farmer looks at characteristics like yield, quality, disease tolerance, and
height.
• An understanding of botanical characteristics is needed.

Methods of artificial selection

(i) Mass selection.

• This is a selection of a number of phenotypically superior plant heads
or seed from the field population.
• It is based on phenotype (external character) and the harvested seeds
are composited with progeny testing.
• Most vigorous plants from the mixed population of a crop are selected.

(ii) Progeny selection.

• This is commonly used in cross pollination, and often cross pollinated
crops.
• Progeny (offspring) is a new individual organism that results from the
process of sexual or asexual reproduction.

(iii) Pure-line selection.

• Pure-line selection is a process of selecting a desirable homozygous
individual from the mixed population and multiply the same without
contamination to release a new individual.

(iv) Clonal selection.

• A clone is a variety propagated vegetative from a single plant.
• Clonal selection is the selection and propagation of the desirable
variations between the clones as well as within the clone.
• It is practical with non-flowering plants and those species which
produce seed poorly.

3) Hybridization

Hybridization refers to the natural or artificial process of combining varieties or species

of crops to create a hybrid.
 A hybrid is an offspring of two plants of different varieties, with characteristics that
are better than either of their parents.
 Heterosis or hybrid vigour is the increase in growth, size, fecundity, or yield in the
offspring.

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Objectives of hybridisation

i. To combine the desired characters into a single individual.

ii. To exploit and utilize the hybrid varieties.
iii. To artificially create a variable population for the selection of types with desired
combination characters.

Types of hybridization

1. Intraspecific or inter-varietal hybridization:

• The crosses are made between the plants belonging to two different varieties.
2. Intra-varietal hybridization:
• The crosses are made between the plants of the same variety.
3. Interspecific or intragenric hybridization:
• The crosses are made between two different species of the same genus.
4. Introgressive hybridization:
• The transfer of some genes from one species into the genome of the other species.

Advantages and disadvantages of hybridization.

Advantages
 Crossing two parental individuals gives chance for formation of new genetic
recombinants and increase viability.
 Widened selection base exploits hybrid vigour or heterosis.
 Offspring with better characteristics are produced.
 The characteristics include, drought resistance, growth rate and improved yield.

Disadvantages
 Seed is expensive.
 Seed production requires expertise.
 Seed production takes a long time.
 New seed must be bought for each planting season, to maintain high yields.

Procedure of hybridisation

It involves the following steps:

i. Selection of parents.
Parental plants are selected from the local areas and are supposed to be best suited
to the existing conditions.
ii. Selfing of parents or artificial self-pollination.
It is essential for inducing homozygosity for eliminating the undesirable
characters and obtaining inbreeds.
iii. Emasculation.

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Inbreeds are grown under normal conditions and are emasculated. Emasculation is
the removal of stamens from female parent before they burst and shed their
pollens. Emasculation is not essential for unisexual plants.

iv. Bagging.
The emasculated flower or inflorescence is immediately bagged to avoid
pollination by any foreign pollen. The bags are tied to the base of the
inflorescence or to the stalk of the flower with the help of a thread.
v. Tagging.
Tags with information of the emasculated flower are attached at the base of the
flower.
vi. Crossing.
Mature, fertile and viable pollens from the male parent are placed on the receptive
stigma of emasculated flowers to bring about fertilisation. Pollen grains are
collected in paper bags (maize) or petri dishes (wheat) and applied to the receptive
stigmas with a camel hair brush, tooth pick or forceps.
vii. Harvesting and storing the F1 seeds.
Crossed heads or pods of desirable plants are harvested. They are threshed or
shelled after complete drying. Seed are stored with the original tags.
viii. Raising the F1 generation.
Stored seeds are sown separately to raise the F1 generation. The plants of the F1
generation are hybrids.

Methods of improving of self-fertilized crops

1. Pedigree method
 Pedigree is a record of ancestry of an individual selected plant for various
generations.
 Pedigree breeding is a selection method which is used to in segregating population
of self-pollinated species and keeps proper record of plants and progeny selected
in each generation.

2. Bulk method or Breeding

• Bulk method is a selection procedure which is used in segregating population of
self-pollinated species in which material is grown in bulk plot fromF1 to F5 with
or without selection, next generation is grown from bulk seed and individual plant
selection is practiced in in F6 or later generation.
3. Single seed descent method
• This is a breeding procedure used with segregating population of self-pollinated
species in which plants are advanced by single seeds from one generations to the
next.

4. Back cross method

• This is a method employed to in improvement of both self and cross- pollinated
crops where varieties are deficient in one or two aspects.

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• A single inheritance character like disease, frost or drought tolerance is transferred

from an undesirable variety to good commercial variety.
• The desirable variety, called recurrent or recipient parent, is crossed to an
undesirable variety called donor or non-recurrent parent.

5. Multiple cross or composite cross method

• This is a cross involving more than one inbred line.
• It is used to cross monogenic characters from different sources onto a single
genotype.
• Several pure lines are crossed together, e.g. as A x B x C X D x E X F.
• F1 plants are mated together as [A x B] x [C x D] and [E x F] x [G x H]. The F1
plants are finally crossed with each other to produce hybrids, [A x B] x [C x D] x
[E x F] x [G x H].

Hybridization Methods of Plant Breeding in Cross Pollinated crops

It involves crossing of two or more inbreeds. These crosses are single, double and three-
way hybrids.
i. Single cross hybrid
• Two inbred varieties (A and B) are crossed to produce a monohybrid (single
cross AB).
ii. Three-way cross hybrid
• To produce a tri-hybrid or three-way hybrid, a monohybrid (AB) is crossed
with an inbred variety (C).
iii. Double cross hybrid.
• Crossing two monohybrids (AB x CD) produces a di-hybrid or double hybrid.

Commercial OPVs, Traditional or land OPVs and Hybrids.

 Open pollination: Plants are allowed to be pollinated naturally without any

interference.
 Controlled pollination: The transfer of pollen from one plant is restricted by cutting or
covering the tassel. This prevents plants from being pollinated by undesirable
varieties.

a. Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs)

 An OPV variety is one whose seed is produced by random cross pollination (that is
there is no pollination control).
 The pollination of the plants in the field is not controlled, which means the crop will
not be uniform, for example the crop will vary in plant height, the colour of silks will
vary, the cobs will not be the same size and shape and the plants will mature at
different times.

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Advantages of growing OPV:

1. Low or no seed cost. The producer can keep part of the crop for seed.
2. The cost of seed is a lot less than hybrid seed.
3. More money can be spent on buying fertiliser or pesticide.
4. Seed can be recycled. That is grain from this season can be planted next season.
5. Low potential areas cannot justify the high cost of hybrid seed.
6. OPV have a broader genetic base and are more variable in flowering dates. This
results in a longer flowering period, which will enable an OPV to pollinate during
short periods of high stress (for example moisture stress, temperature, etc.). This
variation can at times, offer more stable yields than more uniformly flowering
hybrids.
7. It is important to buy certified seed every three years to maintain genetic purity.

Disadvantages of OPV:
1. The yield potential is typically 10 - 25% less.
2. In high potential areas, OPV’s will reduce profit margins.
3. They will not be uniform in colour, maturity and other plant characteristics.
4. Could impact on the price of the grain, i.e. quality.
5. Lack of uniformity may lead to difficulties in carrying out certain operations, such as
spraying and harvesting, (especially when using a combine harvester).
6. To keep an OPV pure, it should be planted at least 300 m from other varieties.
7. Poor seed quality (seed kept for planting of the next crop is usually stored in poor
conditions and is exposed to high temperature, pests and diseases) can result in poor
germination and weak plants that cannot compete well with weeds.
8. OPV’s are not genetically modified to exhibit insect or herbicide resistance.

b. Hybrids
Advantages of growing hybrid maize are:
1. Hybrids are generally higher yielding than open pollinated varieties.
2. Hybrids are uniform in colour, maturity and other plant characteristics which enables
the producer to carry out certain operations (for example fertilising, spraying and
harvesting) at the same time.
3. The uniformity of the grain harvested can also have marketing advantages when sold
to buyers with quality standards.
4. Hybrid yield on average 18% more than OPV.

