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FLOOD AND WATER MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDIES IN

THAI HISTORY: WHAT LESSON THAT WE SHOULD LEARN?

Weeraphan Shinawatra1,*

Abstract

For many thousands of years that people who lived in the area called ‘Thailand’ had been
settled along the waterway and estuary. Water and flooding mean life and way of living to them
and be part of their culture through time. The paper consists of four main sections which are 1)
introduction of water culture in Thailand; 2) lesson learnt from three historic water-based cities
(Sukhothai, Wiang Kum Kam and Ayutthaya); 3) discussion on flooding circumstance; and 4) a
conclusion. This paper aims to present lesson learnt and good practice in how Thais live with water
and flood. This research was mainly collected by relevant studies either written or pictorial
documents from the authour and his research colleagues who are Supajanya and Sumet Jumsai, the
two well-known geologist and architect as well as cultural related to water experts. Water-based
contexts in this paper are presented since Thavaravadee era since it has reflected how water-based
people were. By learning how Thais lived with water in the past show constructive ways of living
by the water networks for various advantages (defensive strategic city, transportation, agriculture,
etc.). Further applications between indigenous knowledge with appropriate technology for living
with flood should be promoted in Thailand for coping with climate change as global challenges
and for achieving future sustainability.

Keywords: Flood, Water Management, Thai History

INTRODUCTION:
Thailand and Its Water Culture

For many thousands of years people who

lived in the area called ‘Thailand’ had been
settled along waterways and estuaries. Water
and flooding became a way of life to them and
became part of their culture over time. Tiva
Supajanya, a geologist, and Sumet Jumsai, an
architect, examined culture related to water
and agreed that the ancient settlements in the
central plain of the Chao Phraya River were
located in areas that comprised water courses
that provided convenient access to the sea and
suitable land for agriculture. Those man-made
canals linked some ancient settlements, Figure 1: Maps of Thailand Central Plain
allowing for trade and other contact. The area. Comparison between Dvaravadee
waterways were used as a means of transport. (Thavaravadee) period and present day
(Thiva Suppajanya, 2004).

1
Weeraphan Shinawatra. Ph.D., Society for the Conservation of National Treasure and Environment (SCONTE)
* Email: johnshinawatra@gmail.com
Received: 9/11/2020; Revised: 20/12/2020; Accepted: 23/12/2020
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This local knowledge had been applied The old aerial photographs show the trace
until Ayutthaya and early Rattanakosin of a waterway network surrounding 20-30
periods. The best example is Inburi, an ancient small water-based settlements. We can say that
water-based city, of the Thavaravadee age. It people who lived in this area since the
was found 40 years ago in Singha buri Thavaravadee era were also water-based
province based on aerial photographs people; as they learned how to live harmony
comparative analysis and field survey with water.
conducted by Tiva Suppajanya (Figure 1).
Adaptability to Live with Water in the Past

It has been said that one of the best

abilities of Thai people in their way of life is
their ability to develop and adapt their home
environments to the presence of water, such as
building their houses on stilts or having
floating homes built on rafts. The key issue is
“not against water” (Shinawatra, 2002: 243).
Traditional houses built on stilts or rafts can be
seen in Bang Li, Suphanburi or Tha Kanon in
Suratthani provinces in the old day. This form
of traditional architecture reflects the ability of
Thais to live with nature. It has developed over
a long time and it has become part of the local
culture. Today these ways of life are no longer
exist and these people are forced to adapt to an
urban way of life as may be seen in the case of
Suphanburi.

LESSON LEARNT:
Three Historic Cities of Sukhothai, Wiang
Kum Kam and Ayutthaya

Before becoming Thailand, there were

many stories about the rise of settlements and
kingdoms in the area. Most of those historic
settlements related to water and wisdom of
living with water and hydraulic management.
The stories of three heritage cities (Sukhothai,
Wiang Kum Kam and Ayutthaya) indicate the
wisdom of the past.

