Table of Contents

Introduction – Section A...................................................................................2

Research Process.............................................................................................3
Here are some examples of South African mass media studies...................5
The Scientific Method....................................................................................6
Section B - Steps in the Scientific Method.....................................................6
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD..........................................7
Process of identifying a research problem in mass media............................9
Section D: Concepts, Constructs, and Variables.........................................12
Section E: Differentiating Research Methods..............................................15
Strengths and Weaknesses Using South African case studies like the
analysis of media coverage on social issues...............................................17
Content Analysis......................................................................................17
Experiments.............................................................................................18
Bibliography...................................................................................................19
Introduction – Section A
“Regardless of how the word research is used, it essentially means one thing: an
attempt to discover something. We all do this every day.” (Wimmer, 2012)

The last few years have seen a steady evolution in the field of mass media study. Mass
Media Research is the Information collected from any kind of mass communication and
is studied. Social media research is the practice of using qualitative and quantitative
research methods to analyze data from social media platforms so that the audience
may understand it more easily. Tools and different data extraction strategies are used in
social media research to compile information on particular subjects, events, news,
blogs, and other platforms, researchers now employ sophisticated social listening and
audience intelligence techniques to aggregate data.

There are two types of research: informal, with few (or no) specified plans or processes,
and formal, with a researcher following incredibly detailed, well-defined methods. Both
make use of rigorous techniques and the absence of exacting procedures in informal
research do not imply that the methodology is flawed in formal study.

These methods can be beneficial or detrimental, depending on how the study is

conducted.

The term "research process" refers to an organized and methodical strategy that
includes gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data or information in order to address a
particular issue or provide a response to a specific research topic.

Research Process
The research process is as follows:

Determine the Problem or Research Question

The process of conducting research begins with this. It entails determining an issue or
query that requires attention. A particular topic of interest should be the emphasis of the
research question, which should also be relevant and specific.
Conduct an Evaluation of the Literature
The next stage is to perform a literature review after the research question has been
determined. In order to determine any knowledge gaps or areas in which additional
study is required, this entails analyzing the body of prior research and literature on the
subject. A review of the existing literature guarantees that the research is original and
helps to establish a theoretical framework for the study.

Establish a hypothesis or set of goals for your research.

The investigator can develop a hypothesis or set of goals based on the research topic
and assessment of the literature. Research objectives are certain targets that the
researcher hopes to accomplish through the research, whereas a hypothesis is a claim
that can be examined to see if it holds up.

Formulate a Research Strategy and Procedure

In order to test the hypothesis or accomplish the study goals, the researcher must
create a research strategy and methodology that will allow for data collection and
analysis. The sample size, data collection strategies, and data analysis procedures that
will be employed should all be covered in detail in the research strategy.

Gather and Examine Data

In this step, data are gathered and analyzed in accordance with the procedure and
research strategy. Numerous techniques, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or
experiments, can be used to gather data. Data must first be cleaned and arranged
before being subjected to statistical and analytical methods and having the outcomes
interpreted.

Evaluate the Data and Draw Conclusions

The researcher has to evaluate the results and make inferences after considering the
data. To ascertain whether or not the hypothesis was supported, this entails evaluating
the validity and reliability of the results. A discussion of the consequences of the
findings and any research constraints must also be taken into account by the
researcher.
Discuss the results of this study
Lastly, the researcher needs to share the findings in a journal, presentation, or study
report. A thorough explanation of the whole research process, including the research
question, literature review, procedure, evaluation of data, findings, and conclusions,
should be included in the study report. Recommendations for additional study in the
field should also be included in the report.

Examine and reappraise

The research planning and methods should be reviewed and revised as needed
because the process of doing research is iterative. Researchers ought to evaluate the
caliber of their materials and procedures, ponder over their conclusions, and identify
opportunities for development.

Ethical Issues to Take into Account

Ethics must be given careful consideration at every stage of the research process. This
includes securing informed permission, safeguarding confidentiality, and privacy,
preventing any possible harm to members or their communities, and making sure the
research design safeguards the wellbeing of research participants.