Disadvantages of growing hybrids:

1. Seed is expensive.
2. The producer needs to yield more than two ton per hectare to justify the higher cost of
seed.
3. New seed needs to be purchased every planting season.

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4. The grain produced from hybrid seed may not be used as seed for the following
planting seasons.
5. The producer might not be able to source seed timeously.
6. Hybrids are more susceptible to stress conditions (for example tasselling).
7. Under poor crop management and harsh environmental conditions, the yield
advantage of hybrids over OPV’s is diminished.

4) Genetic Engineering

- Genetic engineering also known as recombinant DNA technology, is any technique that
uses organisms or parts of living organisms to produce a Genetically Modified Organism
(GMO) with a new genotype.
- Genetic modification of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s
genome, giving it new or different characteristics.
- Genetic engineering allows the direct transfer of one or just a few genes of interest,
between either closely or distantly related organisms to obtain the desired agronomic trait.
- The new DNA becomes part of the GM plant’s genome (complete set of DNA).

Traits that have been modified in GM crops.

 GM crops are engineered for insect resistance.
 Herbicide tolerant soybean, maize and cotton.
 Insect resistant maize, cotton, potato, and rice.
 Virus resistant squash and papaya.
 Slow ripening tomatoes and Freeze resistant potatoes.

For example, insect resistant crops contain genes from the soil bacterium (Bacillus
thuringiensis). The protein produced in the plant by the Bacillus thuringiensis gene is
toxic to a target group of insects. Plants may be modified by removing or switching off
their own particular genes.

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Comparing conventional breeding and genetic engineering

Conventional Breeding Genetic Engineering

 Limited to exchanges between the same  Allows the direct transfer of one or just a
or very closely related species few genes, between either closely or
 Little or no guarantee of any particular distantly related organisms
gene combination from the millions of  Crop improvement can be achieved in a
crosses generated shorter time compared to conventional
 Undesirable genes can be transferred breeding
along with desirable genes  Allows plants to be modified by
 Takes a long time to achieve desired removing or switching off particular
results genes

The process of genetic engineering

1. Identify a trait of interest from nature.
2. Isolate the genetic trait of interest from the DNA. N.B. Part of an organism’s genetic
makeup that contains the trait of interest must be decoded.
3. Insert the desired trait into a vector and clone to make multiple copies of gene of
interest.
4. Incorporate the gene into plasmid (a small piece of DNA). The DNA or gene along
with the plasmid is called recombinant DNA.
5. Grow the GMO.
The most common methods used to introduce the gene package into plant cells include
biolistic transformation (using a gene gun) or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.

a) TISSUE CULTURE
Plant tissue culture is a collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells,
tissue, or organism under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium of known
composition. Types of tissue culture techniques are listed below.

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1. Micro propagation

Micro propagation is the application of tissue culture techniques to propagation of

plants starting with very small plant parts grown aseptically in a test tube or other
container.

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Cloning of carrots
 Somatic cells can be removed and grown in culture.
 Under appropriate conditions the cells begin to divide, then develop into
somatic embryos known as embryoids.
 These can be transferred to a solid growth medium for plantlet development.
 The final stage is regeneration of the complete organism.

Advantages

 Plantlets produced are free from of bacteria and fungi.

 Small pieces of plants (explants) are used to produce a large number of plants in a
small space.
 Plantlets can be stored in vitro in small area and, less space and labour are
required for the maintenance of stock plants.
 Nutrient levels, light, temperature and other factors can be more readily controlled
to accelerate vegetative multiplication and regeneration.
 It is independent of seasons and requires minimal attention between subcultures.

Disadvantages
 Requires some advanced skills and specialised equipment and facilities.
 Propagules are very expensive because of the labour intensive methods used.
 Plantlets are very small initially.
 Each species requires its own specific methods in order to get optimum results.

2. Embryo culture

 Embryo culture is a technique that involves the removal of the embryo seed and
subsequent growth in-vitro until the developing plant can be transferred to soil and
grown to maturity.

Advantages
 The technique overcomes unviability problems from crosses between distantly
related species.
 Prolonged seed dormancy is overcome.
 It can be used to develop important plant from embryos that are denied the chance
to mature due to untimely death of parent.
 It ca be used to produce plants from seeds of species that are normally propagated
by vegetative means, like banana.

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3. Somatic embryogenesis

 It is the development of embryo like structures from cells of non-sexual origin.

 Embryo formation can be artificially induced in cell cultures by manipulation of
hormones, light intensity and other growth conditions.

4. Meristem culture

 Meristem culture involves the removal of a dome of actively dividing cells of

about 0.1mm in diameter, and 0.25mm in length, and subsequent culture in-vitro.

5. Somaclonal variation

 Somaclonal variation is the use of tissue culture to produce variants that may be
lacking or needed in breeding programme.
 Variation is exploited to create suitable varieties and hybrids.

6. In-vitro selection

 This technique is used in identifying plants which have some resistance or

tolerance to stresses produced by phytotoxins from pathogens, herbicides, cold
temperatures and aluminium, manganese and salt toxicity.

7. Anther culture

 It is a technique of producing haploid plants through the removal of anthers and/or

immature pollen from a plant and placing them on suitable culture medium which
will induce regeneration from the haploid tissue of microspore or pollen.

8. Protoplast culture

 These are cells from which the cell wall has been removed, but they possess
membrane and all other cellular components.
 The technique creates new plant cultivars through fusion of protoplasts from
unrelated species.
 This process is also referred to as somatic hybridisation or protoplast fusion.
 Protoplasts are isolated by two techniques: mechanical and enzymatic.
Mechanical method: A small piece of epidermis from a plant is selected. They are
subjected to plasmolysis, causing the protoplasts to shrink away from the cell
wall.
Enzymatic method: Protoplasts can be isolated from leaves, roots, shoot apices,
fruits and microspores. Enzymes that digest the cell wall are required.

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b) GENE TRANSFER.

 Vectors containing the genes we want must be incorporated into living cells so
that they can be replicated or expressed.
 The cells receiving the vector are called host cells, and once they have
successfully incorporated the vector they are said to be transformed.
 Vectors are large molecules which do not readily cross cell membranes, so the
membranes must be made permeable in some way.
 There are different ways of doing this depending on the type of host cell. An
example is plant tumours.

Plant Tumours.

This method has been used successfully to transform plant cells, which are perhaps the hardest to
do. The gene is first inserted into the Ti plasmid of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium
tumefaciens, and then plants are infected with the bacterium. The bacterium inserts the Ti
plasmid into the plant cells' chromosomal DNA and causes a "crown gall" tumour. These tumour
cells can be cultured in the laboratory and whole new plants grown from them by micro-
propagation. Every cell of these plants contains the foreign gene.

Benefits of genetic engineering in crop improvement

• Growth rate is improved.

• Modifying plants to introduce disease or insect resistance.
• Improving nutritional quality and yield in crops.
• Producing herbicide and drought tolerant crop.

Disadvantages of genetically modified crops

• Loss of genetic pool.

• Contamination of local varieties.
• Need to buy seed every season.
• Loss of desirable recombinants after independent assortment.
• Destabilization of ecological balance.
• Narrows genetic base and is expensive.

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TOPIC 4:
PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

WEED, INSECT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Describe safe handling of agro-chemicals.
2. Outline safe storage procedures for agro-chemicals.
3. Outline safe disposal of agro- chemicals.
4. Outline the importance of weed management.
5. Determine effective timing of weeding.
6. Describe the methods of weed management.
7. Evaluate weed management methods.
8. Explain the importance of pest management.
9. Explain economic threshold and economic injury levels of pests.
10. Describe methods of pest management.
11. Compare and contrast pest management methods.
12. Explain importance of disease management.
13. Outline the different methods of disease management.
14. Compare different methods of disease management.
15. Calibrate a knapsack sprayer.

 SAFE HANDLING OF AGRO-CHEMICALS

1. Precautions to be followed when using pesticides
• Avoid contact with the skin.
• Wear protective clothing such as respirator, rubber gloves, rubber boots, goggles and
overall.
• Read instructions for correct dilution and mixing.
• Do not drink, eat or smoke.
• Use on correct crop or situation.
• Spray down wind.
• Avoid spraying on very windy conditions.

