Key Issues in

Language Teaching
Jack C. Richards
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Richards, Jack C.
Key issues in language teaching / Jack C. Richards.
   pages cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-45610-5 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-107-66329-9
(Vitalsource eBook) -- ISBN 978-1-107-66906-2 (Apple iBook)
1. Language and languages -- Study and teaching -- Methodology.
2. Language teachers -- Methodology. I. Title.
P53.R494 2015
418.0071 -- dc23

            2014036802

ISBN 978-1-107-45610-5 Paperback

ISBN 978-1-107-66329-9 Vitalsource eBook
ISBN 978-1-107-66906-2 Apple iBook

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Contents
Acknowledgements v
Introduction xix

Part 1 English language teaching today 1

1 The scope of English and English language
teaching 3
2 Second language learning 30
3 Approaches and methods 57
4 Developing knowledge, skills and
awareness in teaching 105

Part 2 Facilitating student learning 133

5 The second language learner 135
6 The language lesson 168
7 Managing classroom learning 195
8 Age-appropriate pedagogy 220

Part 3 Language and the four skills 259

9 Grammar 261
10 Vocabulary 296
11 Pronunciation 335
12 Listening 369
13 Speaking 406
14 Reading 442

iii
Contents

15 Writing 478
16 Discourse and pragmatics 516

Part 4 The teacher’s environment 555

17 The language course 557
18 Textbooks 593
19 Technology 634
20 Testing and assessment 665
21 Professional development 694

Glossary 730
About the author 753
List of contributors 754
References 760
Index 804

iv
 For Moon Won Gyu and Gillian Armstrong

Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material
and are grateful for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has
not always been possible to identify the sources of all the material used, or to trace all
copyright holders. If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include
the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting and in the next update to the digital
edition, as applicable.

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from Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development by James

v
Acknowledgements

P. Lantolf and Steven L. Thorne, Oxford University Press, 2006; Cambridge University Press
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 Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

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 Acknowledgements

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 Acknowledgements

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398–399 excerpted and adapted from Teaching Listening in the Language Classroom by
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Press for the text and illustrations on pp. 403–404 excerpted from Real Listening and
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with permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on pp. 410–411 excerpted from
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Copyright © 2007 by the University of Melbourne. Reproduced by the permission of IELTS
Australia; Cambridge University Press for the text on pp. 447, 467 and 579 excerpted from

xii
 Acknowledgements

Reading in a Second Language by William Grabe. Copyright © 2009 by Cambridge

University Press. Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on
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Cambridge University Press for the text on pp. 453–454 from Communicative Syllabus
Design by John Munby. Copyright © 1978 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced
with permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on pp. 455–456 and 466 excerpted
and adapted from Teaching Reading by F. Rohim, The Indonesian Ministry of Education,
2009; JoAnn Crandall for the text on pp. 459–460, 461–462 and 463 adapted from ‘The
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with the permission of Macmillan Education; Cambridge University Press for the text on
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with permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University Press for the text
and images on pp. 474–476 excerpted from Strategic Reading, Level 1 Student’s Book, 2nd
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by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University
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Acknowledgements

Michigan Press. Reproduced with the permission of University of Michigan Press; Oxford
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kind of process’ by P. Stapleton and P. Radia in ELT Journal, Vol. 64, Iss. 2, 2009. Copyright
© 2009 by Oxford University Press. Reproduced with the permission of Oxford University
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Encounters, Level 4 Student’s Book, Reading and Writing: Human Behavior 2nd edition by
Bernard Seal. Copyright © 2012 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with
permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on p. 517 adapted from ‘Acquiring French
norms through instruction’ by A. J. Liddicoat in Pragmatics in Langauge Teaching by
K. R. Rose and G. Kaspar, Cambridge University Press, 2001; Text on pp. 517, 532, 534,
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Copyright © 2001 Council of Europe. Reproduced by permission of the Council of Europe;
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for the text on pp. 526–527 adapted from Understanding Communication in Second
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Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on p. 528 from
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excerpted and adapted from Exploring How Texts Work by B. Derewianka, Primary English
Teachers’ Association: Sydney, 1991; Cambridge University Press for the text on p. 531
excerpted from Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers by Michael McCarthy. Copyright
© 1991 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge
University Press; SAGE Publications for the text on p. 533 excerpted from ‘Frameworks for
Comprehending Discourse’ by Richard C. Anderson, Ralph E. Reynolds, Diane L. Schallert
and Ernest T. Goetz in American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 14, No. 4. Copyright
© 1977 by SAGE Publications. Reprinted with permission of SAGE Publications; Text on
p. 537 adapted from Teaching and Learning Pragmatics by N. Ishihara and A. D. Cohen,
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Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 24. Copyright © 2004 by Cambridge University
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for the text on pp. 544–545 adapted from ‘Pragmatics and EIL pedagogy’ by Sandra Lee
McKay in English as an International Language: Theoretical Framework and Application
edited by F. Sharifian. Copyright © 2009 Multilingual Matters. Reproduced with permission
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English Conversations: Perfectionism and procrastination 3’ by Lori Linstruth, 6 May
2010, www.betteratenglish.com. Copyright © 2010 Better At English. Reproduced by

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 Acknowledgements

permission of Better At English; Cambridge University Press for the text on p. 553
excerpted from Touchstone: Student Book 2 by Michael McCarthy and Jeanne McCarten.
Copyright © 2005 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of
Cambridge University Press; Text on p. 563 adapted from Developing Courses in English
for Specific Purposes by H. Basturkmen, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010; Cambridge University
Press for the text on p. 564 excerpted from ‘Outcomes-based language teaching’ by
C. Leung from The Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Language Teaching edited
by Anne Burns and Jack C. Richards. Copyright © 2012 by Cambridge University Press.
Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on p. 568 adapted
from ‘Designing a pre-EAP reading course: practical problems’ by M. A. Frankel in Case
Studies in ELT edited by R. R. Jordan, HarperCollins, 1983; Center for Applied Linguistics
for the text on p. 574–575 excerpted from Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign
Language Teaching by Karl Krahnke. Copyright © 1987 by Center for Applied Linguistics.
Reproduced with the permission of Center for Applied Linguistics; Adult Migrant Education
Service, N. S. W for the text on p. 578 excerpted from Needs Analysis and Objective Setting
in the Adult Migrant Education Program by G. Brindley. Copyright © 1984 by Adult Migrant
Education Service, N. S. W. Reproduced with the permission of Adult Migration Education
Service; Text on pp. 580, 581, 584 excerpted and adapted from Understanding by Design:
A Framework for Effecting Curriculum Developmernt and Assessment by G. Wiggins and
J. McTighe, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006; Text on
p. 582 adapted from Curriculum Renewal in School Foreign Language Learning by J. L.
Clark, Oxford University Press, 1987; Cambridge University Press for the text on pp. 583–
584 from ‘The language curriculum: a social contextual perspective’ by Kathleen Graves
from Language Teaching, Vol. 41, Iss. 02. Copyright © 2008 by Cambridge University
Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University
Press for the text on p. 586 excerpted from ‘Standards and second language teacher
education’ by Anne Katz and Marguerite Ann Snow from The Cambridge Guide to Second
Language Teacher Education edited by Anne Burns and Jack C. Richards. Copyright
© 2009 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge
University Press; Cambridge University Press for the text on p. 594 excerpted from ‘The
role of materials in the language classroom’ by J. Crawford from Methodology in Language
Teaching edited by Jack C. Richards. Copyright © 2002 by Cambridge University Press.
Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University
Press for the text on p. 595 excerpted from ‘Materials development for language learning
and teaching’ by B. Tomlinson in Language Teaching, Vol. 45, Iss. 2. Copyright © 2012 by
Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University
Press; Text on pp. 596–597 adapted from New English 900 by Edwin T. Collier, Macmillan
International, 1977; Oxford University Press for the text on p. 598 excerpted from ‘What
is communicative?’ by Jeremy Harmer from ELT Journal, Vol. 36, No. 3. Copyright © 1982
by Oxford University Press. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press. Text on
p. 609 excerpted from ‘Real language – the vitamin for the student studying English
outside the English-speaking world’ by Joan Saslow; Edinburgh University Press for the
text on pp. 609, 612 adapted from Materials Evaluation and Design for Language Teaching,
First Edition by I. McGrath. Copyright © 2002 by Edinburgh University Press. Reproduced
with permission of Edinburgh University Press; Edinburgh University Press for the text on