Distribution and Utilization

Distributing the research's findings and using it in practical contexts is the last step in
the process. Scholars can disseminate their discoveries via academic journals,
conference presentations, or publicity in the media. The research can be applied to
produce solutions, enhance practice in the relevant field, or provide guidance for
governmental decisions.

Here are some examples of South African mass media studies:

“The state of South African media: a space to contest democracy”
(“The state of South African media: a space to contest democracy -
Springer”)
This article evaluates the degree to which the media became a place where democracy
was questioned and gives a summary of the main arguments and concerns surrounding
the ethical standards and normative practices of the South African media.
(Wesserman,2020)
This article identifies the problem and research question.

It conducts an evaluation.

Lastly it formulates a research strategy.

“The Court of Public Opinion: How the South African Media Is Being
Influenced” (“The Court of Public Opinion: How the South African
Media Is Being Influenced - Bangane”)
Through an analysis of case studies, media evolution in South Africa, and contemporary
trends, this essay seeks to offer a thorough grasp of the ways in which public opinion is
shaped and affected in the nation.
This article examines and reappraises the conducted research.

It discusses the results of the study.

The article makes use of the last step in the research process which is distribution and
utilization. The researcher disseminates his/her discoveries via publicity in the media.

The Scientific Method

“Scientific research is an organized, objective, controlled, qualitative or quantitative
empirical analysis of one or more variables” (Wimmer, 2012)

What is the Scientific Method?

The scientific method is a continually evolving method that entails using experiments
and observation to systematically investigate topics. This methodical approach to
problem solving, which is applicable to all scientific fields, is better defined as a flexible
collection of principles than as an arrangement of rigid methods.

Visual representation of the scientific method.

Section B - Steps in the Scientific Method.

Define a question: The first stage is to construct a clear and concise problem
statement that captures the fundamental query or aim of the inquiry. A testable and
measurable inquiry must be asked in order for the wording to encourage exploration.

Gather information and resources: The following phase in this process is to conduct
research on the issue in question to determine what is currently known alongside the
kinds of associated questions others are asking. In order to fully comprehend the topic
and choose the most effective design for tests, this background data is essential.

Form a hypothesis:

Prior to conducting any experiments, it is imperative that a succinct statement be written

outlining particular variables and possible outcomes that can be investigated. A
hypothesis that is not written perfectly can lead to flaws in the experiment's overall
design.

Perform the experiments: Replicable experimentation and data collection are essential
components of the scientific method, which involves testing the hypothesis. Cause and
effect correlations are established through deliberate manipulation of some parts of an
experiment while leaving others uncontrolled.

Analyze the data: Understanding the data's significance and bolstering the conclusions
requires interpreting the experimental procedure and outcomes by spotting patterns in
the data. Using this methodical approach to draw conclusions provides solid proof for
the hypothesis' rejection or endorsement.

Report the results: A common view of this process is sharing the results of an
experiment through a journal article, essay, presentation, or visual. In addition to
encouraging transparency and reproducibility, providing specifics about the project's
design, procedures, and outcomes contributes to the corpus of knowledge for upcoming
studies.

Retest the hypothesis: One phase that is demonstrated by a variety of scenarios is

repeating studies to see if a hypothesis remains true in every situation. Occasionally, a
researcher will verify their own findings right away, repeat the trials later or do so in
order to test the theory even further.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The six fundamental tenets that set apart the scientific method against alternative
methods to knowledge are as follows.

Public access is provided to scientific studies. Science cannot progress without

publicly accessible information. Scholars, particularly those in the academic domain, are
not permitted to use confidential information, techniques, or data to support the veracity
of their discoveries. Instead, scientific research data must be freely exchanged among
researchers.

Science is objective. Science attempts to eliminate the possibility of a researcher

being biased. Explicit guidelines and protocols are created for conducting studies, and
the researcher is required to adhere to them while allowing things unfold naturally. In
order to ensure that two or more independent observers classify conduct patterns or
other aspects in the same way, rules for classifying behavior are utilized.

