International Journal of Language and Linguistics

2013; 1(2): 44-53

Published online July 20, 2013 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijll)
doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20130102.12

Models of intercultural competences in practice

Eva Reid
Department of Language Pedagogy and Intercultural StudiesConstantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia

Email address:
ereid@ukf.sk

To cite this article:

Eva Reid, Models of Intercultural Competences in Practice. International Journal of Language and Linguistics,
Vol. 1, No. 2, 2013, pp. 44-53. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20130102.12

Abstract: Research in the area of intercultural competences has become increasingly popular. Scholars have been
developing theoretical models for acquiring and evaluating intercultural competences, looking for connections between
interdisciplinary subjects, and researching developments of intercultural competences in foreign relations, immigration,
politics, education, commerce and health care. When new models are developed, they must be tested in diverse contexts in
order to validate them and determine their intercultural relevance. This paper not only introduces several models of
intercultural communication but also presents an overview of the studies performed on them, analyses their strengths and
weaknesses and makes suggestions for further research. King and Magolda’s (2005) Developmental Model of Intercultural
Maturity, Bennett's (1993) Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, Gullahorn and Gullahorn’s (1963) W Model of
Acculturation and Re-acculturation and Lysgaard’s (1955) U Curve Hypothesis” are addressed and results testing the models
are presented here.
Keywords: Intercultural Competences, Intercultural Adjustment, Intercultural Sensitivity, Intercultural Maturity

model is Deardorff’s (2009) [2] Pyramid Model of

1. Introduction Intercultural Competence.
Intercultural communication and intercultural Co-orientation models of intercultural communication
communicative competences have lately been hot topics for are concerned with conceptualizing the interactional
scholars, educators, psychologists, politicians and even achievement of intercultural understanding (perceptual
businessmen. Consequently, numerous models of accuracy, empathy, clarity, overlap of meaning systems).
intercultural competences have been developed. They are They are primarily focused on communicative mutuality
often divided into the following types: casual path, and shared meanings. The representational models
compositional, co-orientational, adaptational and discussed here are the Intercultural Interlocutor
developmental. The paper briefly describes various types of Competence Model by Fantini (1995) [3] and the
intercultural competences, presents studies testing different Intercultural Competence Model by Byram (1997) [4].
developmental models, critically analyses them and makes Adaptation models either envision multiple interactants
suggestions for further research. in the process, or emphasize interdependence of multiple
Casual path models attempt to represent intercultural interactants by modelling the process of mutual adjustment.
competence as a theoretical linear system. They tend to Adaptational models can be represented by Berry’s (1998)
form variables at a downstream location, which influences [5] Attitude Acculturation Model.
and is influenced by moderating and mediating variables Developmental models are concerned with the stages of
that in turn influence the upstream variables. The best progression or maturity in acquiring intercultural
known is the Model of Intercultural Communicative competence. The best known models are the developmental
Competence by Arasaratnam (2005) [1]. Model of Intercultural Maturity by King and Baxter
Compositional models identify components of Magolda (2005) [6], the U Curve Hypothesis Model by
competence without specifying relations among the Lysgaard’s (1995) [7], the extended W Model of
components. They list relevant traits, characteristics, and Acculturation and Re-acculturation by Gullahorn and
skills that are supposed to be productive for competent Gullahorn (1963) [8] and the Developmental Model of
intercultural interaction. An example of the compositional Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) by Bennett (1993) [9].
Developmental models recognize that intercultural
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2013; 1(2): 44-53 45