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Acknowledgements

p. 611 adapted from ‘Corpora and course books: destined to be strangers forever?’ by
G. Burton in Corpora, Vol. 7, Iss. 1. Copyright © 2012 by Edinburgh University Press.
Reproduced with permission of Edinburgh University Press; Palgrave Macmillan for the
text on p. 614 adapted from The Construction of English: Culture, Consumerism and
Promotion in the ELT Global Coursebook by John Gray. Copyright © 2010 by Palgrave
Macmillan. Reproduced by the permission of Palgrave Macmillan; Text on pp. 615–616
excerpted from ‘Language learning through communication practice’ by Richard Allwright,
ELT Documents (76/3), 1976; Text on pp. 618–619 excerpted and adapted from ‘What do
textbook evaluation schemes tell us? A study of the textbook evaluation schemes of the
three decades’ by M. Riazi in Methodology and Materials Design in Language Teaching
edited by W. Renandya, Regional Language Centre: Singapore, 2003; Cambridge University
Press for the text and illustrations on pp. 628–629 excerpted from Interchange, Student’s
Book 2, 4th edition by Jack C. Richards. Copyright © 2012 by Cambridge University
Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University
Press for the text and images on pp. 630–631 excerpted from Four Corners, Student’s Book 3
by Jack C. Richards and D. Bohike. Copyright © 2011 by Cambridge University Press.
Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University Press
for the text on p. 632 excerpted from face2face, Intermediate Workbook, Spanish edition,
by Nicholas Tims, Chris Redston with Gillie Cunningham. Copyright © 2009 by Cambridge
University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Text on
p. 610 credited from ‘Thinking out of the textbook: Toward authenticity and politeness
awareness’ by C. S. C. Chan in Using Textbooks Effectively edited by L. Savova, TESOL
Quarterly, 2009; SEAMEO Regional Language Centre for the text on p. 639 adapted from
‘Synchronizing language pedagogy and language software’ by D. Healey from The Impact
of Technology on Language Learning and Teaching: What, How, and Why edited by C. War,
2010. Copyright © 2010 by SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Reproduced with
permission of SEAMEO Regional Language Centre; Taylor and Francis Group for the text
on p. 641 adapted from ‘Teaching English language learners through technology’ by
T. Erben, R. Ben and M. Castaneda from Professional Development in Education, Vol. 35,
Iss. 4. Copyright © 2009 by Routledge. Reproduced by permission of Taylor and Francis
Group; Cambridge University Press for the text on pp. 662–663 excerpted from Language
Learning with Technology by Graham Stanley. Copyright © 2013 by Cambridge University
Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Council of Europe for
the text on p. 671 adapted from “Overall Listening Comprehension, B1” in ‘Language use
and the language user/learner’ in Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Copyright © 2001 Council of Europe.
Reproduce by permission of the Council of Europe; Cambridge University Press for the
text on p. 672 excerpted from The Common European Framework of Reference by Spiros
Papa Georgiou and Elif Kantarcioglu. Copyright © 2012 by Cambridge University Press.
Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University
Press for the text on pp. 672–673 excerpted from ‘Outcomes-based language teaching’ by
Constant Leung in The Cambridge Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Language Teaching
edited by Anne Burns and Jack C. Richards. Copyright © 2012 by Cambridge University
Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press; Cambridge University

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 Acknowledgements

Press for the text on pp. 674–675 excerpted from ‘Choosing the right type of assessment’
by J. D. Brown in The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Assessment edited by
Christine Coombe, Peter Davidson, Barry O’Sullivan and Stephen Stoynoff. Copyright
© 2012 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University
Press; John Wiley and Sons for the text on pp. 677, 681 adapted from ‘Current issues in
English language teacher-based assessment’ by Constant Leung and Chris Davison from
TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 43, Iss. 3. Copyright © 1986 TESOL International Association.
Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons; John Wiley and Sons for the text on
pp. 680–681 excerpted from ‘The alternatives in language assessment’ by James D. Brown
and Thom Hudson from TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 32, Iss. 4. Copyright © 1998 TESOL
International Association. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons; Cambridge
University Press for the text on p. 683 excerpted from ‘The assessment development
process’ by B. O’Sullivan in The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Assessment edited
by Christine Coombe, Peter Davidson, Barry O’Sullivan and Stephen Stoynoff. Copyright
© 2012 by Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge
University Press; For the text on pp. 684–685: POPHAM, CRITERION-REFERENCED
MEASUREMENT., 1st, © 1978. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey; Daphne van Weijen for the text
on pp. 691–693 excerpted from Writing Processes, Text Quality, and Task Effects by
Daphne van Weijen. Published by Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics, 2008.
Copyright © 2008 by Daphne van Weijen. Reproduced by permission of Daphne van
Weijen; John Wiley and Sons for the text on p. 699 excerpted from ‘Observing teachers:
three approaches to in-service training and development’ by Donald Freeman from TESOL
Quarterly, Vol. 16, Iss. 1. Copyright © 1982 TESOL International Association. Reproduced
with permission of John Wiley and Sons; Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development for the text on p. 704 adapted from ‘The doors to school improvement’ by
Bruce Joyce in Education Leadership, Vol. 48, No. 8. Copyright © 1991 by the Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Reproduced by permission of the Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development. University of Guanajuato for the text in
p. 708 from Becoming an English teacher: Participants Voices and Identities in an In-Service
Teacher Training Course in Central Mexico by M. Martha Lengeling, Guanajuato, Mexico:
University of Guanajuato. Copyright © University of Guanajuato 2010. Reproduced with
permission of University of Guanajuato; IATEFL for the text on p. 708 adapted from
‘Fulfilling the promise of professional development’ in IATEFL Issues (August-September)
by Diaz Maggioli, 2003. Copyright © 2003 by IATEFL. Reproduced with permission of
IATEFL; For the text on p. 709: Reprinted by permission of the Publisher. From Thomas
R. Guskey and Michael Huberman, eds., Professional Development in Education: New
Paradigms & Practices, New York: Teachers College Press. Copyright © 1995 by Teachers
College, Columbia University. All rights reserved; National Council of Teachers and
English for the text on p. 713 adapted from ‘Youth in the middle: Our guides to improved
literacy instruction’ by Donna Alvermann in Voices from the Middle, Vol. 14, Iss. 2.
Copyright © 2006 by National Council of Teachers of English. Reproduced with permission
of National Council of Teachers of English; Text on pp. 713,715 excerpted and adapted
from ‘Bringing new literacies into the content area literacy methods course’ by S. B. Kadjer

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Acknowledgements

in Contemporary Issues in Technology and Education, Vol. 7, Iss. 2, Center for Technology
and Teacher Education, 2007, (http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss2/general/article3.
cfm); SUNY Press for the text on p. 716 adapted from Teaching Selves: Identity, Pedagogy,
and Teacher Education by Michael J. Danielewicz. Copyright © 2001 by SUNY Press.
Reproduced with permission of SUNY Press; Text on p. 723 adapted from Reflective
Teaching in Second Language Classrooms by Jack C. Richard and C. Lockhart, Cambridge
University Press, 1994.

xviii
Introduction
This book is a response to the need for a comprehensive text that explores key issues
in English language teaching today. The current status of English as an international
language has enormous implications for people worldwide. English is not only the language
of international communication, commerce and trade, and of media and pop culture, but
increasingly, in countries where it was taught in the past as a second or foreign language,
a medium of instruction for some or all subjects in schools, colleges and universities.
English is no longer viewed as the property of countries where it is the mother tongue of
much of the population such as the United States, Australia or the United Kingdom, or of
countries such as Nigeria, India, Singapore and the Philippines where it is used alongside
other local languages; it is an international language that reflects many new contexts and
purposes for its use, as well as the different identities of its users.

Parallel to the changes we have witnessed in the status of English in the last 30 or more
years have been new developments in the language-teaching profession itself. The spread
of English has brought with it the demand by national educational authorities for new
language-teaching policies: for the development of standards for English teaching as well
as teacher preparation, for new approaches to curriculum design, teaching and assessment
and for greater central control over teaching and teacher education. The discipline of
teaching English to speakers of other languages, variously referred to as TESOL, ESOL,
ELT (English language teaching), ESL (English as a second language) and EFL (English
as a foreign language) continually revises its theories, principles and practices, through
the efforts of applied linguists and specialists in the field of second language acquisition,
advancements in language-teaching methodology and enhancements in language-teacher
education, as well as through the practices of creative and skilled classroom practitioners.
This knowledge base has expanded enormously in both breadth and depth in recent
years, as research and theory add to what we know or understand about the teaching and
learning of English. It is important for teachers to understand these developments so that
they can review their own understanding of language teaching and learning and consider
innovations and developments in classroom practices that may be relevant to their own
teaching contexts.

Factors such as these require a rethinking of many of our assumptions about the teaching
of English. Because of the changing needs for English-language skills among today’s
learners and the many different motivations that learners bring to the learning of English,
English teachers today need both a broad and flexible range of teaching skills, as well
as an understanding of the complex and developing knowledge base that supports the
language-teaching profession.

Key Issues in Language Teaching thus provides an account of the issues that are involved
in the teaching of English as a second or foreign language and describes approaches to
the teaching of English, in light of the issues mentioned above. The book covers a wide

xix
Introduction

range of territory, but aims to address the most important issues and topics that teachers
in training generally encounter in their teacher-education courses or that practising
teachers will find useful if they wish to review their own understanding and approaches.
My goal has been to cover the issues in an accessible style, with key points in each
chapter summarized after every section. The book does not assume a prior background
in applied linguistics. It is accessible to those undertaking courses in TESOL and applied
linguistics at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. It is designed to be used as a
core text in TESOL teacher-education programmes, as well as a reference for the many
practising teachers interested in accounts of contemporary issues involved in teaching
English today. The issues covered are those that, in my experience, are of concern to all
teachers and teacher educators, and include such diverse areas as language-learning
theories and methodology, the language learner and lesson planning, the teaching of the
four skills, testing and assessment, and the role of technology. Throughout the book, I
have tried to keep the focus on practical classroom issues, although where relevant, I have
linked these issues to theory and research that can inform them. The chapters may be
read in any order, and cross-references direct the reader to other chapters offering more
background on selected topics.

This book puts each classroom issue into context and considers the implications that
current understanding has on the decisions made in the classroom. The book is equally
appropriate for readers new to a given topic, as well as those who wish to refresh their
understanding, and seeks to present a broad and in-depth overview of the issues.
Reflective questions throughout each chapter, vignettes provided by practicing teachers in
different parts of the world and discussion questions following the chapter are designed
to help make connections to the reader’s experience. Also offered are case studies, lesson
plans and textbook lessons, with guided tasks that allow readers to apply the knowledge
gained in a given chapter. Suggestions for further reading are also given at the end of each
chapter.