CASE 1: Sukhothai Heritage City

Sukhothai – The Sukhothai kingdom was

established at the decline of the Khom
(Khmere) Empire after Khun Pha Maung and
Khun Bang Klang Hao, the two Tai Chieftains,
Figure 2: Bang Li, Supanburi and Tha Kanon, had driven the Khom from Sukhothai in late 18
Suratthani. (Source: Sumet Jumsai. 1997. century B.E. Still, the local wisdom in
NAGA: Cultural Origins in Siam and the West settlement the city was existed. Sukhothai city
Pacific. p. 99,158) was located far from the Yom river basin on the
slope of a mountain where the Saleedpong
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water reservoir (earthen dam) was located. It This gravity means that it was possible to
was used to supply water to support the three divert water from either the Ping river to the
layers of the Sukhothai city moat and the entire southwest and the Yom river to the northeast
city agricultural irrigation system. The remains through pipes and canals with the Barai
of the water irrigation system reflect how Reservoir at the midway point to help increase
people managed water system in efficient water pressure to reach Sukhothai, located at
approach which was adapted from the Khom the centre, and drain into the Yom river by Mae
empire. The reason why they choose to settle Rumpan canal managed to the north Barai
Sukhothai far away from Yom river basin was where the Phra Pai Luang temple was built
to avoid annual flooding. It may be suggested (Supajanya, 2004: 224). It may be suggested
that Sukhothai city planning is the prototype of that although the same technology was used in
Chiang Mai due to the historical record of the other ancient civilizations such as the
past with the water reservoir and irrigation Marrakesh waterpipe and pit called “qanat” of
system. the Arabic empire of Morocco (Pierre-Louis
Viollet, 2007: 213) and the aqueducts of the
According to a remote sensing system Roman empire, but each case had its
technique, Tiva Suppajanya found that beside uniqueness of method and implementation.
the city’s local irrigation system, Sukhothai The lesson learnt from Sukhothai heritage case
took water from both Ping River basin in is that it is more secured to establish the city on
Kampangpetch in the southwest and from Yom higher ground (if available) for flood
River basin in Srisatchanali (Si Satchanalai) in protection and a stronghold to fortify it with a
the northeast to feed the city moat by means of proper irrigation and drainage systems.
a gravitational canal and reservoir. Referring to
a cross-sectional geography through the CASE 2: Wiang KumKam, Chiang Mai
alignment of the three cities, it indicates that
Sukhothai was situated on a lower level Wiang Kum Kam – It had been referred in
compared to the other cities (Figure 3). Local Chiangmai chronicle that Phya Mungrai
had moved from Hariphunchai (Previous name
of Lumpoon province at the Thavaravadee
age) after conquered in B.E. 1824 and five
years later he had established Wiang Kum
Kam to be the first capital city of Lanna
Kingdom in B.E. 1829. In the annals recorded
about the construction of canal four sides
surrounded the city wall to let water by
gravitation flow from Ping river (Figure 4).

Figure 3: Cross-sectional geography through

the alignment of Three World Heritage Cities
(Source: Tiva Suppajanya, Geo-Informatics
and Space Technology Development Agency
(Public Organization). 2011. The Heritage
from Space. P.250-251)
Figure 4: Location of Wiang Kum Kam in the
ancient landscape (Authour)

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There was very crowded commercial CASE 3: Ayutthaya Heritage City

activities and water-based transportation
during his stay in Wiang Kum Kam. Once Ayutthaya is the previous capital city of
when Phya Mungrai had impersonated himself Thailand after Thonburi and before Bangkok.
to investigate the water-based and merchandise According to a strategic location of Ayutthaya
activities. At the pier, people seemed happy. settlement, the city was planned and patterned
This urban fabric reflected local wisdom in by water network and flooding played a major
choosing city location for water-based role for living in Ancient Ayutthaya. The
transportation and commerce including the use Ayutthaya Citadel was situated on an oxbow
of city moat for protection and drain water plain of old Lopburi River where 3 Rivers of
during flooding. However, the location of Chao Phraya, Pasak and Lopburi
Wiang Kum Kam was laid in a low plain of the interconnected in line with connecting moats
Ping river making the city intruded by flooding making the city become as an island afterward
every year (Figure 5). (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Sketch plan of Ancient Ayutthaya

Figure 5: Location of Wiang Kum Kam before became Island and Hydraulic wisdom
(Authour) (Source: Sumet Jumia, 1997)

According to the consultation with his two The canal network was employed as the
friends, Khun Ngummuang of Payao and Khun strategy to promote and protect Ayutthaya by
Ramkumheang (Ruang) of Sukhuthai in B.E. that time as port and fortress town which is
1839. Phaya Mungrai decided to move and well-known as the hydraulic wisdom of
build Chiangmai in the square form with moat Ayutthaya stressed by Sumet Jumsai (1997). In
and laid on the foot hillslope upper away from former times, the Thais regarded water as one
the Ping river bank. Later then Wiang Kum of the main criteria for building a capital city.
Kam was left after it was hit by a big flood in Begin with the first settled city at Tumbol
B.E.2200, since it was almost 400 years after Wiang Lek before moved into the Northeast
the first year it had been constructed. area where the oxbow plain of Lopburi offered
Lesson learnt from Wiang Kum Kam reminded better strategic location; because this area was
that the city shouldn’t be established in high surround by three-sides rivers i.e. north, west
flood risk area unless proper water and south. Afterward Lopburi River in the
management and drainage system were north was connected with the west channel by
provided. digging another eastern moat resulting in an
island formation.