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2. Precautions to be followed when storing pesticides

• Store in original container to retain the label, and reduce risk of wrong use.
• Keep container tightly closed to prevent spillage.
• Store in secure places, out of reach by children.
• Keep apart from food and foodstuffs.

3. Avoidance of pollution during use and disposal

• Avoid spraying on very windy conditions.
• Destroy empty containers. Do not use for any other purpose.
• Do not contaminate ponds and waterways.
• Avid working in spray mist.
• Empty container completely, and dispose of safely.

Toxicity levels of agro-chemicals

Coloured triangles are used to show the degree of toxicity of a chemical.

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 WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed Management refers to how weeds are manipulated so that do not interfere with the
growth, development and economic yield of crops and animals. It encompasses all aspects of
weed control, prevention and modification in the crop habitat that interfere with weed ability
to adapt to its environment.

 Weed persistence:

Weed persistence is a measure of the adaptive potential of weeds that enables them to
survive in disturbed environment such as:
(i) Crop land
(ii) Recreational site
(iii)Irrigation canal and
(iv) Pastures.

a) The adaptive features or survival mechanisms of annual weeds include:

i. Production of large quantities of seeds
ii. Seed dormancy and
iii. Periodicity of seed germination and short life span.

b) The adaptive features of perennial weeds include:

i. Deep rooting
ii. Dormancy
iii. characteristics of buds on rhizome
iv. Other modified stems and
v. Fragmentation of parts.

Types of perennating and reproductive vegetative structures in perennial weeds:

1. Rhizome – underground, horizontal stem (e.g. Quack grass, swamp smartweed).

2. Stolon/runners – above ground, horizontal stem (e.g. Bermuda grass).
3. Tuber – swollen stem tissue (e.g. Yellow nutsedge).
4. Bulb – stem with shortened internodes and fleshy modified leaves (e.g. Wild garlic).
5. Bulbils - a small bulb-like structure, in the leaf axil which may fall to form a new plant.
6. Corm – underground swollen stem, divided into nodes inter nodes.
7. Suckers – shoots which grow from a bud at the base of a tree or shrub or from
adventitious buds in the roots

• Storage organs may act as 'perennating organs’.

• These are used by plants to survive adverse periods in the plant's life-cycle (e.g.
caused by cold, excessive heat, lack of light or drought).
• During these periods, parts of the plant die and then when conditions become
favourable again, re-growth occurs from buds in the perennating organs.
• For example, geophytes growing in woodland under deciduous trees (e.g. Bluebells,
trilliums) die back to underground storage organs during summer when tree leaf cover
restricts light and water is less available.

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Factors affecting weed persistence

Weed persistence can be affected by:

• Climate e.g. light, temperature, water, and wind,

• Soil (edaphic),
• Biotic factors e.g. plants and animals.

a) Weed control:

Weed control refers to those actions that seek to restrict the spread of weeds and destroy or
reduce their population in a given location. The effectiveness of weed control is affected by:
 Type of crop grown
 Timing of weeding operation
 Nature of the weed problem
 Methods of weed control available to the farmer
 Type of weeds to be controlled
 Cost of the operation
 Available labour or cash resources
 Environmental condition before during and after the time of operation.

b) Weed prevention:

Weed prevention refers to the exclusion of a particular weed problem from the system
that has not experienced that weed problem. It involves those measures necessary to
prevent the introduction of new weed species into a given geographical area as well as the
multiplication and spread of existing weed species. It includes the following:

 Fallowing.
 Preventing weeds from setting seeds.
 Use of clean crop seed for planting.
 Use of clean machinery.
 Controlling the movement of livestock.
 Quarantine laws services.

c) Weed eradication:

 This involves complete removal of all weeds and their propagules from a habitat.
 Eradication is difficult to achieve in crop production and uneconomical. However in
situations where weed problem becomes so overwhelming, eradiation may be
desirable in long term goal. E.g. Striga asiatica, S. hermonthica. Eradication may be
considered if:

i. other weed control method s are ineffective,

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ii. Weeds have many buried seeds that cannot be controlled by convectional
practice.
iii. The infested field is small.
iv. Benefits from eradication outweigh those of the alternate methods for coping
with weeds.

WEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES

1. Cultural method
Cultural weed management is defined as any practice or effort adopted by the farmer in
crop production which minimizes weed interference problem .Cultural weed methods
include:
 Hand weeding.
 Mulching smother weeds by excluding light from them.
 Crop Rotation.
 Tillage.
 Burning crop residues destroy weed seeds in the process.
 Flooding.
 Sowing/planting time and crop spatial management.
 Crop genotype choice.
 Cover crop (used as Living mulches).
 Intercropping maize with cowpeas reduces Striga aciatica.
 Fertilization.

2. Mechanical method
Animal or tractor drawn machinery, including hand hoe is used to control weeds. The
implements are used after the crop has emerged.

3. Chemical method
Chemicals that are used for killing weeds or suppress the plant growth are called
herbicides. The practice of killing the undesirable vegetation (that is weeds) with
herbicide is called chemical weed control.

Basis of herbicide classification

Herbicides are classified based on the following:

1. Time of application (When applied).There are three groups:

 Pre-plant incorporated herbicides: These are applied before planting.

 Pre-emergence herbicides: They are herbicides applied before emergence of both the
weed and the crop.

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 Post emergence herbicides: They are applied either when both the crop and the weed
has emerged.

2. Points of application (Where applied).

Point of application is either the foliage or the soil. Herbicides applied on foliage enter the
plant through the foliage, e.g. Glyphosate.

3. Systemic and contact herbicides

Contact herbicides destroy only the plant tissue they come in contact with. These are
usually fast acting. Examples of contact herbicides are paraquat, diquat and buctril.

Systemic herbicides are translocated throughout the plant either from leaves or stem to the
roots or from the roots to the leaves. Systemic herbicides are usually slow acting but can
control perennial weeds better than contact herbicides.
 Examples of systemic herbicides are roundup or glyphosate.

4. Type of plants killed (Selectivity).

Herbicides can be divided into two groups depending on their selectivity.

 Selective herbicides, kill specific targets they come in contact with, while leaving the
desired crop relatively unharmed.
 Non-selective herbicides, kill any plants they come in contact with. They may be
translocated.

5. Chemical structure (Chemistry).

Herbicides may be classified as (i) organic and (ii) inorganic herbicides, e.g. Diphenal
ethers and sodium borate, respectively.

6. Physiological action.

The physiological actions affected by herbicides include:

 Photosynthetic inhibitors, e.g. atrazine.

-inhibit biosynthesis pathways;

-block xylem vessels;
-degradation of cells;
-closing stomata;
-disturb the electron transport system;
-interfere on light reactions;
-interfere with structure and integrity of chloroplasts;
-interfere with reproductive development;

 Seedling shoot inhibitors.

 Seedling root inhibitors.
 Nitrogen metabolism inhibitors, e.g. atrazine.
 Respiration inhibitors.

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 Pigment inhibitors.
 Mitotic poisons.
 Growth regulators.

Herbicide formulation and Surfactants

 Formulation is combining the pure chemicals (the active ingredient) of a herbicide

with appropriate solvents, diluents of surfactants. This is done to improve handling,
storage, application, efficacy and safety.
 In order to produce a good commercial herbicide, the formulation, good chemical
additives such as emulsifiers, wetting agents and inert materials to make a new
herbicide formulation should be maintained.
 Surfactants are chemicals that enhance emulsifying, dispersing, wetting, spreading,
and penetrating properties.

Reasons why herbicides are formulated:

 To reduce the concentration of the active ingredient through dilution in appropriate
solvent.
 To make the pure chemical available in a form that will permit uniform distribution of
target.
 To reduce the level of contamination and hazard during handling and application.
 To improve the efficacy of the herbicide through slow release of the active ingredient.
 Better protection from degradation.
 Greater uptake by the weed.
 To reduce cost of weed control with that particular herbicide. For example, the choice
of wettable powder over emulsifable concentrate and vice-versa may be, based to a
large extent on which of the formulation is easy to produce and market.