The chapters are grouped into four parts, each addressing major themes of importance
to teachers today and exploring the key issues within these areas. The first part, ‘English
language teaching today’, serves as an introduction to the book as a whole. Its chapters
provide an overview of the role of English in the world, theories of second language learning,
an account of the main teaching approaches that are in current or recent use, and an
account of the knowledge and skills base experienced teachers make use of in teaching.
This section, with its overview of both second language learning and methodology, is
equally useful to those wishing to review or expand their knowledge of the research on
these topics, and to those encountering these topics for the first time.

The second part, ‘Facilitating student learning’, deals with the critical role learners play
in language learning. It covers the attributes that influence their approach to learning,
the structure of a language lesson and how to increase its effectiveness, the nature and
function of classroom management strategies and the differences between teaching
learners of different age groups. Each chapter seeks to provide the background knowledge
as well as the conceptual tools that teachers can make use of in order to develop a learner-
centred approach to teaching.

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 Introduction

Part three, ‘Language and the four skills’, covers the systems and skills of English, with
chapters on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, listening, speaking, reading and writing,
as well as the important role of discourse and pragmatics in both speech and writing.
These chapters are equally relevant to those teaching single-skills courses, integrated-
skills courses or any combination of skills that an institution may offer.

In the final part, ‘The teacher’s environment’, the focus is on the resources teachers use.
The section begins with an overview of curriculum planning and course design and then
examines the nature and use of textbooks, the integration of technology in language
courses, testing and assessment, and the nature of professional development and how
teachers can continue their teacher education.

Taken together, the four sections of this book aim to provide teachers and teachers in
training with a foundation of essential knowledge and skills to support their teaching and
ongoing career development.

This book is also available as an e-book. This is one of the first teacher’s reference books
from Cambridge University Press to be offered in an innovative electronic format. This
format has a number of advantages. In addition to ease of access from computers, tablets
and mobile phones, the e-book format allows readers to access short videos, where I
summarize each of the chapters and the major sections of the book. Readers can also
access a variety of links offering additional information, including brief biographies of the
many teachers and teacher educators who have contributed their personal experiences.

xxi
Part

1
English language
teaching today

1
1
The scope of
English and English
language teaching
Overview
This chapter includes the following key issues:
●● What characterizes the global spread of English?

• Factors promoting the use of English around the world.

●● What do we mean by English as an international language?

• Learners’ views of English.

• Varieties of English.
• Using English as a lingua franca.
●● What are the implications for English language teaching curriculums?

• The status of English in the school curriculum.

• English language teaching in English-speaking countries.
• The role of the private sector in English instruction.
• The impact of technology.

3
Part 1 English language teaching today

1.1 Introduction
In recent years, there has been a dramatic change in the scope of English language
teaching worldwide and an increasing demand for competent English language teachers,
as well as for language programmes that can deliver the English language skills and
competencies needed by today’s global citizens. The teaching of English consumes a
considerable portion of available educational resources in many countries, and English is
not necessarily a neutral commodity offering equal opportunities for all. English teachers,
therefore, need to appreciate the special status English has in modern life, what its costs
and benefits are to those who seek to learn it, the different motivations learners may have
for learning English and the different circumstances in which they learn it. This chapter
seeks to clarify some of these issues and to describe how English language teaching is
realized in different parts of the world.

1.2 The global spread of English

The English language has a complex status in today’s world. For some people, it is acquired
as a first language. For some, it may be learned at school, and be essential for academic
and professional success. For others, it may represent a subject that they are required to
study in school, but for which they have no immediate need. And English means different
things to people in different parts of the world. For some, it may arouse positive feelings –
as the language of pop culture, the media and social networking. For others, it may have
associations with colonialism, elitism or social and economic inequality.

English today has a unique status, as a consequence of the role it plays around the
world and its function as an ‘international’ or ‘world language’. It has been described
as the world’s lingua franca. Although some 380 million people are said to speak it as a
first language in countries like Australia, Canada, the United States and Great Britain, a
further 600 million people use it, alongside other languages, as a ‘second language’ – in
countries like Nigeria, India and the Philippines. And another one billion people are said
to be studying it, at any one time, as a ‘foreign language’, in countries like China, South
Korea, France, Germany, Russia and Spain.

English is learned for many different reasons. It may be an essential tool for education
and business for some learners; it may be the language of travel and related activities of
sightseeing for others; and it may be needed for social survival and employment for new
immigrants in English-speaking countries. For some, it may be a popular language for
the media, entertainment, the internet and other forms of electronic communication. For
many, however, it may merely be a language that they are obliged to study, but which they
may never really have any obvious need for.

Despite the emphasis on learning English in many parts of the world, it is worth
remembering that many people can survive perfectly well in their own countries without
ever having to use English (Seargeant, 2009), and that fluency in English does not

4
 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

necessarily offer learners any social or economic advantages. And as some have pointed
out (e.g. Pennycook, 1994: Lin, 2001), the spread of English does not necessarily
promote social equality. Lin (2001) argued that ability in English and access to adequate
opportunities to learn it has a considerable impact on the lives of many learners worldwide,
including both children and adult learners. She suggests that the classroom is a site in
which learners experience a power asymmetry due to the social identities that all learners
and teachers adopt. As a consequence, learners may develop a ‘want-hate’ relationship
with English, one in which they struggle to acquire a language that may eventually put
them at a disadvantage within the classroom context.

? To what extent do you think mastery of English affects your learners’ social
mobility? What other benefits do you think your learners perceive in learning
English?

Factors promoting the use of English around the world

The status of English in the world today has nothing to do with its intrinsic characteristics
as a language. It did not become the world’s second language because it has some special
features that gave it that status or because it is superior in some way to other languages
that might have assumed this role. Rather, the spread of English is the result of a number
of historical and pragmatic factors (McCrum, 2010).

Historical factors
Primary among the factors that account for the spread of English is the fact that it was the
language of the British Empire, and later, that of American expansion. One of the legacies of
the British Empire was the use of English as the primary language needed for government,
communication, commerce and education in those parts of the world under British colonial
administration. And the countries in the Empire were located in many different parts of
the world, from Africa to Asia and the Pacific. When colonial administrations were replaced
by national ones, through independence, English remained as a major working language,
facilitating communication among peoples speaking different languages (i.e. functioning
as a link language or lingua franca) and providing a primary language for administration,
education and the media. The English that became established in these vast territories
took on local characteristics, giving rise to the ‘new Englishes’ that we recognize today,
such as Indian English, Malaysian English or Nigerian English.

Globalization
The spread of English is often linked to globalization, since it provides for high levels
of interconnectedness among nation states and local economies and cultures. The fact
that English has become the primary language for communication within international

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Part 1 English language teaching today

organizations such as the United Nations, the Council of Europe and the European
Union is an example of such globalization. However, as Seargeant observes (2009: 63),
globalization has contributed as much to the ‘idea’ of English as it has to its actual role in
communication. In other words, in many parts of the world, English represents an image
in popular imagination, established through the media, advertising and so on, rather than
a practical necessity or reality for many people.

Scholars and educationists differ in their attitudes towards the global spread of
English. Some (e.g. Graddol, 2006) think this spread is natural, inevitable, neutral and
beneficial, and have been accused of ‘English triumphalism’. Crystal (1997: 32) suggests
that English ‘fosters cultural opportunity and promotes a climate of international
intelligibility’. Others see the spread of English as threatening local cultures, languages
and identities. Phillipson (1992) used the phrase ‘linguistic imperialism’ to explain
how English has come to play a leading role in maintaining the economic and political
dominance of some societies over others. Because of the role of English as the dominant
international language, the theory of linguistic imperialism asserts that other languages
have been prevented from going through processes of development and expansion,
and have been allocated a secondary status, along with the cultures they represent.
Proponents of the theory of linguistic imperialism view the English language teaching
industry as contributing to the propagation of the economic, cultural or religious values
of dominant world powers.

Economic development
Many countries see English as important to their economic development. A recent report
suggested that countries with poor English-language skills also have lower levels of
trade, innovation and income. The report ranked 54 countries where English is not a first
language and claimed that English is key to innovation and competitiveness. The top five
were Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland and Norway. The lowest were Colombia,
Panama, Saudi Arabia, Thailand and Libya. The report also suggested that Italy, Spain
and Portugal were held back as a result of poor English-language skills (New York Times,
28 October 2012).

Communication
Since English is widely taught and used around the world, it is a convenient language
for communication across national boundaries and in a wide range of professions. In
many cases, the speakers (or writers) involved both may be using English as a foreign
or second language (see section 1.3 below). Nerrier (2006), reporting as observer of
communication in situations like these, noted that non-native English speakers are
often better able to communicate with business clients in Korea and Japan than
native speakers of English, due to the fact that their English is not likely to contain
the kind of unfamiliar idioms and colloquial expressions used by native speakers of
English.

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

Business and entrepreneurship

As the United States emerged as a global economic power after World War II, international
trade and commerce became increasingly dependent on the use of English. Today,
large business organizations are increasingly multinational in their operations, and
English is increasingly the most frequent language used for both written and spoken
communication within such organizations. Many of the world’s English language learners
require knowledge of English in order to enter the workforce in their countries and in
order to advance professionally. Similarly, for many young IT graduates in countries like
India, China, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand, knowledge of English provides a chance
to market their expertise outside of their countries. Their fluency in English, together
with their creative and innovative thinking, is part of the driving force of thousands of
successful businesses and companies worldwide.