competences develop over time. The claim is that the others). Each dimension includes the initial, intermediate
learners are capable of becoming more competent through and mature levels of intercultural development.
ongoing interaction, which produces greater co-orientation, According to this model, learners progress during
learning, and incorporation of respective cultural intercultural learning from ethnocentric understandings of
perspectives. other cultures to the ethnorelative comprehension and
The aim of this paper is to look deeper into different appreciation. The framework of this model takes the form
developmental models of intercultural competences, of a 3 x 3 matrix, linking domains of development
present research studies based on the chosen models, (cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal) with three
critically analyse them and make suggestions for further levels of development (initial, intermediate, and mature). In
research. the process of intercultural learning, the idea is to produce,
in the times of increased global interdependence,
interculturally competent citizens, who would achieve
2. Methodology intercultural maturity in all three dimensions. King and
2.1. Meta-analyses Baxter Magolda’s [6] model is multidimensional and
describes levels of intercultural maturity. In this framework
The method chosen for my study is meta-analyses, it is explained how people become increasingly capable of
which can be simply described as analysis of other analyses. understanding and become interculturally aware and act in
According to Cohen (2007) [10] meta-analyses are often an interculturally appropriate way.
done statistically, but qualitative analyses are also
advocated. The aim is to collect, combine and compare
studies dealing with similar issues. In this case, the studies
are analyzed qualitatively. Each of the three developmental
models of intercultural competences - Model of
Intercultural Maturity [6], W Model of Acculturation and
Re-acculturation [8] and Developmental Model of
Intercultural Sensitivity [9] - are represented here by three
studies and these are analyzed. The studies are ranging from
the year 2000 to the year 2011 and map various research
studies supporting the mentioned models. The aim is to see
whether there are visible changes noticeable in the eleven
year span of research in the area of intercultural
competences and if there are any generalizations possible in
development of intercultural competences.

3. Developmental Models of
Intercultural Maturity
3.1. Theoretical Background and Origin of the Model of
Intercultural Maturity

In 2005, King and Baxter Magolda [6] developed one of

the best known models – Model of Intercultural Maturity,
which was based on Kegan’s (1994) [11] Model of Lifespan
Development. According to Kegan [11], mature individuals Figure 1: Adapted Developmental Model of Intercultural Maturity [6]
are better equipped to approach and respond to complex
tasks in life. Individuals organise their own lives, trying to 3.2. Intercultural Maturity of Latin American and White
find a balance between external influences, individual American College Students
interests and the interests of others around them. Kegan’s
[11] model is holistic and integrates three dimensions of The Model of Intercultural Maturity [6] was developed
development (cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal). from the longitudinal studies carried out by Baxter
He claimed that the development of all three dimensions Magolda (2004) [12,13] and Tores (2003) [14]. In their
was necessary in order to be able to use one’s skills. King longitudinal studies they conducted interviews with white
and Baxter Magolda’s [6] model of intercultural maturity is and Latin American college students at an independent,
also based on three dimensions: cognitive (to understand urban, research university on the East Coast of the USA,
cultural differences), intrapersonal (to accept and not feel which served as the basis of their model of intercultural
threatened by cultural differences) and interpersonal (to be maturity. These students were interviewed over a long
sensitive and to function interdependently with diverse period of time and the data show different stages of the
46 Eva Reid: Models of Intercultural Competences in Practice