Types of herbicide formulation

 Water soluble (WSC, SL)
 Oil soluble (OS)
 Emulsifiable concentrate (EC)
 Wettable powder (W or WP)
 Flowable formulation (FW, F)
 Granular Formulations (G)
 Water Dispersible Granules (EDG, SG, DG)
 Herbicide-coated pellets (P) or granules (G)
 Water Soluble Pellets (SP)

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Advantages of using herbicides

 Can suppress weed germination.

 Can be used without loss of efficacy under wet conditions.
 More effective than other methods of weed control when properly used.
 Faster than manual and cultural weed control.
 Less labour is needed.
 Less likely to be adversely affected by erratic weather condition.
 Weed free, and improved yields are obtained.
 Pre-emergence application of herbicides protects crops from the adverse effects of
early weed competition.
 More effective against perennial weeds.

Disadvantages
 Herbicides may be ineffective due to soil conditions.
 Weeds become resistant due to prolonged and constant use of a given herbicide.
 Crop injury as a result of poor sprayer calibration or wrong dosage calculation, faulty
equipment or failure to follow label directions
 There could be side effect on the applicator.
 Required knowledge about the herbicide is needed.
 Adsorption by soil colloids.
 Has residual effect on subsequent crops.
 Expensive for poor resource farmer.
 Environmental hazard.
 Can be lost through volatilization.
 Proper calibration is needed.
 Can damage crops if over used.

4. Biological method
Biological weed management refers to the use of biological agent – pest, predators,
pathogen and parasites to control weeds.

It involves the control or suppression of weeds through the action of one or more
organisms by natural means, or by manipulation of the weeds, organism or environment.
It involves:

 Control of weeds with vertebrates and invertebrates (Macrobial weed control).

 Use of micro-organisms such as plant pathogen (microbial weed control).
 Live mulch: Live mulch is the crop production system in which a food crop in
planted directly in the living cover of an established cover without destruction of
the fallow (cover crop vegetation).
 Perennial legumes such as Psophocarpus palustris, have been evaluated and
found suitable as live mulch.

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Reasons why biological methods of weed control are not widely used by farmers

-predators may not be available.

-needs time to study the pest natural enemy relationships.
-new predator-crop relationships.
-natural enemy takes time to establish.
-natural enemy may not establish/adapt to new climate.
-take time to multiply to effective levels of populations.
- It is a slow method.
-ineffective method.
-plant natural enemies may compete for nutrients.
-lack of knowledge.

5. Integrated Weed Management (IWM)

 Integrated weed management (IWM) refers to the system of combining two or more
weed management systems at low input level to keep weed interference in a given
cropping system below economic threshold level.
 It combines two or more weed management systems at low inputs to obtain a level of
weed suppression superior to that ordinarily obtained when one weed management
system is used.
 IWM may involve combinations of cultural plus chemical, cultural plus biological,
cultural plus preventive, biological plus chemical or combinations of three or more of
these systems.

Factors that make IWM desirable

 Inability of any one method of weed control to completely solve the weed problem.
 Tendency of weeds to adapt to a given cropping system and thus escape control.
 Ability of weeds to develop resistance to a frequently used herbicide.
 Tendency of certain cropping systems to favour the dominance of specific weeds.
 Seasonal fluctuation in labour availability.
 Reduction in environmental degradation/hazards.

Types of Integrated Weed Management Practices

There are three main types of agronomic practices that you can use to develop your
integrated weed management program:

• Practices that limit the introduction and spread of weeds (prevent weed problems
before they start).
• Practices that help the crop compete with weeds (help "choke out" weeds).
• Practices that keep weeds "off balance" (make it difficult for weeds to adapt).

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 PEST MANAGEMENT

Economic injury levels (EIL) and Economic threshold (ET) of pests

i. Economic injury level is the smallest number of insects (amount of injury) that
will cause yield losses equal to the insect management costs.
ii. Economic threshold refers to the pest density at which management action should
be taken to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic
injury level.
• To estimate the EILs and ETs, it is necessary to calculate the control cost and the
proportional reduction in injury with management, which are both dependent on
the insecticide effective dose to control the insect.
• EILs are usually expressed as a pest density and are developed from yield loss
relationships derived from the field research studies.
• The ET is the practical rule used to determine when to take management action.
Economic injury levels (EILs), can be calculated as follows:
EIL = C/ (V x D x K) where,
C = cost to treat a hectare,
V = value of the yield,
D = yield reduction caused by number of pests per hectare,
K = efficacy (effectiveness) of your control method.

Methods of pest management

a) Physical

These are methods of getting rid of insects and small rodents by attacking, removing
or setting up a barrier that will prevent further destruction of plants. Examples are:-
 Catching them by hand and squash under feet.
 Setting barriers that will prevent damage of plants and stored grain, such as rat
baffles.
 Traps, such as fly paper or sticky boards are devices used in order to capture
insect as they land upon the surface of the trap.
 Fire is commonly used to destroy insect breeding ground.

b) Cultural methods
These are practices that break life cycles of pests when cultivating crops, for example,
 Crop rotation breaks pest life cycle and reduces their population,
 Weeding destroys pest habitat.
 Early planting allows pest to emerge when crop has fully established.

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 Field hygiene such as burning or destruction of crop residues.

 Growing resistant varieties.
 Use of legislation that prevents introduction of new pests into the country.
 Hand collection and squashing under foot.
 Use of clean planting materials, such as seed, cuttings, buds and root stocks that
are free from pests.

c) Chemical method
It involves use of poisons that are harmful to a particular pest. They ca be applied by
dusting, spraying or fumigation of a crop.

The mode of action of the main groups of pesticides

Stomach poisons
 They kill when eaten by the target organism.

Contact poisons
 They are absorbed through the skin or cuticle of the pest.
 Pest are killed when they are sprayed directly or get in contact with the sprayed
foliage.

Systemic pesticides
 These are absorbed into the plant and travel in sap or juice to other parts.
 They kill sucking pests when ingested, e.g. Dimethoate 40% E.C.

Fumigants
 They act in gaseous form and interfere with respiration.
 They destroy the pest by suffocation, e.g. Ethyl bromide.

d) Biological method
It involves the use of beneficial organisms, such as insects or vectors that feed on
pest. For example,
i. Use of predators, e.g. Ladybird beetle.
ii. Introduction of fungi or virus that feed on pest.

e) Integrated Pest Management methods (IPM)

• It involves use of a combination of all control methods

• It emphasizes on use of natural and low toxic methods, but minimises the use of
chemicals.

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Benefits of integrated pest management

 Reduces the environmental risks associated with pest management by encouraging the
adoption of more environmentally benign control tactics.
 Reduces the potential for air and ground water contamination.
 Protects the non-target species through reduced impact of pest management activities.
 Promotes sustainable bio based pest management alternatives.
 Promotes sound structures and healthy plants.
 Reduces the need for pesticides by using several pest management methods.
 Reduces or eliminates issues related to pesticide residue.
 Reduces or eliminates re-entry interval restrictions.
 Decrease workers and public exposure to pesticides.
 Maintains or increases the cost effectiveness of pest management programmes.
 Alleviates concern of the public about pest and pesticide related practices.

 DISEASE MANAGEMENT

1. Importance of disease management

 Reduces or excludes the initial inoculum.

 Reduces crop losses. And hence yield increases
 Improves quality of produce.

2. Methods of disease management

a) Eradication of the pathogen

The methods depend on cultural, chemical and biological methods. Some depend
on physical factors such as heat and cold. For example:
o Crop rotation ca achieve complete control of soil invaders.
o Biological control of plant pathogens results in reduction of the amount of
pathogens, for example when the soil contains microorganisms
antagonistic to the pathogens.
o Removal or destruction of susceptible plants or diseased plants eliminates
source of inoculant.

b) Exclusion of the pathogen

This involves the following procedures:

o Inspection and certification of plants.
o Exclusion or restriction by plant quarantine.
o Removal of alternate hosts.
o Elimination of insect vectors.
o Treatment seeds or planting materials.