Education
In many parts of the world where English has traditionally had the status of a school subject,
it is now becoming the medium of instruction, particularly at university level. For example,
since 2014 the Politecnico di Milano – a premium university in Italy – has been teaching its
graduate courses in English (www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17958520). The motivation
for teaching subjects through English is partially to improve the English language skills
of graduates (as with universities in Turkey, where many courses are taught in English).
This trend also reflects the growing need for European universities to offer programmes in
English to attract an international body of students and raise their international profiles –
an aspect of the internationalization of higher education through English. There are now
more than 2,000 such programmes in European universities. It is often assumed that
these courses will be taught by younger lecturers who have themselves spent part of their
education abroad. However, the kind of teaching observed in these situations is reported
to be similar to what is observed at international academic conferences where few people
are native speakers of English: discussion tends to settle around what is described as
the ‘lowest common denominator’. In subjects like mathematics, this may not be a major
problem, but in disciplines where language is more central to intellectual debate, there
is a risk that meaningful scholarly discourse could be compromised. (Aisha Labi, 2011:
Europe’s Push to Teach in English Creates Barriers in the Classroom (http://chronicle.
com/article/article-content/126326/).

Another factor likely to further consolidate the spread of English is the growing popularity
of content-based teaching, or CLIL, as it is referred to in Europe – that is, the use of
English to teach some school subjects (see Chapter 3). (This is referred to as bilingual
education in Central and South America.) The teaching of school subjects in English
may start at secondary school and continue at university. And just as English-medium
education was crucial in establishing local varieties of English in countries like India,
Nigeria and Singapore (see section 1.3 below), we can assume that the teaching of content
subjects through English is likely to produce students who speak English fluently, but
with marked local features.

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Part 1 English language teaching today

Travel
Today’s citizens are often mobile, either moving to a new location for tourism or to seek
employment. The development of tourism within a country is often dependent upon
providing resources in English for visitors, and international travellers generally find that
they need some knowledge of English in order to travel abroad. This provides a reason for
many people to acquire some mastery of the language.

Popular culture
English today is an important language for the expression of western popular culture,
as seen in movies, television and music. It is visible everywhere in sport, in advertising
and in packaging and labelling of consumer items, particularly those aimed at younger
buyers. In some parts of Europe (e.g. Finland), English-language movies and television
programmes are broadcast in English (usually with subtitles), rather than in dubbed
versions, providing young learners with increased opportunities to learn English.

The media
English is the language used in newspapers intended for an international readership,
such as the Bangkok Post or China Daily, and in international magazines like Time and
Newsweek. Similarly, it is used by international television networks, such as CNN and
Al-Jazeera, and for television channels, such as RT, an English-language news channel
which presents the Russian view on global news for an international audience, or CCTV,
which presents the Chinese view of China and the world through English.

A global English language teaching industry

The spread of English is also supported by a global industry that involves publishers, private
and public language-teaching institutions, and testing organizations, such as those offering
international examinations. Two examples from the private language school industry are
illustrative. The Swedish language-teaching company EF (Education First) is the world’s
largest private educator, with over 25,000 teachers and 15 million students worldwide, with
headquarters in Lucerne, Switzerland. In China, supplementary English classes for preschool
and primary school age learners is a multibillion-dollar industry that is expected to grow by
30% per year. The Walt Disney Company has schools in major cities there, and China’s
biggest private-education organization – New Oriental Education and Technology Group –
has some 500 schools and earns over US$60 million a year from children’s English classes.

Symbolism
Although mastery of English is a practical goal for many learners, as noted earlier, in
many parts of the world English has also accrued a value and status that transcends its
role as a communicative resource. It is seen as a symbol of globalization, modernization,

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

technical innovation and progress. Therefore, educational planners believe that English
should have a significant role in a national curriculum, because not to do so would be to
opt out of contemporary views of progressivism. As one writer puts it, English is sometimes
‘ensnared by an ideology that positions English as a language which everyone must know’
(Cozy, 2010: 738), a language that everyone must study for the sake of the few. In an
interesting study, Sayer (2010) examined the social meanings of English in the Mexican
city of Oaxaca, as reflected in the use of English in street signs, shop names and product
brands. He identified six themes or ‘ideas’ that English represents in that context:
●● English is advanced and sophisticated.

●● English is fashion.

●● English is being cool.

●● English is sex(y).

●● English is for expressions of love.

●● English is for expressing subversive identities.

Some describe the attraction of English as representing imagined communities of English

speakers that the learner may wish to join (McKay & Bokhorst-Heng, 2008). This was
the focus of an interesting study by Lamb (2004), who explored the idea of what English
represents in the minds of a group of Indonesian learners of English. For them, it was not
linked to any particular geographical area (such as the United States, Australia or Great
Britain) nor with any particular cultural community (e.g. such as Canadians, New Zealanders
or Singaporeans) but rather was linked in their minds to international culture. This included
international business, the spread of technology, consumerism and materialism, democracy,
tourism and world travel as well as the worlds of fashion, sport and popular music.

The status of English also impacts negatively on people’s views of their own language in some
countries. An observer of the impact of English in Indonesia (Lindsay, 2011: xi) comments:

A quick glance at Indonesian newspapers, advertisements or television shows the extent to

which English is infiltrating and even replacing Indonesian, but more significantly, the extent to
which pride in speaking and writing Indonesian is declining. There was a time when speaking
Indonesian was a sign of modernity, a symbol of the adoption of a broad identity beyond
one’s regional self expressed in one’s regional language. Even twenty years ago, characters in
Indonesian films and advertisements speaking regional languages or heavily regional language
inflected-Indonesian were inevitably portrayed as ‘traditional’ (i.e. of the past), or as lower class,
country hicks. By now, this same image is shifting to Indonesian. To be trendy is to speak
English, or more commonly, heavily English-inflected Indonesian. There seems to be no longer
any pride in speaking or writing Indonesian well.

? Among the factors in this chapter that have promoted the spread of English,
can you suggest the five which you think are most important in establishing
the role of English in the country where you teach (or a country where English
is a second or foreign language)?

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Part 1 English language teaching today

1.3 English as an international language

Learners’ views of English
Learners study English for many different reasons, and many have no choice in doing
so. Their reasons for studying English relate to how English impacts on their present or
future lives, and how they understand and perceive the nature and role of English. The
‘idea’ of English – what it means in the minds of teachers and students – is shaped by
the efforts of applied linguists, educational planners and policy makers, as well as by
the culture of a particular country. The English language teaching profession, as well as
government policy makers, normally articulate the idea of English through reference to
communicative needs, authentic language use and the functional or instrumental value
of English for learners, as opposed to a language that the learner has an emotional and
personal identification with. For many learners, whether they like it or not, English is a
language they must learn. It can be regarded as a form of linguistic and economic capital.
In the twenty-first century, for many people, competence in English adds greatly to an
individual’s capital, a fact that justifies the large amounts of money spent on teaching
and learning it. Learners’ motivations for learning English often reflect this instrumental
perspective (Canagarajah, 2001). Critical educators have also drawn attention to learners’
often ambivalent attitudes towards learning English (Lin, 1999; Canagarajah, 2001).
Many learners need English, but they don’t necessarily want it (Lin, 1999: 394). For some
learners, it is an obstacle that they may resent. Teachers, therefore, need to be sensitive to
their learners’ perceptions of English and not simply assume that they share the teacher’s
views of the value of English.

? What are the main reasons your students are studying English? Do your
students want to learn English, or need to learn it?

The situation in Japan, as described by Seargeant (2009), is perhaps unique. Seargeant

suggests that many people in Japan have an intense fascination with English, as is seen
in acts of cultural display like advertising, and thousands of people devote huge amounts
of time to studying it; yet, the English language has no official status in Japan, nor do
most of the citizens have any real need for it in their everyday lives. Instrumental ambition
for learning English in Japan is much less important than the ‘idea’ of English, that is, its
symbolic meaning. Some observers have suggested that the continued use of grammar-
translation in Japan, the use of ‘decorative English’ in advertisements and popular
culture, and the notion that English is too difficult for Japanese students to master reflect
a particular ‘idea’ of the nature of English in Japan. Seargeant (2009: 56) suggests that
one consequence of relating the concept of Japanese ethnocentrism to foreign-language
learning is that it prioritizes the role of culture in English language teaching, rather than
mastery of spoken English:

The language becomes not so much a tool for international communication, but a living artifact
belonging to a foreign culture. Likewise, native-speaker teachers become specimens of that

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

foreign culture, their role as instructors of specialized knowledge overshadowed by their status
as foreign nationals, so it is the emblematic presence of a foreign culture in the classroom that
is the defining factor of their appointment in schools, their status as language informants being
overshadowed by their status as foreign nationals.

Varieties of English
But when we talk about teaching English, what exactly do we mean by ‘English’? Whose
English are we talking about, and what kind of English? The concept of ‘English’ is really
an abstraction since it refers to a whole range of speech varieties and speech styles, used
differently by people in many parts of the world. In a sense, there is no such thing as
‘English’: there are only ‘Englishes’ – or different ways of using English. Different ways of
using English reflect the different identities people express through their use of English.
Identity may be shaped by many factors, including personal biography, nationality,
culture, working conditions, age and gender.

Due to the complex and diverse functions of English around the world, as well as the
changing status of English in today’s world, finding a convenient way to describe the
different roles English plays is difficult. In some countries, English is the majority
language and the mother tongue, or first language, of the majority of its population, such
as in Australia, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. The applied linguist
Kachru refers to these countries as ‘the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English’
(1992: 356) or the ‘inner circle’. The terms English as a native language (ENL) or English
as a mother tongue have been used to refer to the status of English in these countries. In
countries where English is the dominant first language for most of the population, it is the
main language used in government, education, the media, business, etc. The way English
is spoken in these countries has traditionally been a reference point in teaching English
to speakers of other languages, and these are the countries where the major approaches
to teaching English have also been developed.