Science is empirical. The world that is known and measured is of interest to

researchers. The word "experience" in Greek is the source of empiricism.

Scholars must possess the ability to discern, categorize, and reject metaphysical and
illogical explanations for the events they investigate. Scientists would, for instance,
disagree with a newspaper publisher's assertion that a drop in subscribers represents
"God's will" since it is impossible to see, categorize, or quantify.

Science is cumulative and systematic.

Not a single research study is infallible or ascendant on its own. Astute researchers
never stop using earlier study as a foundation for their own. In order for the current
study to benefit from the legacy of earlier research, one of the first steps in doing
research is to review the scientific literature that is currently available on the subject.
Finding issue areas and significant aspects pertinent to the current investigation is
made easier with this review's help.

Science is forecasting. The task of connecting the present to the future is the focus of
science.

In actuality, theories are developed by scientists for a variety of reasons, including the
ability to anticipate behavior. The efficacy of a theory is determined by its capacity to
accurately forecast a phenomenon or occurrence. A theory needs to be rigorously re-
examined and rejected if data analysis does not support its predictions. On the other
hand, a theory can be applied to various scenarios if it produces predictions that the
evidence supports.
Science corrects itself. The scientific method takes a step-by-step approach to
teaching, as was previously established. In other words, a single research or source just
offers a suggestion as to what may or may not be real; a number of impartial
evaluations are necessary to determine the "truth." This indicates that the scientific
method is self-correcting, meaning that when flaws in earlier study are discovered,
adjustments to ideas, theories, or laws are warranted.

Here are some examples from South African mass media:

“Science journalism in South Africa: social media is helping connect

with new readers” (“Science journalism in South Africa: social med... |
UWC”) (“Science journalism in South Africa: social med... | UWC”)

This article is an example of science journalism. It speaks on the study of how social
media can help scientific research reach new audiences in South Africa. This is relevant
to the scientific method because the research conducted in the article goes through
every process in the scientific method process and it contains a characteristic from the
scientific method which is, “public access.”

Process of identifying a research problem in mass media.

As the starting point for all other research activities, identifying a research problem is an
essential initial step in the research process. A research problem is a well-defined,
particular topic or subject that a researcher wants to use research to investigate. It
establishes the direction, parameters, and goals of the study, making it the first step in
any research effort.

Defining the research problem

A research problem serves as the central focus of any academic investigation. It is a
succinct and precise statement outlining the particular problem or query that the study
seeks to answer. This research challenge usually establishes the direction and goal of
the study, giving you and the researcher a clear idea of how to proceed with the
investigation.

Importance in academic research

It also highlights the importance of your study and its capacity to add fresh insights to
the corpus of global literature already in existence. In addition to grabbing your
colleagues' attention, a strong research problem sets the stage for significant and
influential research findings.

Initial steps to identification of your research problem

You need a thorough comprehension of the topic matter and a methodical approach in
order to establish a research problem:

Review the literature in-depth to have an understanding of prior research.

Determine any gaps in the literature that can serve as the foundation for your
investigation.

Get advice from academic mentors to hone your concepts and methodology.

Literature Review
Review the literature in-depth to understand prior research.

Determine any gaps in the literature that can serve as the foundation for your
investigation.

Get advice from academic mentors to hone your concepts and methodology.

A comprehensive literature evaluation is essential before you start the process of

determining a research problem. To identify gaps in the literature and uncharted territory
that can serve as the foundation for future research, this approach entails closely
examining previously published studies. To guarantee a thorough grasp of the subject, it
is essential to examine new research, foundational publications, and review papers.

Existing theories and frameworks

A strong basis for creating a research problem is provided by investigating current
theories and frameworks. Understanding the accepted models and theories may help
you spot contradictions or shallow regions that could make for interesting study topics.