development of intercultural maturity. Students at the understanding culture, learning about cultures,
beginning of the research showed a lack of awareness of deconstructing white culture, recognizing the legitimacy of
one’s own identity and values. The white students viewed other cultures and developing their multicultural outlook
differences between people as wrong, needed affirmation into the mature level of intercultural maturity. Activities for
from dependent relationships with similar others, and each step engage trainees in exploring and gradually
showed almost no ability to reflect and deal effectively with reformulating how they see the world (cognitive), how they
differences, which is a key aspect of intercultural maturity. relate to others (interpersonal) and how they see themselves
Students of Latino origin or from mixed families (intrapersonal).
encountered segregation: they experienced difficulties Another four stage programme for intercultural training
connecting with any cultural group, as they were too white was developed by Schoem and Hurtado (2001) [16]. The
for students from countries like Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, training is based on dialogues, which are structured to
Venezuela, Colombia, etc. and too Latino for whites. In the explore trainees’ own experiences and assumptions, to
intermediate level of intercultural maturity, the white develop a shared vocabulary around issues of social
students started to see and understand multiple realities, identities, prejudice, discrimination, and privilege, to focus
and they were not avoiding new relationships with people dialogues on hot topics such as separation, self-segregation
they would previously avoid. They had moved beyond and racism, and to plan actions and build alliances. The
relationships with those similar to themselves and were authors claim that the results of the intercultural dialogue
exploring differences. The Latin American students moved trainings are positive, reducing discrimination, stereotyping,
from the initial feeling of not belonging anywhere to prejudice and anxiety about intercultural contact, and
starting to feel bicultural. They recognized the distinction increasing social awareness.
between how other students saw them and how they However, there are no concrete results from empirical
self-identified. The Latin American students still desired research available to back up these assertions, but
greater approval and acceptance from Latinos, which they application of these models of intercultural trainings for
tried to achieve by exploring Latino culture and learning employees would be very topical and beneficial in further
the language. In the mature level of intercultural maturity, research.
the Latino American students showed the ability to
understand different cultural orientations, accept their own 3.4. Intercultural Maturity Development of Adult
cultural identity and how it differs from others and Learners
encourage others to accept the differences. The greatest Stickler and Emke (2011) [17] conducted a project
ability these students showed was the skill to shift LITERALIA, which was funded by the European Union
perspectives and use multiple cultural frames to engage in and it was to observe adults’ language learners
meaningful relationships with diverse others without development of intercultural maturity [6]. The aim of the
seeking their approval. White students showed maturity project was to connect adult language learners (229) from
after staying in a close relationship with non-whites. These four different countries (UK, Germany, Italy and Poland)
students demonstrated great sensitivity and a desire to and analyse participants’ intercultural learning and show
understand different cultures, and recognized the need to development of intercultural maturity. The respondents
define their beliefs internally and define their role in the were working in tandem and were to give mutual support to
larger world. each other in learning one another’s language and culture
These examples show ideal states of three levels of through online communication. Qualitative data was
intercultural development, and it cannot be expected that collected by observation, feedback and interviews and
every individual would go through the stages the same way analysed to present a description of adults’ experiences
and would become interculturally mature. The process is through intercultural learning. The findings show that the
highly individual. Further, the studies were carried out with personal learning partner became the central figure and the
college students of an independent, urban, research development of friendship was the central point, and the
university – young people, who are more flexible and intercultural exchange was not the most important target.
malleable. It would be necessary to test this model with The tandem partner was the trusted source of information
adults living or working in multicultural environments to and intercultural exploration. Learners would venture
prove the applicability of this model to the greater public. sometimes into uncomfortable zones of intrapersonal
3.3. Intercultural Trainings of Employees development, examining and accepting their own and other
cultures in context. The researches claim that the
As mentioned, there is currently a great demand for intercultural maturity depends on social interaction and it is
people who are interculturally mature. Colleges are not a change in personality or life style, but an integration
expected to prepare interculturally competent graduates, of new perspectives into the everyday life of the mature
and companies also organise intercultural trainings for their intercultural learner. The study focused on how interactions
employees. Ortiz and Rhoads (2000) [15] suggest a five shaped and developed intercultural competences. Reasons
step framework for multicultural training, which should for failure were not researched.
bring an individual towards intercultural maturity: Even though the research sample was big in this case,
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2013; 1(2): 44-53 47

the study proves that research done on intercultural issues central to reality in some way) and the final three stages are
is highly individual and cannot be generalized. ethnorelative (one’s own culture is experienced in the
context of other cultures). Bennett’s [9] model of cultural
learning is situated within the domain of subjective culture,
which is sometimes referred to as “small c culture.” It
generally receives less attention and yet is far more
significant. Subjective culture consists of invisible
components (assumptions, values and beliefs) and a visible
component (behaviour). Bennett [9] is right to believe that
understanding objective culture may create knowledge but
does not necessarily generate competence.