However, there are many other parts of the world where English has a different status.
These are multilingual countries where widespread use of English – particularly in
education, government, commerce and the media – is a legacy of colonialism. This refers
to the status of English in many parts of Africa, in Pakistan and India, in Singapore,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Fiji and elsewhere, as noted earlier in this chapter. Kachru
referred to these countries as the ‘outer circle’ and worldwide there are greater numbers
of English speakers in outer circle than inner circle countries. A feature of outer circle
countries is that local varieties of English have emerged there, reflecting the need for
English to accommodate to the cultures of the contexts where it is used. People speak
these newer varieties of English (just as people do when speaking other varieties of English,
such as Australian or South African English) because they express their cultural and
national identity. Older varieties of English, such as American or British English, are not
considered targets for learning in countries where new Englishes have become established
(Foley, 1988). The status of English in these countries has traditionally been referred to
as a second language, and the countries where English has this status as ESL countries.

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Many educators, including myself, object to the use of these terms since they suggest
a secondary status for users of English in these contexts, but a satisfactory alternative
term has not yet emerged. The varieties of English that have developed in these contexts
(largely as a result of English-medium education) have been called new Englishes (Platt
et al., 1984). And since many learners may encounter these new varieties of English, they
need to be represented in materials for teaching listening comprehension. There is one
group of new Englishes in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, sometimes referred
to as South Asian Englishes. There is another group in the former British colonies in East
and West Africa. Another group is found in the Caribbean, and there is the group found in
South-East Asia – Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. Then there is a Pacific group,
such as Fiji.

? To what extent do you think learners should be exposed to many different

varieties of pronunciation – including examples of the new Englishes referred
to above?

In contexts where English is used alongside local languages, but for high domains –
such as education – there is a tendency for speakers of the local language to incorporate
English lexical items into their use of the local language as a sign of social status or to
mark their identity in other ways. For example, in Chennai, in the south Indian state of
Tamil Nadu, and where Tamil is the local language, anglicized Tamil – sometimes referred
to as Tanglish – is fashionable among young people, particularly the English educated.
Some advocates of Tamil complain that the language is being threatened by the influx of
English words. Young people in Hong Kong, similarly, find it natural to mix English words
into their everyday Cantonese. The mixed code, it has been suggested, plays an important
role in marking out the Hong Kong identity, serving as a distinctive linguistic and cultural
marker of ‘Hong Kongness’. In post-apartheid South Africa, many black South Africans
have adopted a local variety of English, laced with words from local languages, as a sign
of freedom – in contrast to Afrikaans, which they may view as the language of oppression
(http://medienportal.univie.ac.at/uniview/detail/artikel/the-image-of-afrikaans-in-
south-africa-part-2/).

? Language is an important way in which our identity is expressed. What are

some ways in which personal identity can be expressed through language?

In many other parts of the world, English is taught as a subject in school, and that may
be necessary for certain practical purposes, but it is not widely used within the country.
Kachru referred to these countries as the ‘expanding circle’. English in expanding circle
countries like China, Japan, Spain and Russia has usually been described as a foreign
language, another term which it is difficult to find a convenient replacement for. In contexts

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

where English is a foreign language, local varieties of English are less likely to emerge,
and the target for learning has traditionally been an external variety of English, such as
British or North American English. However, there is evidence that, for many learners in
these contexts in recent years, speaking English with an accent that reflects features of
the learner’s mother tongue (e.g. a French accent, a Dutch accent, a Korean accent) is no
longer considered a sign of inadequate language mastery, but is instead a valid expression
of cultural identity (Kirkpatrick, 2007).

Nevertheless, a teacher educator notes that learners often have an unsophisticated

understanding of accents:

Learners’ views of accents

New teachers are often confused when interrogated by their students about accents.
My first teaching job was in France where my classes divided themselves into two
groups. Group A decided that they only wanted to learn an ‘American accent’;
Group B only wanted to acquire a ‘British accent’. Both were actually more anti- the
other than pro- their own choice. I come from New Zealand so it was easy for me to
placate Group A by telling them that the New Zealand accent is nearly the same as
the ‘American’ accent and Group B by telling them that the New Zealand accent was
nearly the same as the ‘British’ accent. The nonsense of the whole thing was which
American or which British accent did they mean, and could or should they even be
bothering? It seems that, for all but a very few people, the accent you end up with,
no matter how high your proficiency level, will be that of your L1, and why should it
be any different? Learners do have a strange perception of the importance of accents.
One low-intermediate Korean learner once told me that I couldn’t understand him
because he had an American accent. Actually, it was because he had a very strong
Korean accent, and his knowledge of vocabulary and grammar was only that of a
low-intermediate learner.
Peter Nicoll, teacher and teacher educator, Auckland, New Zealand

? Do your students have a preference for a particular accent in English, such

as British or North American? What do you think are the reasons for their
preference?

Using English as a lingua franca

One of the major functions English fulfils in today’s world is as a ‘link language’ or ‘lingua
franca’, that is, as a means of communication between people who have no other shared
language. This, of course, is the case for Germans using English to communicate with
Russians or Japanese speakers, or for Italians learning English to communicate mainly

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with people who speak another European language, such as Polish or Dutch. Increasingly,
around the world, English is used for communicating in circumstances like these, where it
functions as a ‘common language’ between people who do not share a language. The terms
English as an international language (EIL) and English as a lingua franca (ELF) have been
used to describe the use of English in these situations. ELF has been defined as follows
(Firth, 1996: 240):

[ELF] is a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue
nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of
communication.

Another definition offers the following (House, 1999: 74):

ELF interactions are defined as interactions between members of two or more different
linguacultures in English, for none of whom English is the mother tongue.

The concept of English as an international language (or lingua franca) has a number of
important implications for English teaching.

Learning English as an international language

As mentioned previously, in the past, English was often regarded as the property of ‘native
speakers of English’ and of countries where it has the status of a mother tongue, or
first language, for the majority of the population. It was these varieties of English (and
particularly the standard accents within these varieties) that were considered legitimate
models to teach to second or foreign language learners. And it was also assumed that
English had to be taught in relation to the culture(s) of English-speaking countries. This
picture has changed somewhat today. Now that English is the language of globalization,
international communication, commerce, the media and pop culture, different motivations
for learning it come into play. English is no longer viewed as the property of the English-
speaking world, but is an international commodity. New goals for the learning of English
have emerged, which include ‘interest in foreign or international affairs, willingness to
go overseas to study or work, readiness to interact with intercultural partners . . . and a
non-ethnocentric attitude toward different cultures’ (Yashima, 2002: 57), as well as other
goals, such as friendship, travel and knowledge orientations (Clement and Kruidenier,
1983). The cultural values of the United Kingdom and the United States are often seen as
irrelevant to language teaching, except in situations where the learner has a pragmatic
need for such information. The language teacher no longer needs to be an expert on
British and American culture, or a literature specialist either.

Therefore, new varieties of English reflect the pragmatic needs of using English as a lingua
franca. For example, Bisong (1995) says that in Nigeria, English is simply one of a number
of languages that form the speech repertoire of Nigerians, a language which they learn ‘for
pragmatic reasons to do with maximizing their chances of success in a multilingual and
multicultural society’. English is still promoted as a tool that will assist with educational
and economic advancement, but is viewed in many parts of the world as one that can be

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

acquired without any of the cultural trappings that go with it. Proficiency in English is
needed for employees to advance in international companies and improve their technical
knowledge and skills. It provides a foundation for what has been called ‘process skills’ –
those problem-solving and critical-thinking skills that are needed to cope with the
rapidly changing environment of the workplace, one where English plays an increasingly
important role.

When it was taken for granted that the variety of English which learners needed to master
was a native-speaker one, the choice was often determined by proximity. In Europe, due
to its proximity to the United Kingdom, British English was usually the model presented
in teaching materials. In many other parts of the world, North American English was
normally the target. In some places (e.g. Indonesia), learners are more likely to encounter
Australian English, and this may be the variety of English they feel most comfortable
learning. However, in recent years, there has been a growing demand for North American
English in places where British English was the traditional model, particularly among
young people for whom American English is ‘cool’. It seems, perhaps, that it more closely
resembles their ‘idea’ of English.

The two schools of thought concerning how closely learners should try to approximate
native-speaker usage can be summarized as follows: The traditional view is that mastery
of English means mastering a native-speaker variety of English. The presence of a foreign
accent, influenced by the learner’s mother tongue, was considered a sign of incomplete
learning. Teaching materials presented exclusively native-speaker models – usually
spoken with a standard or prestige accent – as learning targets. The second school of
thought is that when English is regarded as an international language, speakers may wish
to preserve markers of their cultural identity through the way they speak English. In such
cases, learners may regard a French, Italian, Russian or Spanish accent in their English
as something valid – something they do not want to lose. This is a question of personal
choice for learners, and teachers, therefore, should not assume that learners always
want to master a native-speaker accent when they learn English. As one learner puts it,
‘I am Korean, so why should I try to sound like an American?’ This issue has important
implications for the design of textbooks and is discussed in Chapter 18.

? To what extent do your learners want to master a native-like pronunciation?

How do you think they would respond if it was suggested to them that this
wasn’t necessary?