Consultation with academic mentors

It is essential to collaborate with academic mentors to develop a well stated research
problem. Their knowledge can help you navigate the complexities of your area,
providing you with useful insights into potential study topics and assisting you in
narrowing your emphasis. The result of this interaction is frequently the discovery of
original and important research opportunities that fit in with current scholarly and
commercial trends.

Personal Knowledge and hobbies:

Consider your individual knowledge and hobbies. Think about media-related subjects
that you find interesting.

Firsthand accounts can serve as a useful foundation. Consider problems you have
come across or seen covered by the media.

Illustration:
The representation of political parties in South African media during elections can be
studied from a number of perspectives, including media bias, representation fairness,
the impact of the media on public opinion, and cross-media comparisons. These
elements can be used to formulate research questions.

Step 1: Determine Important Elements

Media Coverage: How are different media outlets portrayed in different political
parties?

Bias and Representation: Do political parties receive a biased media portrayal?

Effect on popular Perception: What is the relationship between popular opinion and
voting behavior and media representation?

Comparative Analysis: What are the differences in media representation on different

platforms (e.g., social media, TV, radio, newspapers)?

Step 2: Create Research Questions Based on These Aspects

Media Attention:

During election seasons, how does South African media sources cover various political
parties?

Are some political parties routinely allotted more room in columns or airtime than
others?

Inaccuracy and Bias:

How much does the media in South Africa present particular political parties favorably
or unfavorably during elections?

What effect does media ownership have on how political parties are portrayed in South
African media?

Effect on Public Views:

How do voter preferences in South Africa relate to how political parties are portrayed in
the media?
What impact does the media's representation of political figures have on the public
perception and electability of these leaders?

Comparative Evaluation:

Throughout South Africa's elections, how did political parties do more or less on social
media platforms than they do on the conventional media (TV, radio, newspapers)?

Do government-owned and privately held media outlets in South Africa depict political
parties differently from one another?

Step 3: Indicate Contextual Elements

To provide context, consider South Africa's distinct political and media environment:

SABC, the public broadcaster, and private media sources' respective roles.

Contextual history: The function of the media in the contemporary democratic era vs
apartheid.

the existence of new digital media and how much of an impact it has over old media.

Examples of Research Questions in Their Context

Media Attention:

In terms of impartiality and balance, how does SABC's reportage of political parties
during the 2024 elections differ from that of private news networks?

Inaccuracy and Bias:

What impact has the ownership of well-known media companies in South Africa had on
how political parties were portrayed in the run-up to the general elections of 2024?

Effect on Public Views:

What effect does the way minority parties are portrayed in the South African media
serve on their election performance?

Comparative Evaluation:

In what ways do the social media sites of South African news organizations cover and
portray political parties differently than their print or broadcasting versions during
election campaigns?
Section D: Concepts, Constructs, and Variables
In empirical research, concepts, constructs, and variables are crucial components that
contribute to the definition and operationalization of research questions and theories.

Concepts:
Definition: Concepts are unique ideas or common ideas that speak to a marvel or
a perspective of reality. They are the building pieces of hypothesis and research, giving
a system for thinking around a specific topic or theme.

Examples:
Democracy

Social inequality

Media bias

Economic development

Role in Research: Concepts give a broad comprehension of the subject matter being
studied. They are generally excessively broad and need to be further refined before
they can be applied to empirical study.

Constructs

Definition: Constructs are particular, well-defined notions that are purposefully

developed or modified for a specific research goal. Since constructs are frequently
unobservable, indirect measurements using variables or indicators are required.

Examples

"The degree to which broadcasting Favours a particular political group over others"
could be the definition of media bias.

One way to conceptualize job satisfaction would be "the general fulfilment of a staff
member with their employment."

Role in Research: Concepts are operationalized via the usage of constructs. They may
be quantified and examined in a study since they are more precisely defined. A
construct frequently has several facets or dimensions that can be assessed using
different metrics.
Variables

Definition: Constructs are represented measurably by variables. In empirical research,

these are particular, measurable, and quantitative traits or qualities that are measured
or manipulated by researchers. Variables can differ between people, groups, or
circumstances.