4.2. Language Learning and Intercultural Sensitivity

Durocher (2007) [18] applied Bennett’s [9]

Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)
in a study on freshman U.S. French language students.
Three classes were pre-tested with the Intercultural
Development Inventory to evaluate their level of sensitivity
to cultural differences. The reason for this research was to
determine if Bennett’s [9] recommendation to address
denial and defence issues in elementary-level language
classes was warranted, to incorporate intercultural training
activities to the students’ level of sensitivity as revealed by
the inventory, and to post-test students at the end of
semester to see if a noticeable increase in the level of
sensitivity had been observed. The pre-tests were carried
out on all the students: those who would have intercultural
training and those who would not. Even though it seemed
that the students were starting with different levels of
sensitivity, the reality was that in both groups the majority
of students were identified in one of the ethnocentric levels
of sensitivity. In the control group, 71 % of the students
were in denial or the defence stage of sensitivity, compared
to 65 % of the students in the group that was to receive the
Figure 2: Adapted Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity [9] intercultural training. A total of five intercultural training
activities were planned and implemented during one
semester. These activities were spread out at even intervals
4. Developmental Model of Intercultural during the semester, with each activity taking about 30
Sensitivity minutes. All activities were addressed to the denial and
defence issues. The outcome of the post-test with the class
4.1. Basic Principles of the Model of Intercultural that received the training are as expected. Even though
Sensitivity there was not a considerable shift from ethnocentric to
Another developmental model was designed by Bennett ethnorelative levels of sensitivity, the results were still
(1993) [9] and deals with the development of intercultural encouraging. Most students moved a level higher in the
communicative competence of individuals. The framework of intercultural sensitivity. The biggest growth
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) was in the minimalization stage from 31 to 54 %. Still, 47 %
synthesises attitudes, skills and knowledge with which of the students remained in the denial or the defence stage
researchers and trainers in intercultural communications of sensitivity. Overall, most students were still ethnocentric,
and foreign languages have long been familiar. The basis but a shift toward the ethnorelative stages of sensitivity
for this model were Bennett’s [9] somewhat predictable could be observed. The class that received no intercultural
observations of individuals in the process of becoming training experienced some changes too. The most
competent in intercultural communications. Using concepts noticeable was the shift of three students from
from cognitive psychology and constructivism, he minimalization to defence stage.
organized these observations into six stages moving from This points to the fact that language classes themselves
cultural naivety to cultural sophistication. The initial three do not automatically train students toward ethnorelativism,
stages are ethnocentric (one’s own culture is experienced as but they can in reverse provoke defence issues and make
48 Eva Reid: Models of Intercultural Competences in Practice