Cosmopolitan English
Another concept that can be used to account for the way English is used in some newly-
established contexts is cosmopolitan English, which can also be regarded as a European
manifestation of English as an international language (Seidlhofer, 2004). Increasingly, in
many European cities English serves as a lingua franca in the workplace, in particular
within multicultural organizations. Many younger people in large cosmopolitan cities these

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Part 1 English language teaching today

days are comfortable and confident using English and speak it with reasonable fluency.
The English these young people learn to speak, however, often is not clearly British, nor
American, though it frequently has more characteristics of American English, perhaps due
to the influence of American pop culture, than the type of English they learned in school
Their accent may reflect their mother tongue, and they may not make a strong effort to
lose it. The people with whom they interact could have five or six different mother tongues.
There may be native speakers of English among them, but not always. Their vocabulary
may have its limitations, and their sentence grammar, likewise, may not always conform
to standard English. They speak cosmopolitan English – a variety of English that has
not yet stabilized and whose characteristics have not yet been fully described. A teacher
comments on cosmopolitan English in practice:

Cosmopolitan English
The concept of cosmopolitan English is a good characterization of the way many
young Europeans use English. Take the case of the children of a family I know
who moved to Finland from Brazil. They were raised by a Finnish mother and a
Brazilian father, speaking Portuguese as their principal language, but also developed
reasonable fluency in spoken English, prior to moving back to Finland. The two
young-adult sons speak minimal Finnish and are more comfortable speaking
English. Their peer group are mainly Finnish, but they use English almost exclusively
among themselves. Their Finnish friends have no objection to using English – they
regard it as ‘cool’ and see it as giving them an edge. Their English is cosmopolitan
English.
I think cosmopolitan English is a phenomenon more common in certain parts of
Europe than in other parts of the world. It explains why young people in the northern
European countries, such as Sweden and Finland, speak English so well when they
leave school, and why students in countries like Spain, Italy, Korea and Japan, of
the same age, have such difficulties with English. It isn’t because the teaching is
much better in some parts of Europe. Talk to young people from Finland, Sweden,
Denmark and Holland, and they typically tell you that they learned most of their
English from the media, from watching TV programmes and movies in English. Some
80% of the films shown in Western Europe are imported either from Britain or the
US. But the important fact about the media in these countries is that foreign movies
are not usually dubbed: subtitles in the mother tongue are provided, giving students
a bilingual mode of developing their comprehension and, to some extent, their oral
skills, something which doesn’t happen in those countries like Spain, Italy and Japan,
where English learning is much less successful. Movies and other English-language
based visual media there are almost always dubbed, and students go through the
educational system rarely encountering a word of English outside of their English
lessons.
Dino Mahoney, teacher, teacher educator and writer, London, United Kingdom

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

Some European linguists, such as Seidlhofer (2004), believe that the increased use of
English in Europe as a lingua franca will lead to a variety of cosmopolitan Englishes, or
‘Euro Englishes’, and that there are already clear signs of the emergence of European
English. Other new Englishes, such as Japanese English, are also the focus of description
(e.g. Hino, 2012). Seidlhofer believes it will be possible to provide descriptions of these
varieties of English as they stabilize, and that eventually these descriptions will be codified
in grammars and dictionaries. Others, such as Jenkins (2007), believe a core of Euro
English will emerge, but there will be different varieties of Euro English, each with its own
distinctive features, depending on the learner’s mother tongue (Kirkpatrick, 2007). So as
English becomes one of the primary languages of the European Union, British English may
eventually become merely one sub-variety of it, along with French English, Dutch English,
Danish English and so on. Widdowson (in Howatt and Widdowson, 2004: 361) commented
on this situation and suggested that by acknowledging the different types of lingua-francas
used, there was no intention to propose a reduced form of English. Rather it was simply to
recognize that the modified varieties of English which are being used should be accepted as
legitimate varieties that develop through the use of English as an international language.
He argued that the functional capacity of the language is not in fact being restricted, but it
is actually being enhanced, giving its users the opportunity to express their own identities
through English rather than the socio-cultural identity of others.

? Is the notion of cosmopolitan English relevant to your teaching context? Why,

or why not?

Impact on native speakers of English

In the past, native speakers of English tended to assume that when they spoke English
to non-native speakers, it was the responsibility of the other person to do their best to
understand native-speaker English. Today, this might be regarded as a sign of what has
been termed ‘cultural imperialism’ and that it is in fact the responsibility of native speakers
to make themselves understood when they use English with non-native speakers. Native
speakers of English who use English daily as an international language, and particularly
English language teachers and teacher educators, need to develop the ability to use a type
of English that makes use of high-frequency vocabulary and that avoids colloquialisms,
vague language, obscure syntax or a marked regional accent or dialect – particularly
when teaching students with limited proficiency in English. Some have termed this
variety of English Globish (Nerrier, 2006). In Europe, meetings of the European Union
are increasingly carried out in English, since it is argued that English is the language
that excludes the fewest people present. However, this comes at a cost, since many native
speakers of English are notoriously hard for colleagues in Brussels to understand, and it
is often observed that they talk too quickly and use obscure idioms.

When dealing with global business, native speakers are often at a disadvantage when
it comes to brokering deals in their mother tongue. In 2005, Korean Airlines chose a

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Part 1 English language teaching today

French supplier for its flight simulators, rather than a simulator made by a British
manufacturer, because the ‘offshore’ international English of the French manufacturer
was more comprehensible and clearer than the English spoken by the manufacturer from
the United Kingdom.

Consequently, some language schools are now offering courses in offshore English to
help CEOs develop a more comprehensible way of using English when working abroad.
Offshore English is said to consist of 1,500 or so of the most common English words and
a syntax that is stripped of unnecessary complexity and vagueness. In classes in offshore
English, native speakers are taught to speak core English, to avoid idioms (e.g. to say make
every effort instead of pull out all the stops), to use Latin-based words like obtain instead
of those with Germanic roots such as get, to avoid colloquial usage and strong regional
accents, and to use a slower rate of speaking.

? Can you suggest ways in which teachers who are native speakers of English
often modify their English when teaching to make it more comprehensible to
learners?

1.4 Implications for English language

teaching
The growing demand for English worldwide and the changing nature of English itself as it
assumes the role of the world’s second language have had an important impact on policies
and practices in English language teaching.

The status of English in the school curriculum

In view of the role of English worldwide, it is not surprising that, in most countries,
English language teaching is a major educational priority and financial commitment.

Due to the importance governments attribute to the learning of English, in most countries
today, learners in state as well as private schools are required to take English courses
at some stage in their school careers. The form in which English instruction is provided,
however, may differ considerably. For example, it may be a required or optional subject at
grade school / elementary school and a required subject at middle school / junior high or
high school / senior high. If English is taught at grade school, a gradual introduction to
English is normally provided, the nature of the course sometimes depending on whether
the children’s mother tongue uses a Roman alphabet or a different writing system, such as
Chinese or Arabic. English may be taught as a subject in its own right, or it may be used
as a medium of instruction for some or most school subjects. The intensity with which
English instruction is provided may range from a few hours per week, at grade school, to
one or more hours per day, at middle school and high school. In many parts of Asia and

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

Latin America, English is generally a required subject in state schools. However, the time
devoted to it is very limited, large class sizes make teaching difficult and the curriculum
often fosters an exam-oriented or grammar-based approach to teaching. In China, more
than 100 million people are currently studying English. In France, 96% of school children
are studying English as an elective subject at school.

? What is the official status of English in the country where you teach (or a
country you are familiar with), and what is its status in the national curriculum?

Countries regularly evaluate their curriculums, as shown by this information provided by

a teacher in Japan:

In Japan, English language policy is determined by the Ministry of Education, Culture,

Sports, Science and Technology, [known as] MEXT (2008), and disseminated to local
school administrators and teachers. The focus of the policy for foreign-language education
is on ‘communicative English’, but content coverage and entrance-exam preparation are
in reality the main focus of practising teachers. However, the 2013 curriculum aims to
improve the content and delivery of English education, with an emphasis on language
across the curriculum. Central to the 2013 curriculum guidelines is the concept of gengo
ryoku (language ability), implying a coordinated focus on expression in Japanese across the
curriculum. It is assumed that skills learned in the first language will transfer more easily to
foreign-language instruction. For example, for senior-high-school English, more emphasis
will be placed on speaking and listening, in an integrated-skills approach, and less of a
focus on the grammar-translation approach of previous years.

In many countries, courses at secondary level typically focus on grammar, vocabulary

and the four skills, but also reflect teaching trends in local contexts, where in some
places, approaches such as content and language integrated learning (CLIL) may be
used (see Chapter 3). Doubtless, the styles of teaching that occur around the world vary
considerably; however, for many students, the following approach, observed in English
classes in Indonesia (Lamb, 2009: 240), would be familiar:

My observation notes report teacher-dominated lessons based on a standard textbook with

a grammatico-lexical syllabus and offering a set of traditional activities, including teacher
explanations of language, reading-comprehension tasks, reading texts aloud, grammar and
vocabulary exercises, and feedback sessions involving pupils writing their answers up on the
blackboard. Oral work consisted mainly of teacher questions, plus some choral chanting.

Many students may have to take a local or national examination in English, as part of their
school studies. The students’ English teacher may be someone from their own country,
or the teacher may be someone from another country. In the former case, the teacher’s
English proficiency may vary from minimal to advanced. In some countries (e.g. Japan,

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Part 1 English language teaching today

South Korea, China), young graduates from English-speaking countries (‘native speakers’)
are often employed to work, sometimes alongside local teachers, as conversation teachers.
In many countries, English is a required subject for entry into university and is also
a required subject for freshman/first-year university students. In some contexts (e.g.
China), a pass in an English examination may be a requirement for university graduation.
The kinds of English courses offered at university level may vary considerably. They may
be general-English courses, based on the assumption that the students did not master
enough basic communication skills during their school English programme, or, in some
cases, they may be courses that prepare students for English-medium instruction (if some
of their university courses will be taught in English). The use of English to teach graduate,
and even undergraduate, courses is now a growing trend in many parts of the world.
When this occurs, students entering university may be required to take an intensive
English course to prepare them to follow courses taught in English, particularly if they are
majoring in science or technology. These are called Foundation or Pre-sessional courses in
the United Kingdom, and are sometimes referred to as Preparatory courses or simply Prep
courses in other countries (e.g. Turkey).