Types of variables:

Independant variables: An independent variable is one that the researcher modifies or

manipulates in order to see how it affects the dependent variable. It is sometimes
referred to as the explanatory variable or predictor variable.

In a test or research, the independent variable is the assumed cause.

Dependent variables: In a study or experiment, a dependent variable is one that is

being measured or noticed and is influenced by the independent variable. Stated
differently, this variable pertains to the one that researchers aim to comprehend,
anticipate, or elucidate in relation to the modifications implemented in the independent
variable.

Controlled variables: Any element that is managed or kept constant throughout an

experiment is referred to as a control variable. It is sometimes referred to as a constant
variable or a controlled variable for this reason. Multiple control variables may be
present in a single experiment. Control variables, in contrast to independent and
dependent variables, are not included in the experiment but are nonetheless significant
since they have the potential to influence the result.

Moderating and mediating variables: While a moderating variable (also known as a

moderator) influences the course and magnitude of a connection, a mediating variable
(also known as a mediator) describes the mechanism by which two variables are
associated.

Examples:

Reflections on South Africa's media Environment.

The media was tightly restricted during apartheid, governed by a plethora of rules that
made it difficult to broadcast any political material without permission.

For instance, the Act of 1974 granted the previous government the authority to restrict
books, films, and

plays, so determining what the public could or could not consume. (seery,2012)
The Constitution, which served as the foundation of nascent democracy, was introduced
in 1996. Following the apartheid era's official control of the media, the democratic
administration was committed to opening media to facilitate conversation and debate.
The right to free speech was maintained and safeguarded. represents one of every
citizen's fundamental rights.

Freedom of the press and media, freedom to receive or disseminate information or

ideas, freedom for artistic expression, academic freedom, and freedom for scientific
study, all came with this freedom and became essential components of the "New South
Africa." The idea of how the media would function was revolutionary; it would represent
the opinions of all South Africans in general and feature a range of viewpoints
independent of the state and its government. Press freedom would be curtailed in
situations where there was incitement to war or violence and when hatred was being
promoted against anyone on the basis of their gender, race, or ethnicity.

Section E: Differentiating Research Methods

Qualitative methods: entails gathering and assessing non-numerical data to
comprehend ideas or arbitrary viewpoints.

Since humans have been able to count objects, there have been quantitative
approaches. However, it was not until Auguste Comte's positivist philosophy— (which
claims that factual knowledge derived from observation is reliable) that it was
recognized as a "scientific method".

Two groups of individuals are compared in quantitative research. Numerous variables

can be measured, and a wide range of experiments can be conducted with quantitative
approaches.

Graphs, pie charts, and other visual aids that help the researcher understand the
relationships between the different data points are typically used to describe these
comparisons.

The main type of quantitative data used in quantitative study on people and society is
statistical information. While statistics can tell us a lot about patterns among big
populations, they are never able to fully explain every situation or experience. To put it
another way, anomalies exist constantly. (Fournier, 2023)

Using quantitative tools is one way to measure and comprehend social and human
events. However, what is absent from this image?

Statistics do not reveal information regarding distinctive, subjective experiences and

meanings, as previously mentioned. Although surveys can provide a broad concept,
participants are limited to selecting from a small number of options. It may be
challenging to comprehend the nuances of various situations as a result. (Fournier,
2023)

Quantitative characteristics:

Objective

utilized to evaluate theories

adopts a focused, particular strategy

responds to "what" questions

investigates statistical correlations

Quantitative methods: encompasses gathering and assessing numerical

data.
Qualitative data consist of concepts, attributes, quotations, metaphors, symbols, and
descriptions rather than numerical values. This method makes sense of human
experiences and determines what these experiences mean to individuals through the
use of written texts, interviews, artwork, photographs, and other resources.

