Key Terms

interphase
cell cycle
cell cycle checkpoint 1.4 The Cell Cycle
tumour
cancer As shown in Table 1.3, the life span of different types of cells varies widely.
Some cells live a rough life, exposed to constant abrasion (rubbing) and
chemicals that are sometimes toxic. This describes the experience of the
Table 1.3 Average Life Span cells that line your stomach, and those that make up your skin. They have
of Various Human Body Cells short lifetimes compared with muscle cells, which last an average of 15 years.
Type of Average Nerve cells may last even longer. This means that cell division happens
Body Cell Life Span frequently in some parts of your body, but is a rare event in other parts.
Brain 30–50 years
Stages of the Cell Cycle
Red blood 120 days
For your body to function properly, the cell division process must be
Stomach lining 2 days carefully controlled. Some types of cells must be “encouraged” to divide,
Liver 200 days and others must be “encouraged” to remain as they are. This is the job
of molecules, mostly proteins, that carry signals among cells, sharing
Intestine lining 3 days
information about various cells’ abundance and health. These molecules
Skin 20 days control the cell cycle. As you can see in Figure 1.28, the cell cycle—the life
cycle of a cell— consists of two main phases: cell division and interphase.

interphase periods of growth and preparation

growth in the life of a cell;
cytokinesis
consists of two growth
stages and a stage of DNA
replication DNA
cell cycle a continuous replication
sequence of cell growth and
division, including the stages
of interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis A
i nt e r p h a s e

A Cell division First, the mitosis

cell’s nucleus divides into two
parts during mitosis. Then, the
two nuclei and cell contents
divide into two daughter cells
during cytokinesis.
continued growth and preparation

B Interphase Cells do whatever activities they are designed to do, such as

Figure 1.28 The cell cycle for all
producing specific proteins. For example, a muscle cell might produce the
cells consists of two main stages,
proteins that allow muscles to contract. It also does the things that all cells
but different types of cells spend
do, such as taking in oxygen and glucose, releasing energy from glucose
different amounts of time in
(cellular respiration), and removing wastes. In addition, DNA replicates in
each stage.
preparation for cell division. Before and after the DNA replicates are two
periods during which the cell produces more organelles and grows larger.

40 MHR • Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things

Checkpoints: Can This Cell Pass?
Controlling the timing and rate of cell division in different parts of a plant
or animal is vital to normal growth and development. Too few or too
many cells in any one body part can lead to serious problems. Although
many details are not understood, scientists have a general picture of how
the cell cycle is controlled in many cells.
Researchers have discovered that there are three main points
at which the cell “checks” its growth. Figure 1.29 shows how these
cell cycle checkpoints work. At each checkpoint, specialized proteins act cell cycle checkpoints a
like stop signs. Unless they receive specific go-ahead signals, they will not point in the life of a cell when
proteins determine whether
let the cell cycle proceed. In general, cell division will not occur if
cell division should or should
• there are not enough nutrients to support cell growth not occur
• the DNA has not replicated
• the DNA is damaged

Stop! Some of the chromosomes Stop! The cell

have not attached themselves lacks nutrients to
to spindle fibres in metaphase. support its growth.
Stop! Some of the chromosomes Stop! The DNA is
have not moved to the poles damaged. The cell
in anaphase. The cell must be growth and must be destroyed!
repaired or destroyed. preparation

e
mitosis er p has
DNA replication
nt

Stop! The DNA

has not replicated.
Stop! The DNA is
damaged. The cell
must be repaired
continued growth
or destroyed.
and preparation

Figure 1.29 Checkpoints in the cell cycle ensure

that cell division occurs only when required.

For many cells, the first checkpoint after mitosis seems to be the most
important. Many cells leave the cycle at this point, often just because more
cells of that type are not required. The body does not need that cell to
divide, so it does not receive a go-ahead signal. Cells that leave the cycle
enter a non-dividing stage. Most cells in the human body—all muscle and
nerve cells, for example—are in this stage.

Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells • MHR 41

 Cell Death
Some cells do not leave the cell cycle to become specialized—they leave
the cell cycle because it is time for them to die. In some cases, this is
because they have been damaged beyond repair, perhaps by physical
forces or by exposure to toxic chemicals. The contents of the cells leak out,
often irritating surrounding cells, causing swelling and redness in that
body part.
Cell Suicide
Other cells carry out a kind of suicide. In this case, a cell breaks down
in an organized way. Its contents are packaged and distributed so that
other cells can use them. Scientists have learned that this type of death is
pre-programmed into cells, determined by what are often called “suicide
genes.” These genes code for proteins whose job is to kill cells in specific
situations. For example, as you can see in Figure 1.30, suicide genes are
responsible for normal finger and toe development in human embryos.
Cells may also ensure their own death when their survival would be
a threat to the organism. This would happen if a cell were infected with a
virus, for example, or if its DNA had been damaged.

Figure 1.30 In various birds and mammals, the parts of the embryo that develop into
hands and feet are solid at first. Separated fingers or toes are produced through the
programmed death of the cells between the digits.

Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Some cells start out normally, but are then transformed so that they
ignore the stop signs in the cell cycle. Instead of leaving the cell cycle
tumour an abnormal clump
to die, they divide repeatedly and excessively, forming a clump of
or group of cells
cells called a tumour, which you can see in Figure 1.31.