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c) Avoidance of the pathogen

Helps to avoid the interaction that is suitable for an epidemic. It can be achieved
by
o Choice of planting site.
o Use of disease-free planting stock.
o Choice of geographical area.
o Choice of planting date.
o Proper spacing.

d) Development of resistant hosts

Plants are selected and bred for either vertical resistance or horizontal resistance
or resistance through nutrition.
 Vertical resistance eliminates or limits initial inoculum.
 Horizontal resistance limits the rate of multiplication of the pathogen.
 Resistance through nutrition deprives the pathogen of the essential substances
for survival and development.

e) Protection of the plant

This involves the following practices:

i. Application of pesticides to eliminate disease-causing organisms.

ii. Modification of the nutrition status of the plant.
iii. Spraying chemicals to kill insect vectors of pathogen.
iv. Good field drainage.
v. Modification of the environment, especially temperature and moisture. High
temperatures and low soil moisture may reduce prevalent of fungal infection
in wheat.

3. General Methods of Pest Control

a) Cultural
Refers to those growing methods that reduce pathogen levels or reduce the rate of
diseases development. These include:
 Crop rotation. It helps keep populations of pathogens from building up to
damaging numbers.
 Sanitation. This involves ploughing under, removing and properly disposing of
infected leaves, washing hands and burning of crop residues.
 Host eradication: It refers to the removal of undesirable plants that might
serve as a host reservoir for diseases that attack cultivated crops.
 Use of optimum plant populations.
 Applying adequate fertilisers and use of vigorous growing crops.
 Practising intercropping and early planting.

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b) Chemical
Pesticide application method works by eliminating disease-causing organisms.

c) Biological
Crop rotation may be an effective means to prevent a parasitic population from
becoming well-established, as an organism affecting leaves would be starved when the
leafy crop is replaced by a tuberous type.

d) Quarantine
A diseased patch of vegetation or individual plants can be isolated from other, healthy
growth.

e) Legislative
Avoid the introduction of harmful non-native organisms by controlling all human
traffic and activity.

f) Integrated Disease Management (IPM)

This involves use of two or more of these methods in combination offers a higher
chance of effectiveness.

Disadvantages of biological methods of disease management.

• Need careful study before implementation.
• It is slow to work/ineffective.
• Predator may fail to establish.
• Predator may be difficult to get.
• Lack of knowledge.

EQUIPMENT FOR CROP PROTECTION

Field Sprayers
Field spraying can be done by hand or power-operated knapsack, or tractor mounted
equipment or by airplane or helicopter. The type of equipment to be used depend on:
 The pressure to be used;
 The type of chemical or delivery method.

Definition of terms:

o Swath width: - the width of the deposited spray cloud.

o Application rate: - the volume of the spray liquid distributed over a unit area (l/ha).
o Dosage rate: - the mass or volume of product of given percentage of active ingredient
content to be distributed over a unit area (kg/ha).

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Sprayer components

Knapsack sprayer

1. Tank: Carries and stores the chemical.

2. Agitator: Flat plate for mixing the chemical mechanically.
3. Strainers: Trap dirt which can clog the system.
4. Pump: Imparts correct pressure to the liquid carrier, and delivers the liquid, through the
nozzle, at the required rate. Examples are centrifugal, roller, diaphragm, gear and piston
pumps.
5. Pump handle/lever: Moves piston or plunger up and down, and pressure builds up.
6. Nozzles: Restricting device that breaks the sprayed liquid into fine droplets. This is called
atomisation. Nozzles are of various types:

• Even flat fan nozzle.

• Hollow cone or disc and cone nozzle.
• Flooding flat fan nozzle.
• Solid cone nozzle.
• Offset nozzle.

The nozzle flow rate is calculated as given below:

Where:

• Qn = nozzle flow rate, l/min.

• A = application rate, l/ha.
• S = travel speed, km/hr.
• W = nozzle spacing, cm.

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Sprayer calibration
Calibration is simply adjusting the sprayer to apply the proper volume of chemical on a given
area. Factors affecting calibration are:
1. Nozzle flow rate,
2. Ground speed of the sprayer, and
3. Width sprayed per nozzle.
The amount of material flowing through a nozzle varies with, the orifice size, the viscosity of
the fluid, and the pressure of the fluid. Flow rate is proportional to the square root of the
pressure. Increase in ground speed decreases the application rate.

How to Calibrate a Knapsack Sprayer

 Determine flow rate or nozzle discharge rate.
 Carryout a trial run to determine ground speed.
 Maintain pump pressure.
 Take note of swath covered.
 Use water for calibration.
 Use a timer.

Example:

- Record time taken to spray 100m using water.

- Record amount of water sprayed into jug in 1 minute.
- Measure spray width with nozzle held at comfortable height.

Routine maintenance of sprayers

1. Rinse nozzle with clean water.
2. Drain and wash the tank twice with clean water and detergent, when changing from
one chemical to another.
3. Lubricate moving parts. This should be carried out with care as over-greasing may
contaminate the spray liquid and block the filters.
4. Concentrated chemicals should not be put into an empty tank, but the tank must be half-filled
with water first, and then the chemical added to it.
5. Remove and store nozzles separately, when not in use.

Sprayer Calibration: Measure the volume of the spray applied over a known
area of the field to be sprayed and calculate the application rate. (See diagram
below).

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Activity
 You are supplied with a CP3 knapsack sprayer fitted with an LE 80 degree nozzle for band
spraying.
 The sprayer is operated at a pressure of 15psi which pushes out 950ml/minute of spray
liquid. The chosen nozzle height gives a swath 0.5m wide. The normal walking speed is 1m/s.
i. After spraying for 20 minutes, what area would be covered?
ii. What volume of spray liquid do you need to cover 1ha?

Solution
 The swath is 0.5m wide, after 1 second the area covered would be(0.5 x 1)m²; 20
minutes is (20 x 60 seconds) = 1 200 seconds. So after 1 200 seconds, the area
sprayed would be (1 200 x 0.5) m² =600 m².
 To spray 1ha of land it would take [10 000 m² x 1 200s]/600 m² = 20 000.
 The application rate is given as 950ml/minute. The amount (volume) of spray liquid
would be:
[950ml x 20 000s]/60s
=316 667ml.

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TOPIC 5:
CROP PRODUCTION

CEREAL AND LEGUME CROP PRODUCTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to:
1. Describe harvesting indices and methods of a named cereal and legume crops.
2. Describe post-harvest technology of a named legume and cereal crops.
3. Discuss the marketing a named legume and cereal crops.
4. Discuss the significance of record- keeping in the production of a named cereal and legume crop.
5. Keep records of a named cereal and legume crop.

Crop management
Harvesting indices

Harvest index (HI) is defined as the mass of grain divided by the total mass of above ground
biomass (stover plus grain or total biological yield).

Harvest index = mass of grain / (kg stover + kg grain)

For example, 175 bags (175 bags x 50 kg/bag = 8,750 kg) corn yield and a 4.5 ton
(4.5 ton x 2,000 kg/ton = 9,000 kg) stover yield would result in a harvest index of:

Harvest index = 8,750 kg of grain / (9,000 kg stover + 8,750 kg grains) = 0.49

Crop Harvested component Harvest index

Maize Grain 0.40-0.55
Sorghum Grain 0.40-0.55
Groundnut Pods 0.50
Soyabean Pods 0.25-0.35
Source: Evans 1993

 Increasing HI has accounted, for the grain yield improvement in cereals, with little or no
change in biological yield.
 Harvest index is influenced by environment, generally being higher under favourable
growing conditions.
 During excessively wet or dry years when grain yields are reduced, the harvest index is
usually lower (higher stover yield than grain yield).
 Plant breeders have selected for high HI as their part of crop improvement strategies.
 Low crop harvest index is the major cause of less crop yield.

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 Characteristics like vigour, viability, physical and genetic purity, and high seed
germination percentage are important to optimize crop harvest index.
 Use of appropriate fertiliser resource in balanced amount in accordance with crop type
and soil fertility level would help improve harvest index.