Using a human perspective, qualitative approaches aim to describe and analyze

occurrences. Though there are many divergent philosophical perspectives on qualitative
approaches, most of them concur that certain topics are too difficult or complicated to
be addressed by standardized instruments.

These approaches also acknowledge the impossibility of viewing occurrences

objectively. People's interpretations of results are always influenced by the views,
attitudes, experiences, and beliefs of researchers.

Qualitative Approaches:

The finest types of research for single people are narrative and case studies. These
entail a thorough examination of every facet of the subject's life.

Experiences are meant to be explained via phenomenology. The goal of this kind of
work is to examine and explain various occurrences as they are experienced both
subjectively and consciously.
Models are created and processes are described by grounded theory. Using this
method, scientists can develop a theory based on data that is gathered, examined, and
contrasted in order to make new findings.

Cultural groups are described by ethnography. Using this method, researchers

observe behavior by fully integrating themselves into a community or group.

Qualitative:

Subjective

utilized in the development of hypothesis

uses a broad, intricate strategy

Responds to "why" and "how" enquiries

investigates themes and patterns

Strengths and Weaknesses Using South African case studies

like the analysis of media coverage on social issues
There are a number of techniques that can be used in mass media research to
investigate how the media shapes public perception and presents societal concerns.
When applied to particular South African case studies, such as the examination of
media coverage on social issues like race, gender, and inequality, each research
method's advantages and disadvantages become clear.

Content Analysis

Content analysis: entails methodically examining media content—such as news

stories, TV shows, or messages on social media—to spot biases, trends, and themes.

Strengths

Quantitative & Qualitative Studies: Content analysis enables researchers to collect

both qualitative and quantitative information, such as the tone of coverage, and
quantitative data, such as the frequency with which particular words or topics appear.
This two-pronged approach offers a thorough comprehension of media representations.

Objective Analysis: This approach reduces researcher bias and enables repeatable
investigations by concentrating on observable material.
Historical Comparisons: Longitudinal studies that look at how media depictions evolve
over time are a good fit for content analysis. Understanding changes in media coverage
prior to and following major events depends on this.

Weaknesses

Contextual Limitations: The larger social and political environment that shapes media
content is frequently not well captured by content analysis. For instance, the underlying
social dynamics that influence how race is portrayed in the media in South Africa might
not be properly taken into consideration in a study that examines this topic.

Surface-Level Insights: This approach might concentrate on media presentation, but it

might not address the reasons for the prioritization of one content over others. It's
possible that deeper reasons for editorial decisions go unnoticed.

An example from South Africa

When it came to reporting on xenophobic violence in South Africa in 2008, a content
analysis research discovered that media sources frequently employed sensationalist
language, characterizing the violence as "outbursts" rather than addressing the
underlying structural problems. Although the study identified significant trends in
representation of the press, it fell short of providing a deeper explanation for these
depictions. (Patel, 2015)

Experiments

Experimental methods: Entails adjusting specific parameters and seeing how

participants are affected. Experiments in media research frequently examine the ways
in which exposure to various forms of media material affects beliefs or actions.

Strengths

Controlled Environment: By isolating particular variables through experiments,

researchers can more easily determine the causal links between media exposure and
alterations in behavior or opinion.

Replicable: Most experiments may be repeated, which increases the validity of the
results.
Weaknesses

Artificial Settings: Research is frequently conducted in controlled settings that might

not really represent how people consume media in the real world. This may reduce the
findings' ecological validity.

Ethics: It may be unethical to manipulate participants' media exposure, particularly

when it comes to touchy subjects like violence or racial difficulties.

Restricted Scope: Since most experiments concentrate on immediate results, they

may miss long-term shifts in public opinion.

An example from South Africa

An experimental study investigated the effects of news reports emphasizing the crime or
economic contributions of immigrants on South Africans' attitudes towards immigration.
According to the study, those who were exposed to unfavorable representations were
more inclined to Favour stringent immigration laws. Although the experiment
successfully established a causal association, the results may not have been as
applicable to media consumption in the actual world due to the artificial environment.

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