42 MHR • Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things

Effects of Cancer on Other Tissues
These abnormal cells, with further mutations, can become cancer.
cancer cells with abnormal
Some cancers can spread to other body parts and continue dividing genetic material that are
uncontrollably there. Tumours reduce the effectiveness of other body dividing uncontrollably and
tissues. For example, the abnormal cancerous cells that are part of a lung can spread to other body
tumour take up space in the lung that should be filled with normal cells parts
performing normal lung functions. In addition, the abnormal cells use up
nutrients that are needed by the normal cells.

blood vessel cell stimulated daughter cells produced

normal lung cells to divide through mitosis
dead cell

In healthy tissue, cell division is As cells mature and die, a normal part The rate of cell division is normally equal
carefully controlled by chemical of the cell cycle, other cells are to the rate of cell death.
messages that pass from cell to cell. stimulated to divide and replace them.

tumour
cancer
abnormal cells beginning
to divide more frequently developing
than required tumour

Sometimes cells lose the normal The mass of rapidly dividing cells Eventually, some cancer cells may break
constraints on their rate of division. grows to form a tumour. Further away, move into the circulatory system,
They begin to divide much more often changes to the cells can produce and spread to a new location in the body,
and no longer function normally. All the cancer. The cancer cells invade and where they again begin to divide
cells that result from their division also destroy neighbouring cells. uncontrollably.
divide uncontrollably, so the abnormal
cells multiply rapidly.

Figure 1.31 Abnormal cell division is responsible for the development of tumours
and cancer.

Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells • MHR 43

 Losing Control
Most normal cells are attached to a surface while they divide. If a normal
Suggested Investigation
cell senses that it is not attached, it stops dividing. Many cancer cells,
Data Analysis Investigation
1-C, Does the Patient Have however, have a mutation that allows them to keep dividing even when
Cancer? on page 50 they are not attached to a surface. This mutation encourages the abnormal
cells in a tumour to spread. Still other cancer cells have mutations
affecting the proteins that check and repair any errors made during DNA
replication. These mutations, in turn, lead to more mutations.
Most normal cells can undergo 20 to 30 rounds of cell division.
Any more divisions might result in mutated cells that might harm the
organism. At this point, a normal cell carries out programmed suicide.
However, many cancer cells have been found to make an enzyme called
telomerase, which signals they do not have to stop dividing. In other
cancer cells, mutations do not allow them to produce or recognize
suicide-causing proteins. Thus, they keep reproducing, even if their DNA
has been mutated.
Cancer cells generally must have several mutations before control of
cell division is completely lost. Some mutations occur simply by chance
and are unavoidable. Others can be inherited from parents. However,
people can also avoid mutations by reducing their contact with mutagens
that can lead to cancer; these types of mutagens are called carcinogens.
Many types of carcinogens are known, such as asbestos, tobacco smoke,
and the human papilloma virus (HPV). More are being discovered all
the time. Cancer prevention—reducing gene mutations—is perhaps the
best way to avoid cancer. However, cancer is a complex disease. Its causes
are varied and our knowledge of how cells are changed by mutations is
still far from complete. Cells still hold lots of secrets—enough to keep
researchers busy for many years.

Making a Difference
Ted Paranjothy’s goal is to contribute to the discovery of a universal cure for
cancer. Because he has known several people with cancer, Ted has witnessed
the suffering caused by the disease and the effects of chemotherapy, a cancer
treatment. He wants to develop new, non-toxic alternatives to chemotherapy.
While still in high school, Ted discovered an anti-cancer agent while working
on a science project. He also co-authored scientific papers as a volunteer
researcher at the Manitoba Institute of Cell Biology.
Ted’s work has earned him many honours, including a first place in the
Sanofi-aventis International BioGENEius Challenge, a Manning Young Canadian
Innovation Award, and the Canadian Cancer Society Researcher of Tomorrow
Award. Ted has also volunteered with patients at a hospital and won an
award for his community service. In 2007, Ted was named one of
Canada’s Top 20 Under 20. He attends the University of Manitoba
and plans to become a physician-scientist, involved in both
patient care and cancer research.
What could you do to help people with cancer in
your community?

44 MHR • Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things

Section 1.4 Review

Section Summary
• Some cells live a long time, while others have a • Cell division is carefully controlled so that cells
short life span, depending on where in the body are produced only when needed. The control
they are found and the conditions they endure. is exerted by proteins at checkpoints in the cell
• The life of a cell, called the cell cycle, can be cycle. In cells that accumulate enough mutations,
divided into two main stages: cell division and this control can be lost, which may lead to the
interphase. Interphase consists of two growth development of cancer.
stages and a stage of DNA replication.

Review Questions
K/U 1. The micrograph on the right shows a cell undergoing mitosis.
a. In what stage of mitosis is this cell? A
b. When cell division is complete, what cell cycle checkpoints
will occur before the cell moves into interphase?
C 2. Using Figures 1.28 and 1.29, write a paragraph describing the life
of a cell.
B
K/U 3. Give two examples of places in your body where you would find
cells that live for a short time. Explain why.
K/U 4. Put the four photographs on the right in order, from the body part
where cell division is happening most rapidly to the body part
where cell division is happening least rapidly.
C
K/U 5. Describe three conditions during the cell cycle that determine
whether the cycle will be allowed to continue.
A 6. Some treatments for cancer involve the use of drugs that
specifically attack cells that are actively dividing. Why would this
be effective for fighting cancerous cells? D

C 7. Prepare a “Most Wanted” poster in which cancer cells are cast in

the role of villains. Your poster needs to describe how to
recognize these villains. What “cell crimes” do they commit?
C 8. Edward Abbey, an American writer and environmentalist, has
stated, “Growth for the sake of growth is the ideology of the
cancer cell.” This quotation is often used by people who, like
Abbey, worry about the negative effects that uncontrolled
population and economic growth can have on the environment.
Do you think this comparison to cancer makes sense? Explain
your answer.

Cell undergoing mitosis, 450×

Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells • MHR 45