English language teaching in English-speaking countries

While English language teaching is a major educational enterprise in countries where
English has the status of a foreign language, it also plays an important role in ‘English-
speaking’ countries such as Australia, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.
In 2010, there were 40 million foreign-born residents in the United States, some 17% of
whom arrived between 2005 and 2010, and many of whom would be described as having
limited English proficiency (LEP). The growth in numbers of LEP students in recent years
has major implications for state/public schools in the United States.

English-teaching programmes in countries like these serve a variety of different kinds of

learners, including refugees and immigrants as well as students from different parts of
the world seeking to improve their English. Such programmes involve both the public and
private sector. For example, in Australia, the Adult Migrant Education Programme (AMEP)
is a nationally administered language programme and one of the largest programmes
of its kind in the world (www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/help-with-english/amep/
facts-figures/amep-overview.htm).

The programme reflects the government’s commitment to long-term sustainable settlement

outcomes for newly arrived migrants, through integrated, targeted and well-designed
programmes that support clients in their transition to life in Australia. Gaining English language
proficiency is key to successfully settling in Australia . . . The number of hours of free English
courses offered depends on the individual client’s circumstances. All AMEP clients have access
to up to 510 hours of English courses for five years from their visa commencement date or the
number of hours it takes to reach functional English (whichever comes first).

Similarly, in Canada, the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC)

programme provides English (and French) language courses for adult permanent residents.
Immigrants who wish to take a course contact the nearest LINC assessment centre, or

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

immigrant-services organization, for an assessment of their language needs and are

referred to LINC course providers in their community. The content of these courses follows
the standardized descriptions of an individual’s language proficiency at 12 benchmark
levels (www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/goc/linc.shtml).

In the United States, ESOL (English for speakers of other languages) curriculums are
developed by education departments in individual states, based on the specific needs
of each state, and are often framed around descriptions of competencies linked to state
standards for English as a second language instruction.

The kinds of English courses offered in these contexts depend on the learners’ individual
needs. For example, ‘mainstreaming’ courses seek to prepare school-age learners to study
in primary and secondary schools and to participate in the mainstream curriculum, and
are often content-based (see Chapter 3). Some schools have procedures in place to recruit
international students at high school or college level, since they can be an important source
of revenue for the school. If students have limited English-language skills on arrival, they
are often given intensive English-language support prior to entering regular classes (or
sometimes parallel with them), to assist them with the language skills needed to master
content and tasks in English, i.e. to enter the mainstream. Outside of school-related
courses, social-survival courses prepare learners to participate in the communities in
which they live. These courses aim to meet students’ basic daily communicative needs and
are generally competency based (see Chapter 3). Occupational or work-related courses
seek to develop the English language skills or competencies needed in different fields of
employment.

Tertiary institutions provide English language support for students in a variety of

ways. Students may be tested on entry to determine if they need support for academic
courses (such as support offered through courses in academic reading, writing, listening
or speaking), and courses will typically be provided through a language centre or ESL
department. Drop-in centres may also be available, where students can get individual
assistance in essay writing, etc. Approaches used in such courses are often skill-based
(i.e. based on a set of common skills that can be applied across many different disciplines)
or text-based (see Chapters 3 and 16). General English may be delivered as a short,
intensive course and, in some countries, may be linked to Cambridge English Language
Assessment exams (described below).

? What is your teaching context? What kinds of students do you teach or plan to
teach? What are their goals in learning English?

The role of the private sector in English instruction

In many countries where the state school system provides limited English instruction (e.g.
Central and South America, Japan, Korea and China), parents may send their children
to private institutes for extra English instruction after school – sometimes for up to ten
hours a week. Many teachers from English-speaking countries find employment in private

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Part 1 English language teaching today

institutes when they work overseas. Whereas in the state school system local textbooks
are generally used, sometimes prepared by the ministry of education, private institutes
generally use commercial materials published by the major international publishers.

Private language schools often represent a response to a recurring problem in many

countries – the ‘false-beginner syndrome’. Children may commence studying English at
state primary schools, but receive only one or two hours of instruction a week. By the
time they enter secondary school they have retained very little of the language they had
learned, so instruction starts again at beginner level. But due to the limited exposure
to English they often receive at secondary school, and the grammar and exam-based
focus of teaching, when they leave secondary school their English is still rudimentary. If
they enter college or university, they then recommence learning English, often again at
beginner level. Learning English can be a source of frustration for such learners who find
that despite several years of attempting to learn English, they have to keep starting again.
As a response to the limited opportunities for learning English in state/public schools
in many countries, a parallel system of private language schools exists to cater for those
students who can afford to take additional English-language courses. The provision of
English courses to fee-paying private students is a major industry worldwide. Students
in such courses may simply want to improve their general English communication skills,
since these may not have been emphasized in their school English programme. Some may
have specific needs, such as English for business or travel, and some may want to enter
local or overseas colleges and universities for tertiary studies.

? How significant is the private language school industry in your country? What
kinds of students do the schools cater for?

In addition to offering general English, private language schools often prepare students for
international examinations, such as TOEFL, IELTS or TOEIC1. In some countries, schools
may offer courses linked to the ‘Cambridge Exams’ – a set of examinations developed by
Cambridge English Language Assessment which place students according to five levels of
proficiency, from basic (1) to advanced (5):

1 Cambridge English: Key (KET)

2 Cambridge English: Preliminary (PET)

3 Cambridge English: First (FCE)

4 Cambridge English: Advanced (CAE)

5 Cambridge English: Proficiency (CPE)

Private institutes may use their own school-based teaching materials, commercial
textbooks or a mixture of both. Teachers may be native speakers or trained local teachers.

1 TOEFL and TOEIC are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (ETS). This product is not
endorsed or approved by ETS.

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

In recent years, too, there has been a rapid expansion in private-language institute courses
directed at young learners and teens.

A teacher educator comments on teachers who teach at both state and private institutions:

Teachers’ roles
Pre-service teacher training is usually geared towards employment in a particular
sector: primary schools, middle schools, secondary schools or universities. The
curriculum and teaching methods presented point to this goal. Overseas ‘experts’
running in-service courses in Southeast Asia are usually asked to work with teachers
from the state system, although, in my experience, many teachers actually have two
roles. By day, they teach at the state institution from which they have been sent on
the course, but in the evenings, they teach at private language schools.
One can only admire people who move between the state textbook, with its
culturally appropriate content, to one of the commercial textbooks with scenarios
about flying overseas and booking into international hotels. (The popular preparation
classes for international examinations are another story.) Teachers are remarkably
adaptable. They will take ideas that they think are realistic and apply them, as well
as they can, to both their classrooms. But international trainers need to keep in
mind that spare time is one thing missing. An activity taking hours of preparation
is unlikely to be acted on. After all, like teachers everywhere, they do have
responsibilities beyond the classroom.
Marilyn Lewis, teacher and teacher educator, Auckland, New Zealand

The impact of technology

In recent years, there has been a substantial change in where and how learning takes
place. 40 or 50 years ago, teaching mainly took place in the classroom and in the language
laboratory. The teacher used ‘chalk and talk’ and the textbook. Technology amounted to
the tape recorder and overhead projector. However, with the emergence of communicative
language teaching in the 1970s and, more recently, with the emergence of the internet,
learning began to move away from the teacher’s direct control and into the hands of
learners, through the use of individualized learning, group work and project work, as
well as online learning. The physical contexts for learning have also seen many changes.
Learning is not confined to the classroom: it can take place at home, or in other places,
as well as at school, using the computer and other forms of technology. Today’s teachers
and learners live in a technology-enhanced learning environment. Videos, computers,
interactive whiteboards and the internet are accessible to almost all teachers and learners,
and the language laboratory has been turned into a multimedia centre that supports
online learning. Technology has facilitated the shift from teacher-centred to learner-
centred learning, advocated by proponents of communicative language teaching. The role
of technology is discussed in Chapter 19.

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Part 1 English language teaching today

1.5 Conclusion
The status of English in today’s world raises many issues for teachers and learners of
English. The themes we have covered in this chapter, including the contexts where English
is spoken, perceptions of English as a lingua franca and implications for English language
teaching curriculums, can perhaps best be summarized through a set of principles, or
considerations, that teachers need to keep in mind.

1. English means different things to different people

Learners associate English with a variety of values and roles, and these may influence
their attitudes towards learning English and the kinds of learning experiences they prefer.
Some may associate English with things they enjoy, such as pop culture, entertainment
or the internet. For some, English may be viewed as something that will have economic
value for them in the future, but this may not be the case for others. And not all learners
may be seeking to acquire an overall general communicative ability in English, nor be
aiming to acquire a native-like mastery of a particular variety of English. Teachers will
need to realize that many learners may be satisfied with making themselves intelligible in
English and speaking English in a way that reflects their cultural identity. All learners are
different, as a Taiwanese learner cited by Holliday (2009b: 22) comments:

Although I did feel comfortable to be told that I did not have to be native-speaker like, I would
definitely feel upset if I could not reach my own expectation in pronunciation . . . I just wanted to
draw attention to the psychological part, the feeling, how people feel about themselves in terms
of speaking . . . If we take Jenkins’ view and tell them to stay where they are – you don’t need to
twist your tongue this way and that, and it’s perfectly all right to keep your accent – at some point,
we would terribly upset the learners because they might want to . . . I prefer to speak for myself.

The complex roles that English plays in different situations suggests that a ‘balanced
approach’ to teaching English is appropriate (Farrell & Martin, 2009). This requires teachers
‘to be culturally sensitive to the diversity of contexts in which English is taught and used’
(McKay, 2002: 128). Thus, the variety of English emphasized should be based on the
teaching context, the teacher’s abilities and style, as well as their learners’ needs and goals,
both educationally and culturally. In such an approach, there is no single correct choice for
all contexts (Christenson, 1992). Thus, choosing to teach standard British English in Doha
can be just as appropriate as choosing to teach ‘Chinese English’ in Beijing.