students more ethnocentric. Durocher [18] notes that if Marx (2008) [20] carried out a case study with a
foreign language educators do not effectively address the pre-service teacher and her intercultural sensitivity
negative attitudes of their students, they run the risk of development during one semester education study abroad
doing more harm than good. This claim can only be agreed program in England. This research is based on the
upon when taking into account that ethnorelativism does Bennett’s [20] Developmental Model of Intercultural
not come naturally hand in hand with foreign language Sensitivity (DMIS) and described a development of the
education, and if intercultural issues are not included in respondent’s transition from ethnocentric to ethnorelative
foreign language lessons, then in extreme cases a reverse mindset. The aim of the study was to seek understanding of
process can occur in which students become even more the ways international experiences influence teachers’
ethnocentric than before. This finding is quite alarming, intercultural development and find if international
and educators, especially foreign language teachers, should experiences prepare culturally responsive teachers. The
be aware of the danger, that omitting intercultural training respondent was an American pre-service teacher, who took
can cause. an internship at a secondary school in a lower-income
neighbourhood in London with a multicultural population
4.3. Model of Intercultural Consciousness for Leaders of 1,400 students (ages 11-19). The respondent spent
Bennett’s [9] Developmental Model of Intercultural twenty hours a week as a mathematics support teacher.
Sensitivity (DMIS) was also applied to Karim’s (2003) [19] Qualitative data sources and collection methods namely
Developmental Progression Model of Intercultural field work, in-depth interviews and document analyses,
Consciousness for Leaders. This model provides a helped the researcher to uncover the respondent’s
framework for understanding how people make sense of the subjective experiences within the context of an intercultural
world and engage in leadership actions at different levels of environment. The findings show that at the beginning, the
intercultural consciousness. The author [19] stresses the respondent had a slightly ethnocentric approach and
need for business leaders to possess intercultural sensitivity, showed characteristics from the minimalization stage of
as the physical boundaries in the world shrink but the DMIS [9] This can be interpreted that she was interested in
psychological boundaries are still deeply divided by race, learning about other cultures, but her understanding was
ethnicity, ideology, politics, region and inequality. The unsophisticated and she was seeking individual and
increasing globalization of business does not necessarily psychological explanations for differences. Towards the
mean that cultural differences are diminishing. Businesses end of the respondents stay abroad she adopted a more
have physical offices in several countries, work on ethnorelative approach, and she moved to the acceptance
multinational projects and deal with customers, stage of DMIS [9]. This means that she developed more
counterparts and employees who are culturally diverse. sophisticated cultural-constructs, explored her own cultural
Karim [19] claims that there has never before been such an identity, accepted and recognized fundamental cultural
important need for interculturally competent leaders as differences in herself and others, and was actively seeking
there is today. There is no escaping intercultural contact in intercultural experiences.
today’s “connective era,” and it is evident that notions of As mentioned in methodology, this study is to provide
leadership are outdated. The author [19] discusses the an in-depth understanding of a particular case and not to
issues of intercultural consciousness in the context of make generalizations. It can be concluded, that this
leadership, identifies necessary areas of knowledge and particular case proves the Bennett’s Developmental Model
skills associated with intercultural proficiency, and offers a of Intercultural Sensitivity [9], as the respondent has under
model of intercultural consciousness for leaders. He [19] the influence of intercultural environments moved from
distinguishes the difference between intercultural ethnocentric to ethnorelative stages of intercultural
competence and intercultural consciousness in one critical sensitivity. The researcher thinks that this is because the
dimension – ethical responsibility. He [19] notes that respondent was an outsider within the cultural context,
interculturally competent leaders can act either ethically or where her cultural values no longer applied, and she was
unethically. forced to become more conscious of host culture and
Although intriguing, empirical research is needed before cultural differences. Still, it can only be agreed with the
the proposed model is applied to leaders. As was mentioned researcher, that this study provides understanding of the
before, the interculturally competent employees and single case and cannot be generalized.
employers are becoming a necessity in the today’s global
world. Several models and suggestions have been proposed, 5. W Model of Acculturation and
but very little research was done in this area. However,
there is a scope for further research and this model of Re-acculturation
intercultural consciousness for leaders would be a very 5.1. Principles of the U Curve Hypothesis and the W Model
beneficial topic to explore. of Acculturation and Re-acculturation
4.4. Case Study of a Pre-service Teacher and her Another developmental model adapts the concept of
Intercultural Sensitivity Development cultural shock to a stage of cultural adjustment. Gullahorn
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2013; 1(2): 44-53 49