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Cereal crop: Maize (Zea mays)

Harvesting methods
Signs of crop maturity

 Leaves turn yellow.

 Husks dry out and are papery.
 Grain is hard to bite and has glossy surface.
 Grains dry out to 12.5% moisture content.

Time and method of harvesting

 Done in the dry winter.
 200-220 days after planting.
 Maize can be harvested either by hand or machine.

 Hand harvesting

 Cut the maize stalks with machetes or hoes and stack in the field for the cobs to dry.
 Pluck maize cobs from the stalks and remove them from the husks.
 Put cobs in bags or stationary cart to contain the cobs for later storage.
 Transport for storage.

 Machine harvesting
 A combine harvester is used.
 The combine harvester performs the gathering, snapping and removal of the trash.
 The rotating reel pushes or gathers the uncut stalks against the cutter-bar.
 Snapping is the breaking of the maize ears from the stalks.
 The crop is conveyed and fed into the machine.
 The material is moved into the cylinder and concave for threshing. Thus the
grain is removed from the ears.
 Straw walkers separate the grain. Unshelled grain fall through the straw walker
opening and returned for re-threshing.
 The cleaning shoe (chaffer sieve and blowing fan) separate the kernels from
impurities.

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Harvesting losses
1. Pre-harvest losses: Occurs before the crop is harvested due to over drying, weather, pests,
and diseases.
2. Header losses: Losses are caused by the reel operation, e.g. lodging.
3. Threshing losses: Losses result from incomplete removal the seed from the seed head
(under-threshing).
4. Separating losses: These are losses of threshed grain over straw walker.
5. Cleaning shoe losses: These are the losses of grain passing over the shoe.

Expected yield
 Depends on cultivar and rainfall distribution. It ranges from 0-12t/ha.

Post-harvest technology:
Drying maize
 Drying is the systematic reduction of crop moisture down to safe levels for storage,
usually 12%-15.5% moisture content.
 May be left to dry in the field for 4-7 weeks, either in stacks or heaps.
 Late harvesting can shorten drying duration.
 Wet grains and attract insects and mould.
 Drying the maize on the ground will make it absorb moisture and pick up dirt and insects.
 Shelled maize can be dried in layers on bare ground, mats or plastic sheets.
 Cob may be suspended from poles on free branches.
 Artificial driers and ventilated structures such as cribs, are modern methods.
 Proper drying results in increased storage life of the grains, prevention of deterioration in
quality, reduction of biological respiration that leads to quality loss of grains, and
optimum milling recovery.

Shelling and winnowing

 Shelling is the process of separating the seeds or grains from the cobs.
 To maintain the high quality of the harvested grains, it should be shelled immediately after

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harvesting.
 Maize shelling is difficult at moisture levels above 25%. This may lead to mechanical
damage to the grain.
 Shelling is commonly done by beating maize cobs with stick in a sack or a confined floor
space or by use of powered sheller. Beating maize will result in physical damage which
makes it more vulnerable to pests and moulds
 Cleaners or winnowers separate kernels from impurities.

Milling
 Milling is the process wherein the maize grain is transformed into a form suitable for
human consumption.

Dehulling
Dehulling is the process of removing the pericarp or seed coat from the kernels. The methods
include:
 Hand pounding and
 Use of mechanised dehullers.

Storage

 Store in bags, silos or granaries.

 Rooms must be moisture proof, dry and cool, tidy and clean.
 Store at 12-13% moisture content.
 Apply insecticides such as Malathion 1% dust.
 Protect from vermin by putting rat baffles on granary pillars.

Features of a good storage structure:

 Provide protection from common storage loss agents such as insect pests, rodents, moulds, birds and
man.
 The floor must be above ground level/on raised legs, prevents entry of vermin/e.g./damp.
 Baffles on legs, prevents rats/vermin entering/climbing legs
 Maintain an even, cool and dry storage environment.
 The maize should be placed on pellets above the floor to avoid cold conditions that may lead to
moulds.
 Should not allow re-wetting of grain by either moisture migration or rain.
 Offer reasonable protection from thieves. Locked door, protects from thieves.
 Be simple and inexpensive to construct using, where possible, locally available materials and skills.
 Be easy to clean and repair

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rat

Losses due to poor storage

a) Mould
Microbial infection in storage occurs due to inadequate drying of produce.
Fungal infection results into rots and development of aflatoxins, which are poisonous
compounds to live stock and cause cancer in human.

Losses due to mould

• Loss of weight
• Loss of quality (smell, taste, colour, nutritional value, germination)

b) Spillage
Careless handling of either maize cobs or grains can lead to spillage.
This leads to loss in terms of quantity.
Spillage can also lead to loss of quality in case contaminated grains or cobs are again mixed
with the clean stuff.

Preparation for market

 Shelling to remove the kernels or grain or pips.

 Winnowing to remove chaff, weed seeds and small grains.
 Grading according to quality or size. The term “quality” as applied to food material refers
to those attributes of the food which make it agreeable to those who consume it. Attributes
of quality involve colour, flavour, texture, nutritional value and the absence of harmful
substances.
 Weighing and packing in 50kg bags.
 Marketing through Grain Marketing Board or other merchants.

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Importance of record keeping

 Keeping track of money owed to the business.
 Help farmers to detect mistakes.
 Help farmers to assess whether making profit or loss.
 Help to improve farm income.
 A basis of obtaining loans.
 Help in timing of farm operations.
 Help in controlling and preventing risks.
 Assist farmers in making decisions.
 To help avoid unnecessary expenditure.
 Used in budgeting for future enterprises.
 Help farmer to remember his debts.
 Show history of agricultural production.

Types of records
The main types of records are:
 Physical or production records, and
 Financial records.

a) Physical records
These contain information on farm productivity. Examples are farm diary and farm
inventory.
Production record for a cereal crop
 Cultivar grown,
 Planting date.
 Spacing used.
 Harvesting date.
 Type of fertiliser used.
 Number of bags of fertiliser used.
 Yield obtained.

b) Financial records
These reflect the expenditure and income of a business.
Types of financial records
1. An income statement: It shows a projection of sales and receipts, against purchases
and expenses, to determine profit or loss.
2. A cash flow statement: to measure flow of funds.

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3. A balance sheet: It is a statement of all assets and liabilities of a business at a

specific, to determine net worth or net capital of a farm.
Net worth is the difference between assets and liabilities of a business.
When assets exceed or equal (≥) liabilities, the firm is solvent. It means the business
can pay its debts.
When liabilities exceed assets, then the business is insolvent or bankrupt. It means
the business is unable to pay its debts.

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Legume crop: Soya bean (Glycine max)

Harvesting methods
 Soybean matures within 3–4 months after planting;
 At maturity, the pod is straw- coloured.
 Harvest when 80% and 85% of the pods have turned brown for shattering and non-
shattering varieties, respectively.
 Crop can be harvested when the seeds are at the hard-dough stage, when the seed
moisture content is between 12 and 16%.
 Harvesting can be carried out by hand or mechanical means, using a combine harvester.
 Stack them loosely on tarpaulin and allow them to dry in the open for 2 weeks before
threshing.

Causes of losses in soyabean harvesting

 Hand method:
• Incorrect stage of harvesting.
• Immature kernels are lost.
• Some kernels rot or even germinate.
• Long-time of harvesting.
• Shattering losses high due to inappropriate method.
• Hoes cause high losses.
• Temporary storage in the field lead to high termite damage.

 Machine method:
• Incorrect adjustment of machine.
• Levelness of ground.
• Pod clearance and speed of harvesting.
• Blunt knife sections and cutter bar height.
• Shattering losses and lodging.
• Time of harvesting.
• Soil moisture.

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How to minimise combine harvester losses

• Ensure level field.
• Operate cutter bar close to ground level.
• Operate slowly, about 5km/hr.
• Adjust knife sections and guard-wear plates accordingly.
• Use reel speed of about 25% faster than ground speed.
• Reel axle should be 150-300mm ahead of cutter bar.
• Observe the correct time of operation.

Expected yield: -3300kg/ha of seed yield can be expected.