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Then after Pa Sak old river course on the war tactical challenge to protect Ayutthaya for
Northeast became enlarged to be a new course more than century so called “flooding tactic”.
of Pa Sak river until present day. By this According to the record in the annals, during
creation, Ayutthaya citadel formed as a long flood season the surround flat plain is usually
oval shape making it different from Khmer city covered by water like a big lake without clear
characteristics (square shape) or other boundary. Regarding the flood level marked on
rectangular city forms. Furthermore, canal and the rice stalk by the local farmers in Ayutthaya
shortcuts were made to connect Ayutthaya was about 3- 4 meters high during rainy season
with the Chao Phraya River (Figure 7). It was (Figure 8).
the city construction principle by mean of city
perimeter waterway determination.

Figure 7: Shown Sumet Jumsai’s

Reconstruction plan of Ayutthaya city’s canal
that must be revive and connect as an old canal
network for flood protection.
Figure 8: The rice stalk in Ayutthaya during
(Source: Weeraphan Shinawatra, 2010: 3)
flood in the old day
(Source: Kitti Lohpetcharat, 2011: 17)
Ayutthaya’s location benefits their glory
era as a Citadel Island surrounded with water The lesson learnt from the case of
(rivers) and flood plains that contributed such Ayutthaya present how Thais adapt their life
a fertile land after annual flooding. In some by “living with rather than living against
years during flood season with over demand of water”. The success of Ayutthaya old day
water, Ayutthaya people wisely used their showed the Thais’ hydraulic wisdom in
canal networks to release water from the various aspects. Firstly, to protect the city from
upstream river through the citadel island invaders. Secondly, to manage water irrigation
together with an irrigation system for to do agriculture. Thirdly, to promote trading
managing their agricultural land. This city through water networks by developing water-
strategy with its unique water fabric reflect based transportation to connect inland
how Thais adapt their wisdom to live as water economy with overseas countries.
people. This unique way of living is created
Lesson Learnt from Ayutthaya for the
since our ancestors had learnt how to settle
Current Bangkok Today
their city without against to the flow of the
waterway and how locals learn how to live on
During the Ayutthaya period there were
floating or stilt house during flood season for
many evidences about man-made canals and
many centuries.
shortcuts in Chao Phraya River to reduce the
sailing time and distance between Ayutthaya
Strategically, Ayutthaya’s location
port and the Gulf of Siam (the name by that
surrounded with water was formed a strong
time) which also to flow floodwater out into
hold fortify to protect the city from invaders by
the sea (Figure 9).
using the canal network and flood season as the
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Rattanakosin Island had been established

to represent Ayutthaya of the past including the
hydraulic wisdom for flooding management.
But after the incoming of land-based concept
of living from the west that had changed totally
from original Thais’ water-based settlement.
Modern Thais decided to accept the concept of
“Living against the water” without local
indigenous wisdom and adaptation in the past
anymore. A well-known Venice of the east had
been vanished from Bangkok. Most of river
and canal embankments were built with
concrete barricades for flood protection
(Figure 11) which had been proven that it does
not work for protecting flood caused by water
Figure 9: Man-made canals between seepage due to the water pressure and soften
Ayutthaya port and gulf of Siam in the old soil conditions after a longer period of
day. (Source: Beek, Steve V. 1982, cited in flooding.
Bhakhakanok Ratanawaraphorn, 2011)
The Chao Phraya River in front of
Rattanakosin Island (current Bangkok) was a
man-made canal before it became a current
stream of the Chao Phraya. This canal was dug
in ancient Ayutthaya period as a shortcut to
reduce the distance and navigation time. Then
the old Chao Phraya river course became part
of Bangkok Noi, Bang Laung and Bangkok
Yai canal at present (Figure 10).

Figure 11: Sketch of BMA concrete wall

cross section through canal and photo during
construction (Authour).

Canals network had almost been changed

into roads. Water gates built to manage water
flow from upstream during the flood season;
however, they make water become more
stagnant resulting in more polluted water.
Another good practice was Lad Po canal with
water gate control which was derived from the
King Rama IX: King Bhumipol’s concept; as
this shortcut canal help releasing faster water
drainage from upstream Rattanakosin Island to
Figure 10: Chao Phraya River in front of downstream during flooding (Figure 12).
Rattanakosin Island was a man-made canal
before became Chao Phraya River in the later
stage and the old course (Authour).

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the height of floodwater; because it would

cause more water level with higher pressure
which may breakdown the structure. This
paper points out that learning from historic
cities reflects how Thai local wisdom learned
to manage water; however, there has been
insufficient studies and implementation to
adapt indigenous knowledge with proper
technology for flooding preparation and
management. A combination between
engineering approaches (grey infrastructure)
should be considered with natural-based
solutions (green infrastructure) as a challenge
for all Thais to work together for achieving
sustainable future.

REFERENCES

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Figure 12: Lad Po man-made canal, a Development Agency (Public
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Pierre-Louis Viollet. 2007. “Water
Engineering in Ancient Civilizations:
Flooding and Climate Change 5,000 Years of History”. NW. CRC
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Weeraphan Shinawatra. 2002. “Adaptability:

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