and Gullahorn [8] extended Lysgaard’s [7] U Curve considerable adjustments on the part of the Japanese
Hypothesis to the W Model of Acculturation and students. The authors [21] predicted that the participants’
Re-acculturation to address post-return readjustment acculturative stress would increase sharply after their
problems. The model proposes that there is a multistage arrival in the UK and then would eventually decrease as
wave response of adjustment and satisfaction in response to they adapted over time (U-curve hypothesis). It is
acculturation. This model especially reflects those people important to consider variations in the degree to which
who went to live abroad, or spend a long time in a different individuals experience acculturative stress, where age,
culture and the return home. The model states that people gender, or education might be influencing variables.
first experience a honeymoon stage, when experiences are According to Berry (2002) [22], language ability is the key
relatively positive in the context of a halo effect of novelty. predictor of adaptation. Individuals who have a good
An abrupt fall follows and results in a hostility stage, when knowledge of the majority language appear to adapt more
the confrontation of differences becomes apparent. Efforts successfully than those who do not. The researchers [21]
to adapt continue, and interactants recover and are able to also predicted that during acculturation, a higher language
recognize the humorous nature of some differences ability would be associated with reduced acculturative
between cultures. Interactants then reach a level at which stress. The participants were 54 Japanese students aged
they feel in sync with the cultural environment. People who between 18 to 22 years. The students were given a
spend a long time in another culture are expected to questionnaire on sociocultural items, psychological items,
experience some degree of uncertainty as they face the language ability, perceived cultural distance, and the
prospects of returning home, abandoning their new found quantity and quality of contact with British nationals. The
sense of relative comfort. When returning home, people same questionnaire was given to the students three times
often experience re-entry cultural shock as they find over a period of 12 months. Results showing changes
themselves trying to re-integrate to their home culture. across time revealed that acculturative stress increased
Eventually they experience re-socialization with their home sharply between Time 1 and 2, and that there was no
culture. observed drop in stress between Time 2 and 3, which
disproved the full U-curve hypothesis. As expected, the
participants’ language ability increased significantly, but
surprisingly, between Times 1 and 2, higher language
ability increased acculturative stress. Later on between
Times 2 and 3, the effects of language were more consistent
with predictions that higher language ability was associated
with less stress. The possible reason for this was unrealistic
perceptions of the participants’ language abilities upon their
arrival to the UK, because the participants were evaluating
their own knowledge of English.
The outcomes of this study show that there might be
physical, geographical, social and cultural restrictions on
acculturation. Rudmin and Ahmadzedeh (2001) [23]
criticize acculturation theories for assuming that all
acculturative outcomes are achievable. They [23] believe
that integration is not always possible because of different
Figure 3: W Model of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8] cultural practices, which are exclusive (one cannot be both
a Christian and a Muslim), or legally restricted (driving on
5.2. The U Curve Hypothesis Model applied to Japanese the left or right side of the road).
Students in the UK The outcomes of this research are very limiting because
they concern only a group of students from one nationality
The U Curve Hypothesis Model [7] was applied in
staying abroad for one year. Many facts in this study were
Greendland and Brown’s (2005) [21] research on Japanese
predictable (vast differences between Japanese and UK
students studying in the United Kingdom for a year. In this
cultures, or young people being more flexible and
study, the attempt was to address the students’
adjustable). Also, this research was only based on
psychological well-being during their process of
questionnaires, where data is not always reliable, as noted
acculturation. The acculturation process can last for days,
by the students’ evaluation of their own knowledge of
weeks, years, and even generations. At various points in
English. It would be interesting to apply and compare
this process (often in early stages) individuals from
results of this model on a larger scale in many different
minority groups may experience an acculturative stress.
settings with people of various cultural backgrounds,
Because Japanese and British cultures are so different, also
different age groups and also lengths and purposes of stays
the expectations of Japanese and British nationals might be
abroad, and to test Lysgaard’s [7] U Curve Hypothesis
very different, which consequently may result in
Model or Rudmin and Ahmadzedeh’s [23] claim that
50 Eva Reid: Models of Intercultural Competences in Practice