2. Language teaching is a localized activity

Despite the global nature of English language teaching, each language-teaching situation
is unique, and global solutions to local conditions are seldom effective. Language-teaching
programmes need to reflect the individual contexts in which they operate. As Clark (1987:
11) comments:

A language curriculum is a function of the interrelationships that hold between subject-specific

concerns and other broader factors embracing socio-political and philosophical matters,

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

educational value systems, theory and practice in curriculum design, teacher experiential
wisdom and learner motivation. In order to understand the foreign language curriculum in
any particular context, it is, therefore, necessary to attempt to understand how all the various
influences interrelate to give a particular shape to the planning and execution of the teacher/
learning process.

Seidlhofer (2004: 227–8) reflects a similar perspective, when she comments on the
implications of English as a lingua franca (ELF):

Rather than just being trained in a restricted set of pre-formulated techniques for specific
teaching contexts, teachers will need a more comprehensive education which enables them to
judge the implications of the ELF phenomenon for their own teaching contexts, and to adapt
their teaching to the particular requirements of their learners. Such teacher education would
foster an understanding of the processes of language variation and change, the relationship
between language and identity, the importance of social-psychological factors in intercultural
communication and the suspect nature of any supposedly universal solutions to pedagogical
problems.

3. Learners need to appreciate the diversity of English

and the varieties of English that exist in the world
Learners should have the opportunity to hear different varieties of English, including ‘new
Englishes’, as well as more familiar varieties of English (and perhaps to appreciate that
English is not ‘owned’ by users of English in English-dominant countries, such as the
United States, Canada and the United Kingdom). The internet provides a rich resource
for illustrating how English is used around the world. A teacher comments on the use of
Singapore English, or Singlish:

Learners’ views of varieties of English

Outside the ESL classroom, our foreign students are exposed to a colloquial form
of English, broadly known as Singlish. What might be a more constructive way
of helping our students think through issues concerning Singlish in our linguistic
environment so that they do not simply see themselves in an adverse situation, where
they must swim against the tide of ‘deviant’ language? I was pleasantly surprised by a
group of Vietnamese students I was interviewing. As they were aware of the different
regional varieties of Vietnamese spoken in their own country, they told me it was
acceptable that Singaporeans spoke English the way they did, even though it was not
the variety they would want to acquire themselves. These students were also able to
identify salient features of Singlish. As teachers who are ourselves users of non-native
forms of English, we need to be proficient, informed and confident enough to discuss
these issues with our students, be aware of how they view our local variety and also
encourage them to build a realistic set of expectations as regards their own accents.

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Part 1 English language teaching today

How do we set the stage for learning so that they can ultimately understand that in
the reality of English language learning today, what truly exist [as stated by Kachru]
are ‘nativized webs of language structure and functional appropriateness’?
Chee Soo Lian, teacher and teacher educator, Singapore

4. Interlocutors may not be native speakers of English

Traditional views of English teaching often seek to prepare students to be able to manage
interactions with native speakers of English. This may still be a relevant aim for learners
who are studying English in an English-speaking environment. However, for many learners,
their uses of English may mainly be with other speakers of English as an ‘international
language’. With globalization, English language learners need to be prepared for future
encounters with speakers of varieties of English that differ from their own. One way to
prepare learners is to expose them to different varieties of English (Matsuda, 2003). There
are many examples of English varieties available on the internet, radio and television, and
in different newspapers from around the world (Cook, 1999). For example, on the internet,
teachers and learners can access the International Corpus of English (ICE) (www.ucl.
ac.uk/english-usage/ice), which provides samples of many national and regional varieties
of English, and they can also access World Newspapers and Magazines (www.world-
newspapers.com), which provides links to English newspapers from around the world. On
the internet, it is also possible to view English television channels from around the world,
such as New Delhi television (www.ndtv.com) from India, in which the broadcasters use
Indian English.

5. Learners’ English should be valued

Regardless of the English variety that teachers may choose to teach, learners should
be reminded that the chosen model is an example of just one type of English, and that
the learners’ own English is valuable, even though it may differ significantly from the
model presented in class. Some educators argue that teachers can encourage learners
to ‘refer to idiomatic expressions of their own language and enrich the communicative
dialect of English with exotic and poetic elements’ (El-Sayed, 1991: 166). For example,
Dutch speakers of English might say, ‘If you need help, just pull on the bell’, which is
a word-for-word translation of a Dutch expression. Although this expression is not one
that a native speaker of English would use, the message is clear, so there is perhaps
no need to ‘correct’ the speakers or to provide an alternative English expression. Thus,
rather than being thought of as unsuccessful speakers of standard English, learners will
be considered successful English-language users who make contributions to their speech
community. This change in perspective, it is suggested, can increase learners’ confidence
and willingness to communicate in English (Cook, 1999). Hence, Kramsch (1993: 28)
argues that learners can start using the foreign language ‘not merely as imperfect native
speakers, but as speakers in their own right’.

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

6. Native speakers need to use English in ways that

facilitate communication
Native-speaker teachers of English need to recognize that the way they use English
with other native speakers, and with people from their own linguistic and cultural
backgrounds, is not necessarily helpful in contexts where English is an international
language. They should learn how to monitor their speech to avoid the use of obscure
idioms and expressions and endeavour to use English in a way that facilitates cross-
cultural communication.

7. Learners need to develop intercultural communicative

competence
From the viewpoint of English as an international language, the goal of English teaching
is not merely to develop communicative skills in English. Byram (1988: 15) argues that
language learning provides ‘the opportunity for emancipation from the confines of learners’
native habits and culture, with the development of new perceptions into foreign and native
cultures alike’. Learning English thus becomes an opportunity to compare cultures, and
for learners to validate their own cultural and linguistic heritages.

In sum, no monolithic standard of English exists as a target for English learning worldwide.
Learners in different parts of the world have very different motivations for learning English,
for the kind of English they seek to acquire and for the level of proficiency they need –
and language-teaching policies and practices in different parts of the world reflect these
differences. The expanding role of English in many countries prompts regular review of
curriculum policies and associated teaching practices. The need for citizens with better
English skills feeds the demand by national educational authorities for new language-
teaching policies, for greater central control over teaching and teacher education, for
new and more effective approaches to teaching English, and for standards and other
forms of accountability. Yet despite the resources expended on English language teaching
worldwide, in almost every country results normally do not match expectations – hence,
the constant pressure to adopt ever-changing curriculums, teaching methods, materials
and forms of assessment. As a consequence, the language-teaching profession is obliged
to continually review its knowledge base and instructional practices through the efforts
of applied linguists, researchers, teachers and teacher educators. Throughout this book,
we will focus on the process of reflection and review of issues, approaches and practices
in English language teaching.

Discussion questions
1 Technology (particularly the internet) has had a major impact on the role of English in
the world. How has the ubiquity of the internet impacted English language education
in your country?

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Part 1 English language teaching today

2 Listen to an English language news broadcast available in your country. To what

extent would the voices heard in this material expose students to different varieties of
English? Consider both the programme announcers and those interviewed.

3 What examples of English being used as a lingua franca have you encountered – that
is, as a means of communication between people who have no other shared language?

4 Consider this quote (Bruthiaux, 2010: 367): ‘In developing, resource-poor EFL settings
especially, the top priority for students must be to acquire some English (for whatever
purpose), with little time available and minimal resources from teachers who often lack
proficiency and may have little awareness of the outside world. As a general principle,
given the difficulties inherent in learning any L2 beyond early adolescence, models
should be kept constant, with variation minimized or even artificially excluded.’ Do you
agree? Why, or why not?

5 Do you think the ‘core English’ which is currently featured in ‘offshore-English’

courses should provide the model for all users of English as an international language –
native speakers/writers and non-native speakers/writers of English alike?

6 Employing young native-speaker graduates to work as English conversation teachers,

in public schools in places such as Japan, China and South Korea and in private
institutes worldwide, suggests that the ideal teacher of a foreign language is a native
speaker of that language. What advantages do a) native speakers, and b) non-native
speakers, bring to language teaching?

7 Look at principles/considerations 1–7 presented in the Conclusion part of this chapter.

Can you think of ways you could implement these principles/considerations in your
teaching?

Further reading
Alsagoff, L., Mackay, S. L., Hu, G. and Renandya, W. A. (eds.) (2012) Principles and
Practices for Teaching English as an International Language, New York: Routledge.
Cooke, M. and Simpson, J. (2008) ESOL: A Critical Guide, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2001) ‘The future of Englishes’, in A. Burns and C. Coffin (eds.), Analyzing
English in a Global Context, London: Routledge, pp. 53–64.
Graddol, D. (2001) ‘English in the Future’, in A. Burns and C. Coffin (eds.), Analyzing
English in a Global Context, London: Routledge, pp. 26–37.
Graddol, D. (2006) English Next, London: British Council.
Jenkins, J. (2007) English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and Identity, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

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 Chapter 1 The scope of English and English language teaching

Kohn, K. (2011) ‘English as a lingua franca and the standard English misunderstanding’, In
A. De Hower and A. Wilton (eds.) English in Europe Today: Sociocultural and Educational
Perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 71–
94.
McKay, S. L. (1992) Teaching English Overseas: An Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
McKay, S. L. and Bokhorst-Heng, W. (2008) International English in its Sociolinguistic
Contexts, New York: Routledge.
Saxena, M. and Omoniyi, T. (eds.) (2010) Contending with Globalization in World Englishes,
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Seargeant, P. (2012) Exploring World Englishes: Language in a Global Context, New York:
Routledge.
Sharifian, F. (ed.) (2009) English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical
Issues, Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

29