Post-harvest technology
Threshing

 Threshing manually or mechanically may be done when the plants are properly dry.
 Manual threshing involves piling soybean plants on tarpaulin or putting dry soybean pods
in sacks and beating them with a stick.
 Winnow to remove chaff, dust and other rubbish. Mechanical threshers are equipped with
blowers that separate the grains from the chaff.

Storage

• Store at a moisture content of 10% or less.

• Dry in open-air, to 13% moisture for storage of 6–12 months and to 10–11% for longer
storage.
• Open-air drying is the most practical way to protect soybean in storage.
• Stack the 50-kg or 100-kg grain bags on a raised platform or wooden pallet away from the
wall.
• High moisture content in stored soybean encourages the development of insects and
microorganisms.
• Exposure to high temperatures, will increase deterioration and reduce seed viability.
• Control storage pests, for example, by coating grain with Actellic Super.

Marketing
 Marketed at 11% moisture content.
 Pack in 50kg bags and market through GMB who grade the seed according to quality.

Causes of losses in soyabean postharvest handling

• Poor storage structures.
• Poor storage practices (drying, insect control).
• Resistance to grain protectants by some pests such as Larger Grain Borer (LGB).
• High moisture content at storage.
• Poor shelling practices and poor drying structure.

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Factors that lead to downgrading of kernels:

 Damaged kernels and broken shells.
 Diseased or moulded kernels.
 Dirty or shrivelled kernels, including foreign objects.
 Discoloured kernels and pest damage.
 High moisture content.
 Mixed varieties.

Records- keeping
 Cultivar grown,
 Planting date.
 Spacing used.
 Harvesting date and yield.
 Type of fertiliser used.
 Number of bags of fertiliser used.
***************************************************************************

REFERENCE
HUSSEIN J. (1999) Applied Soil Science SLD 101, Modules 2, Harare, ZOU.
KAUL R.N. & EGBO C.O. (1985) Introduction to Agricultural Mechanisation, London, MacMillan
MASHINGAIDZE A.B. (1999) Plant Physiology and Genetics: Module 2 CRD101, Harare, UZ.
MASIMBE S. (2000) Horticulture (Part 1): CCR 202, Harare, ZOU.
MASWAURE J. (2001) Agricultural Mechanisation SLD 401, Harare, Z.O.U.
NGUGI D.N. et-al (1978) East African Agriculture. Hong Kong, MacMillan
NYAKANDA C. (1999) Crop Production Management CRD 201 Module 1, Harare, Z.O.U.

Hybridization Method of Crop Improvement- Biology Discussion

www.biologydicussion.com/.../17701
BIOLOGY 9700/41 Paper 4 A2 Structured Questions October/November 2012, UCLES 2012

EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY TRAINERS GUIDE Maize Grains Quality Specifications

EAS 2:2013 June 2014

**********************************************************************************

Typical Examination Questions

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PAPER 1 1 hour

1. Classification is the grouping together of organisms that are similar. Which of the
following classes describes the time a plant species takes from seed formation to
reproduction of another seed?

A. Climate.
B. Habitat.
C. Plant form.
D. Seasonality.

2. Which of the following statements best describes angiosperms?

A. Flowering plants that have their seeds enclosed in a fruit.

B. Non- flowering plants that produce naked seeds.
C. Plants that do not contain water-conducting tissues or true roots, leaves, or stems.
D. Plants use roots and stems to take water and nutrients.

3. What are the characteristics of products derived from mechanical weathering of rocks?

A. Fine particles with altered chemical composition.

B. Fine particles with unaltered chemical composition.
C. Rounded particles with altered chemical composition.
D. Rough particles with unaltered chemical composition.

4. Which of the following organelles manufacture Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)?

A. Chloroplasts
B. Lysosomes
C. Mitochondria
D. Nucleus

5. During gametogenesis in plants, two nuclei are produced in each microspore. These are:

A. Egg nucleus and tube nucleus.

B. Egg nucleus and polar nuclei.
C. Generative nucleus and polar nuclei.
D. Tube nucleus and generative nucleus.

6. Which statement best explains epigeal germination?

A. Acts as a source of stored food for the embryo after germination.

B. Cotyledons are brought above the ground during germination.
C. Cotyledons remain in the soil during germination.
D. The terminal part of the epicotyl is curved to protect the plumule.

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7. Which of the following is a correct sequence of events involved in seed germination?

A. Hydrolysis imbibition respiration growth

B. Imbibition respiration hydrolysis growth
C. Imbibition hydrolysis respiration growth
D. Respiration hydrolysis imbibition growth

8. Nitrogen (N) deficiency is shown by the symptom that old leaves turn yellow. Which of
the following statements explain this phenomenon?

A. N cannot be transported to sites of deficiency.

B. N is mobilised from old to actively growing leaves.
C. N passes into solution before utilisation by the plants.
D. N uptake from soils occurs slowly by diffusion.

9. Which of the following crop physiological disorders is associated with boron deficiency?

A. Brittle leaf and tip burn.

B. Brittle drop and rosetting.
C. Little leaf and fruit drop.
D. Tip burn and rosetting.

10. Increase in bulk density results in reduced infiltration in the field. What is the best
management option for farmers to correct this?

A. Addition of crop residues.

B. Continuous cropping.
C. Deep ploughing.
D. Intensive cultivation.

11. Why are bulk densities of sandy soils higher than those of fine textured soils?

A. Fine textured soils are organised in porous granules.

B. Fine textured soils have low organic matter.
C. Sandy soils have higher pore volume.
D. Sandy soils have no micro pores.

12. The bulk and particle densities of soil are 1300k/m³ and 2650kg/m³, respectively. What is
the porosity of the soil?

A. 35.0
B. 45.1
C. 49.0
D. 50.9

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13. Which factor stated below affects particle density?

A. Arrangement of soil particles.

B. Cropping sequence.
C. Organic matter content.
D. Parent material.

14. Choose the best characteristic of a soil with high micro pore volume.

A. High infiltration rate and a high water holding capacity.

B. High infiltration rate and a low water holding capacity.
C. Low infiltration rate and a high water holding capacity.
D. Low infiltration rate and a low water holding capacity.

15. Which of the following mechanisms contributes to the genetic variation?

A. DNA replication before nuclear division.

B. Duplication of chromosomes.
C. Independent assortment of chromosomes.
D. Separation of sister chromatids.

16. Unlike in primary growth, secondary growth in both roots and stem

A. Involves vascular and cork cambium.

B. Produces parenchyma cells only.
C. Produces xylem and phloem.
D. Results in rapid increase in root and stem length.

17. Mass flow is important for the movement of mobile nutrients such as sulphates and
nitrates into root cells. Select a factor which affects the rate of the process.

A. Root density.
B. Root depth.
C. Soil temperature around the roots.
D. Volume of soil in contact with roots.

18. Why does water potential decrease when water removed by plant roots from the soil is
not replaced?

A. Concentration of salts within the remaining water decreases.

B. There is a decrease in interaction between water and solute molecules.
C. Water becomes less tightly held to soil particles.
D. Water is more metrically bound to soil surface.

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19. Root growth process shoot growth in germinating seeds. Which of the following
describes sequence of roots?

A. Initiates cell division and enlargement.

B. Provides nutrients of respiration.
C. Take up water for early biochemical processes.
D. Transport hydrolysed molecules to the embryo.

20. The positive hydrostatic pressure created by the movement of water into roots in response
to the water potential gradient between the soil and the root cell contents is called:

A. Adhesion.
B. Bulk flow.
C. Guttation water.
D. Root pressure.

21. A genetic crossing that produces offspring which are better performers than either of the
parents is called,

A. Backcross.
B. Genetic engineering.
C. Heterosis.
D. Polyploidy.

22. Mendelian principles of inheritance failed to account for other aspects of genetic
inheritance. Which of the following aspects is not accounted for?
A. Dominance
B. Epistasis
C. Gametogenesis
D. Variation

23. Sexually producing plants experience alteration of generations. Through which biological
process is this achieved?

A. Fertilisation and meiosis.

B. Hybridization and mitosis.
C. Mitosis and fertilisation.
D. Meiosis and hybridization.

24. The contents of nucleus in living organisms communicate with its surroundings. Which of
the following features of the nucleus makes this possible?