acculturation is not always possible. graduates, who did their Master’s degree from TEFL in
Northern Ireland. The research was conducted by means of
5.3. Re-adjustment of Polish Students to their Home interviews with the respondents, who had returned to their
Culture home countries to work. The interview began with
Another study conducted by Wielkiewicz and retrospective analyses of life in Northern Ireland and linked
Turkowski (2010) [24] tests Gullahorn and Gullahorn’s [8] with their feelings upon their return to the home country.
W Model of Acculturation and Re-acculturation. The study, The “cultural shock” feelings in the host country were
which was based on an online survey, examined the mainly connected to missing their families, food, mother
re-adjustment to home culture of 669 college students who tongue, warm weather, etc. Surprisingly, some of the
studied abroad. The aim was to compare the adjustment of negative feelings connected to returning to their homes
students who studied abroad with those who did not, and to were exactly what they had missed about their own
investigate the impact of study abroad on interpersonal countries on their entry to the United Kingdom: lifestyle,
relationships. The vast majority of participants spent one food, and weather. Respondents experienced various
semester abroad. 63 % of the students were females and levels of difficulties in different areas of re-adaptation to
all of the students were between 18 and 22 years of age. It their home culture. The majority of people claimed not to
was predicted that students who spent time abroad would have any personal difficulties on reconnecting with their
experience greater anxiety or depression than similar families within their own culture. Negative feelings were
students who did not study abroad. The results show that connected with the Sri Lankans perception of the level of
the students who studied abroad reported significantly more development of their home societies (stressful life, crowded
scepticism (re-entry shock) regarding their home culture places, chaotic traffic). The greatest problems were noticed
than those students who did not. The longer the students in conflicting values between modernism and traditionalism
spent abroad, the greater re-entry shock they experienced or between individualism and collectivism. For example,
after returning home. This study supports the W Curve the respondents were constrained by social and employer’s
Model of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8] and expectations and their newly adopted values could not be
previous studies that psychological changes occur after transferred unproblematically into their home environments,
returning from study abroad. The researcher predicted that such as they struggled to introduce innovations to their
study abroad would have negative effects on romantic work places, reduce social distance, or have more
relationships, but the outcomes did not bear this out, as democratic relationships. As a conclusion, the respondents
there were no significant differences between the study were doing well professionally, which presumably reduced
abroad group and the control group. The reason for this the stress of re-entry to their home societies. Good jobs and
outcome might be the short length of stay abroad or that the therefore a defined role in society helped them to
participants had not been at home long enough to reintegrate fast and well. Definitely, the most positive thing
experience the effects of readjustment and its impact on noticed by the respondents was the gained independence
relationships. An interesting result is that women were less and ambitious approach to life and work.
able to cope with anxieties, felt less relaxed and This study was concerned with the full scale of the
experienced more stress in relationships than men. W-curve Model of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8].
This study tested only the re-entry cultural shock of The in-depth interviews with 27 respondents from Asian
students and did not include the full scale of the W Model countries, who lived and studied in the UK bring some
of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8]. It was further interesting results. Overall the respondents did not
limited because the students were of one nationality and experience great cultural shock in the foreign county and
stayed abroad for only a few months, which might not be re-entry cultural shock on returning back home. The reason
long enough to experience cultural shock. Further, online for reduced cultural shock might be that the respondents
surveys are fraught with reliability issues. As with the lived in Asian communities abroad and that they did not
previous study, it would be better to carry out further enter the local life (which some of them regretted).
studies with different nationalities, age groups, professions, Adapting back to their home countries was without any
lengths of stay and on the full scale of the W Curve Model great difficulties, as all the respondents straight away had
of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8] to get relevant good jobs, which helped them to re-adapt fast to their home
results to test the applicability of the model. environments.

5.4. Adjustment and Re-adjustment of Asian Graduates 6. Conclusion

after studying in Northern Ireland
This article has focused on the developmental models of
Pritchard (2011) [25] published research, which was intercultural progression, maturity and adjustment in the
examining re-integration of Asian students back to their progress of acquiring intercultural competences because
home countries. This study is testing the W Model of these types of models are most widely applicable. Six
Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8]. The research studies were analyzed in this paper and each of them
sample consisted of 12 Taiwanese and 15 Sri Lankan supported one of the three developmental models of
 International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2013; 1(2): 44-53 51

intercultural competences. model was not found, even though it is a highly current topic.
The Model of Intercultural Maturity [6] was tested by This offers a great chance for further research.
Baxter Magolda [12,13] and Tores [14] on Latin American The Model of Intercultural Sensitivity [9] was tested by
and white American college students. The longitudinal Marx [20] in a case study of a pre-service teacher spending
studies are reliable, but nevertheless replicability would be one semester in London, UK. The aim was to see if
difficult with other groups of people Findings from the international experiences have positive influence on
research showed positive development in intercultural development of intercultural sensitivity of teachers. After
maturity of the respondents, but the research was carried out one semester of staying abroad, the respondent appeared to
with college students, who are young, flexible and adaptable, move from slightly ethnocentric approach to beginning of
but to make the model applicable to larger groups of people, ethnorelative mindset. The outcomes of this research
more research conducted on adults living abroad would be followed the stages of the Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
necessary. [9], but as mentioned before, generalizations cannot be made
The need for interculturally competent employees was based on this one case study.
reflected by Ortiz and Rhoads [15] in their five step Greendland and Brown [21] applied the U Curve
framework for multicultural training and Schoem and Hypothesis Model [7] in research on Japanese students
Hurtado [16] in their four stage programme for intercultural studying in the UK. The study showed the students’
training for employees. The aim of the training is to reduce psychological well-being during their process of
discrimination, stereotyping, prejudice and anxiety about acculturation. As mentioned before, many findings resulting
intercultural contact and to create positive attitudes and from the differences between British and Japanese cultures
social awareness towards other cultures. However, no were predictable, due to great differences between the two
relevant research was found to test applicability of these cultures. Again, the study is limited to two cultures and
programmes of intercultural maturity, but it would be young students (who are more flexible and adaptable). The
contributive to carry out research on the intercultural suggestion is to conduct a similar type of research on
training of employees. representatives of different cultures, different age groups,
The Development of Intercultural Maturity of adult length and purpose of their stays abroad, to enrich the
learners was analysed in a study by Stickler and Emke [17]. applicability of the proposed model.
Adult learners from four different countries were to work Another study conducted by Wielkiewicz and Turkowski
online in tandems, learning language and culture from each [21] tests Gullahorn and Gullahorn’s [8] W Model of
other. The aim was to analyse intercultural learning and Acculturation and Re-acculturation. The study examined the
development of intercultural maturity of the participants. re-adjustment of Polish students to home culture after
The findings show that development of personal studying abroad. The survey tested only the re-entry cultural
relationships was more important for the learners than shock and not the full scale of the W Model of Acculturation
intercultural learning. The research dealt with intercultural and Re-acculturation [8]. Another limitation was the length
development of individuals and did not analyse cases where of stay abroad (average one semester), which may not be
intercultural learning was not successful. Findings from this long enough to produce pronounced symptoms of cultural
study show a highly individual development pattern of shock. Further research on the full scale of the W Model of
intercultural competences. Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8] would be advisable
The model of Intercultural Sensitivity [9] was tested by on representatives of different cultures, age groups,
Durocher [18] in a study on American students learning professions and with greater lengths of stay.
French. One group of language lessons included Research conducted by Pritchard [25] examines
intercultural training activities to enhance the students’ level re-integration of Asian students to their home culture after
of sensitivity. The outcomes reveal, that ethnorelativism is studying in the UK. The study follows the second part of the
not a natural part of foreign language education, and that in W Model of Acculturation and Re-acculturation [8] and
extreme cases learners (when no intercultural activities are investigates areas in which respondents had the greatest
included in foreign language lessons) can become even more problems in re-acculturation. Most people had not problems
ethnocentric. This proves the fact that intercultural teaching in reconnecting with their own families, but the greatest
should without doubt be a part of foreign language teaching problems were noticeable in re-adaptation to home societies
and that it should be an integral part of teaching reading, and work places. Overall, the respondents had no great
listening, speaking and writing and should not be treated as difficulties in re-adapting to their home cultures, as they all
an extra fifth skill (Reid, 2010) [26]. The foreign language had very good jobs, which probably helped to reduce their
teachers should realize the importance of intercultural stress upon arrival to their home cultures.
aspects in their foreign language lessons. The analysed studies were dealing with research on
Based on the model of intercultural sensitivity [9], Karim intercultural competences in the span of eleven years
[19] developed a Progression Model of Intercultural (2000-2011). Most studies were analysed qualitatively and
Consciousness for Leaders. This model provides a were focusing mainly on development of intercultural
framework of development of intercultural sensitivity and competences of individuals or small groups of people. These
consciousness of leaders. Empirical research testing this findings indicate that development of intercultural
52 Eva Reid: Models of Intercultural Competences in Practice

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