A. Chromatin.
B. Nuclear pores.
C. Plasmodesmata.
D. Transfer RNA.

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25. The double-helix model of DNA resembles a twisted ladder in which the rungs of the
ladder are:

A. A paired with G and C paired with T.

B. A paired with T and G paired with C.
C. A sugar-phosphate paired with a sugar-phosphate.
D. Complimentary base pairs.

26. Identify correctly matched process-description pair from the following:

A. Anaphase- sister chromatids move to the poles.

B. Metaphase- each duplicate chromosome appears as two identical chromatids.
C. Prophase- chromosomes are aligned along the equatorial plate.
D. Telophase- centromeres move away from each other.

27. The ratio of bulk density to particle density (Db/Dp) is a measure of

A. Partial volume of soil solids.

B. Porosity.
C. Soil mass.
D. Total soil volume.

28. Which of the following diseases of crops is transmitted by a vector?

A. Bacterial wilt of tomatoes.

B. Maize streak virus.
C. Potato blight
D. Powdery mildew of beans

29. The major processes of the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle include nitrogen fixation.
Biological fixation refers to:

A. Bacterial and fungal catabolism of soil organic matter to ammonium.

B. Bacterial oxidation of ammonium to nitrite.
C. Industrial conversion of molecular nitrogen to ammonia.
D. Prokaryotic conversion of molecular nitrogen to ammonia.

30. Responses of plants to external environmental factors can take various forms, such as
tropisms and nastic movements. Which statement explains nastic movement?

A. A change in shape due to constant mechanical disturbances such as, wind.

B. Positive or negative growth responses of plants to external stimuli that usually come
from one direction.
C. Responses that occur independently of the direction of the stimuli.
D. The movement of the stem and coleoptile in response to light.

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31. Which of the following is an example of a secondary mineral?

A. Feldspar
B. Kaolinite
C. Mica
D. Quartz

32. The Munsell Colour Chart has three components that allows direct comparison of soils.
Which component indicates the lightness or darkness of colour?

A. Chroma
B. Colour chips
C. Hue
D. Value

33. Soil structure is important in

A. Controlling the amount of water and air present in soil.

B. Determining the level in which water can be available in the soil.
C. Indicating where waterlogging occurs for long periods.
D. Preventing formation of poisonous substances in soil.

34. Identify factors which a farmer should consider when selecting a suitable cultivar to
grow.
i. Length of growing season.
ii. Depth of planting.
iii. Suitability to the environment.

A. i and ii
B. ii and iii
C. i and iii
D. i, ii and iii

35. Under what conditions would a farmer use a sub-soiler or ripper?

A. When hard pans are present.

B. When soil has a good structure.
C. When soil is water-logged.
D. Under normal soil conditions.

36. If 1kg of manure has 20g of carbon and 4g of nitrogen, its C: N ratio is:
A. 1:4
B. 1:5
C. 1:20
D. 5:1

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37. What can be deduced from the carbon-nitrogen ratio in Question 36 above?

A. Nitrogen deficiency in plants growing in the soil is observed.

B. Sufficient nitrogen is supplied through the decomposition of the organic matter.
C. The soil microbial population need more nitrogen from the soil.
D. The mineral nitrogen is immobilised.

38. Which of the following crop pest has a complete metamorphosis?

A. Aphid
B. Locust
C. Root knot nematode
D. Stalkborer

39. The dough stage in the growth of maize is characterized by

A. Kernels filled with clear fluid.

B. Kernels filled with a white paste.
C. Silks visible outside the husks.
D. The black layer visible at the base of the grain.

40. All of the following are characteristics of good soyabean varieties, except

A. High pod clearance.

B. Resistance to disease.
C. Resistance to pod shattering.
D. Susceptible to lodging.

**************************** END OF PAPER *****************************

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PAPER 2 (Theory) Time: 2 ½hours

SECTION A (60 marks)

Answer all questions.

1. (a) Explain the importance of plant classification.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [4]
(b) Describe any two ways of classifying plants.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [4]

(c) Explain the function of vacuole in a plant cell.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [2]

2. (a) What do you understand by the following terms:

(i) imbibition,
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [1]
(ii) weed persistent?
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [1]

(b) State three components of water potential.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [3]

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(c) State the products of the following parts after fertilisation:

(i) ovary _________________________________________________________ [1]
(ii) ovule _________________________________________________________ [1]

(d) How does the endosperm development differ in dicots and monocots?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [3]

3. (a) State three sources of genetic variation.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [3]

(b) When red flowers (RR) are crossed with white flowers (rr), all F1 individuals (Rr) are
pink.
(i) What type of dominance relations is operative?
_____________________________________________________________ [1]

(ii) By means of a genetic diagram, determine the expected F2 phenotypic ratios

after selfing the F1 offspring.

[4]
(iii) State two types of chromosomal mutations.
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [2]

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4. (a) Describe any two roles played by each of the following organisms in soil:

(i) Bacteria,________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [2]

(ii) Earthworm._____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [2]

(b) Explain two ways in which organic matter content influences,

(i) Soil temperature,

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_-_____________________________________________________________ [2]

(ii) Bulk density.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ [2]

(c) Explain the role of Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio in organic matter decomposition.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [2]

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5. (a) Describe the symptoms, transmission and control of powdery mildew disease.
(i) symptoms,
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ [2]
(ii) transmission,
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ [2]
(iii) control,
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ [2]

(b) Discuss the classification of plants according to response to day length.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [4]

6. (a) Explain the importance of conservation farming.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [5]

(b) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of minimum tillage.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [5]

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SECTION B (40 marks)

Answer any two questions.

7. Describe groundnut or soya bean production under the following headings:

(i) Soil and climatic requirements, [10]
(ii) Method of planting, [4]
(iii)Fertiliser management, [6]

8. (a) List the growth stages of a maize or sorghum crop. Discuss the value of this
knowledge in maximising yields. [15]
(b) Outline the economic benefits of growing either groundnuts or soya beans. [10]

9. (a) Discuss factors one would consider when selecting a maize or sorghum variety to
grow. [10]
(b) Discuss water planting method when growing maize or sorghum. [10]

10. (a) Describe how agro-ecological zones influence crop production management practices
in Zimbabwe. [10]
(b) Discuss the influence of agro-ecological zones on farmers’ choice of plant
population, cultivar, and time of planting. [10]

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PAPER 3 2 hours
Answer all questions

1 (a) AS1 and AS2 are soils found on a farm. You are going to investigate their properties.

(i) With moistened fingers carefully rub sample AS1 between your fingers and
thumb.
Describe how the soil feels.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [2]

Repeat using sample AS2

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [2]

(ii) Suggest the soil property being investigated.

____________________________________________________________ [1]

(iii) Explain the significance of this soil property to crop production.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ [5]

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b) (i) Fill the measuring cylinder provided with AS1 to 50ml level.
Pour 50ml of water into measuring cylinder with AS1 and record your observations.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [3]
(ii) State the component of soil being investigated.
________________________________________________________________ [1]

(iii) Calculate the percentage of the component in a soil sample.

[2]

(iv) Explain the role of the soil component in plant growth and microbial activity.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [4]

2. AS3 is a part of a flowering plant.

Carefully open AS3 and use a hand lens to look at its structure.

(a) (i) Draw and label the parts.

[5]

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(ii) Describe the pollination mechanism of this inflorescence.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [4]

(iii) Suggest the adaptations of the flower which aid the type of pollination.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ [4]

(b) (i) Explain the concept of double fertilization in plants.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [3]

(ii) Explain the significance of photoperiodism in flower initiation.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ [4]

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PAPER 1 MARKING SCHEME

CROP SCIENCE PAPER 1

1 D 21 C
2 A 22 B
3 D 23 A
4 C 24 D
5 D 25 B

6 B 26 A
7 C 27 B
8 B 28 B
9 A 29 D
10 A 30 C

11 D 31 B
12 D 32 D
13 D 33 A
14 C 34 C
15 C 35 A

16 A 36 D
17 D 37 B
18 C 38 D
19 C 39 B
20 D 40 D

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