UNIT-2 DISASTERS

DISASTERS
UNIT-2

GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS

Natural disasters caused by a geological (Earth Study) process are

called geological disasters. Examples are earthquakes, landslides,
tsunami, and mining.

Earthquakes

A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great

destruction, as a result of movements within the
earth's crust or volcanic action.

It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an

earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any warning, making it
impossible to predict
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Earth is called the seismic focus while the point located at the surface
is called the epicentre. Earthquakes often generate deadly landslides,
avalanches, tsunamis or other such events that cause massive death
and destruction.
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Earthquake of 5.3 Magnitude Strikes Nepal around 7:24 AM on Sunday, October 22 2023

Types of Earthquakes
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1. Tectonic Earthquake:
Tectonic earthquakes are caused by the movement of the Earth’s
plates. The energy released during these earthquakes is incredibly
powerful and can cause extensive damage.

Causes:
Tectonic earthquakes occur when the Earth’s plates move. This can
happen when two plates collide, when one plate slides underneath
another, or when a plate is forced to move by the movement of the
mantle.

Effects:
Tectonic earthquakes are incredibly powerful and can cause extensive
damage. They can also trigger other natural disasters, such as
tsunamis and landslides.
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2. Volcanic Earthquakes:
Volcanic earthquakes are caused by the movement of magma (hot
liquid) beneath the Earth’s surface. These earthquakes are often
smaller than tectonic earthquakes, but they can still cause significant
damage.
Causes:
Volcanic earthquakes occur when magma moves beneath the Earth’s
surface. This can happen when the magma is forced up by the
movement of the Earth’s plates, or when it is released from a volcano.
Effects:
Volcanic earthquakes can cause significant damage, even though they
are typically smaller than tectonic earthquakes. They can also trigger
other natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions (expulsion of gases)
and landslides.
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3. Collapse Earthquakes:
Collapse earthquakes occur when buildings or other structures
collapse. These earthquakes are typically very small but can be deadly
if they occur in a populated area.
Causes:
Collapse earthquakes occur when buildings or other structures
collapse. This can happen due to a variety of reasons, including poor
construction, severe weather.
Effects:
Collapse earthquakes are typically very small but can be deadly if they
occur in a populated area. They can also cause secondary disasters,
such as fires and gas leaks.
4. Explosion Earthquakes:
Explosion earthquakes are caused by the detonation of explosives.
These earthquakes are usually very small but can cause damage if
they occur near populated areas.
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Causes:
Explosion earthquakes are caused by the detonation of explosives.
This can happen due to a variety of reasons, including mining,
construction, or warfare.
Effects:
Explosion earthquakes are typically very small but can cause damage
if they occur near populated areas. They can also cause secondary
disasters, such as fires and gas leakages.
For practical purposes, earthquakes are usually defined by their
magnitude which is measured using a logarithm scale of 1 – 10. This
logarithm scale is referred to as the Richter scale. The magnitude is
determined by analysing seismic data obtained from seismometers.

The intensity of an earthquake is measured using the Modified Mercalli

Intensity (MMI) Scale, which is determined qualitatively by physical
observations of the earthquake’s impact.
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Landslides

A landslide is a mass movement of material, such as rock, earth or

debris, down a slope. They can happen suddenly or more slowly over
long periods of time. When the force of gravity acting on a slope
exceeds the resisting forces of a slope, the slope will fail and a
landslide occurs.

Landslides can be initiated in slopes already on the verge of movement

by rainfall, snowmelt, changes in water level, and changes in ground
water, earthquakes, volcanic activity, disturbance by human activities,
or any combination of these factors.

Human activity, such as agriculture and construction, can increase

the risk of a landslide. Irrigation, deforestation, excavation, and water
leakage are some of the common activities that can help destabilize, or
weaken, a slope
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Heavy rains trigger deadly landslides, flooding in hills

Types of Landslides
Falls Landslides
It means falling of some material or debris or rocks etc., from a slope
or a cliff which leads to a collection of this debris at the base of the
slope.
Topple Landslides
These can occur because of some fractures between the rocks and the
tilt of the rocks because of gravity without collapsing. Here, we see the
forward rotational movement of the material.
Slides
It is a kind of landslide when a piece of the rock slides downwards and
gets separated from it.
Spread
It happens on flat terrain and gentle slopes and can occur because of
softer material.
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Causes of Landslide
Landslides are caused by various factors, which are mentioned below:
 It can be caused because of heavy rain.
 Deforestation is also one of the main reasons for landslides
 It can be caused by earthquakes as well.
 Volcanic eruptions in specific regions can also cause landslides.
 Landslides often occur in mountain regions while making roads
and construction; a large number of rocks have to be removed,
which can cause landslides over there.
 In the regions of North East India, landslides occur because of
shifting agriculture.
 Due to the increasing population, a large number of houses are
being created, which leads to the creation of a large amount of
debris which can cause landslides.
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Effects of Landslide

Short Term Impacts

 The natural beauty of the area is damaged.
 Loss of life and property
 Roadblocks
 Destruction of railway lines
 Channel blocking because of the falling of rocks.
 It leads to the diversion of river water, which can cause floods as
well.
Long Term Impacts
 Landscape changes can be permanent.
 The loss of fertile land or cultivation land.
 Erosion and soil loss can lead to environmental problems.
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 Population shifting and migration.
 Effects on the sources of water.
 Some roads can be damaged or closed permanently.

Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of waves in a water body caused by the

displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a
large lake.
A tsunami is a series of waves caused by earthquakes or undersea
volcanic eruptions.
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Causes of tsunamis
 Earthquakes. It can be generated by movements along fault zones
associated with plate boundaries.
 Landslides. A landslide that occurs along the coast can force large
amounts of water into the sea, disturbing the water and generate a
tsunami.
 Volcanic Eruption.
 Extraterrestrial Collision.

Effects of tsunamis
 Loss of life and mass injuries,
 Damage and destruction of homes and businesses, ports and
harbours, cultural resources, utilities, and critical infrastructure
and facilities.
 Loss of access to basic services such as power, sewer, and water.
Communications, transportation (ground, air, and marine).
 Health and public safety services may be disrupted.
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Mining

Mining accident is an accident that occurs during the process

of mining minerals or metals. Thousands of miners die from mining
accidents each year, especially from underground coal mining,
although accidents also occur in hard rock mining. Coal mining is
considered much more hazardous than hard rock mining due to flat-
lying rock strata, generally incompetent rock, the presence
of methane gas, and coal dust.
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Causes
 Failure to comply with safety regulations, inadequate safety
measures, and poor enforcement of safety protocols.
 Poorly maintained machinery, such as drills, conveyors, and
ventilation systems
 Events such as earthquakes, floods, or landslides can trigger
mining accidents.
 Mistakes made by workers or management, such as
misjudgements, negligence, or lack of proper training.
 Build-up of gases like methane or hydrogen sulfide, combined with
ignition sources such as sparks or open flames, can lead to
explosions.
 Flooding of underground tunnels
 Accumulation of combustible dust, such as coal dust.
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Effects/Impacts
 Mining disasters can result in fatalities, injuries, and long-term
health issues for workers.
 Spills of toxic substances, contamination of water sources, and
destruction of habitats can harm ecosystems and biodiversity.
 Disruption of mining operations, compensation payments can have
significant financial consequences for companies, communities,
and governments.
 Displacement of communities, loss of livelihoods, and psychological
trauma among affected populations.
 Structural damage to mine facilities, transportation networks.
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HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL DISASTER

Hydro meteorological disasters are of atmospheric, hydrological or

oceanographic origin. Examples are floods, cyclones, lightning,
thunder-storms, hail storms, avalanches, droughts, cold and heat
waves.
Floods
A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges
land that is usually dry.
Flooding can happen when water overflows from bodies of water, like
rivers, lakes, or the ocean, and breaks levees, allowing some of the
water to escape its regular bounds.
Alternatively, flooding can happen when rainwater collects on
saturated ground, creating an area-wide flood. Seasonal variations in
snowmelt and rainfall will affect the size of a lake or other body of
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water, but these changes are unlikely to be important unless they
cause property to flood or domestic animals to drown.
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Types of floods
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 Flash floods (Surface):- When a flood occurs within six hours of
heavy rainfall, it is called a flash flood

 River floods: - When the melting of snow or precipitation over a

large catchment causes rivers to overflow, it is called a river flood.

 Coastal floods (Surge):- If a flood is associated with cyclone, high

tides, and tsunami, it is known as coastal flood.

Causes of flood

 Wet spell for a long time: If an area receives continuous rainfall for
a considerable period like a few days or weeks, the rivers in the
region may get flooded due to increase in the amount of surface
water flow going in the river channel.
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 Heavy rainfall for a short period of time: When an area receives
heavy rainfall even for a very short period like a few hours, rivers
may get flooded due to excess water in the river basin.
 Tsunamis in coastal areas: Tsunamis bring huge amounts of sea
water with them. When they strike the coastal areas, the water gets
pushed in the river channels meeting sea.
 Landslides across rivers: When a landslide occurs across a river,
the amount of sediments in a river suddenly increases and the
water is pushed downstream. This results in flooding in the lower
course of the river.
Effects/Impacts of Floods
 Loss of human life.
 Property and infrastructure damage.
 Road closures, erosion, and landslide risks.
 Crop destruction and livestock loss.
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 Threats to salmon and other aquatic species.
 Health risks due to water contamination.
 Housing displacement.
 Economic impacts.
Prevention of Flood
 By providing Green roof/rooftop garden
 By separating rainwater from the sewer water
 By creating river bunds, flood plains or overflow areas for rivers
 By installing water infiltration and attenuation systems
 Maintenance of the sewer system
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CYCLONES

Cyclones are large revolving tropical storms caused by winds blowing

around a central area of low atmospheric pressure.

Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-

pressure area distinguished by swift and often destructive air
circulation. Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and
bad weather.
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Types

Tropical Cyclone
The regions where the tropical cyclone occurs are over the tropical
ocean. Hurricanes and typhoons are the two types of tropical cyclone.
Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are the regions where hurricanes are
found. Whereas, in the Northwest Pacific, typhoons are found.

Polar Cyclone
This is due to their energy sources. The heat is transferred from water
to air and the latent heat is released in the form of cloud condensation.
The forecast of the polar cyclone is difficult as they take less than 24
hours, and they are formed quickly. They are formed over the Arctic
and Antarctic seas.

Mesocyclone
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The mesocyclone is considered to be one of the strong thunderstorms.
The mesocyclone is found within the convective storm in the form of a
vortex of air. The air rises and rotates along the vertical axis. The
direction of this air and the low-pressure system are the same in the
given hemisphere. The mesocyclone is accompanied by the rotating air
within the thunderstorm.

Extratropical Cyclone
The cyclones that are formed in the middle latitudes along the frontal
boundaries are either known as extratropical cyclones or mid-latitude
cyclones. The winds of the extratropical cyclone are weaker however,
the temperature gradients are sharp. The nor’easter is an example of
an extratropical cyclone that impacts the east coast of the United
States.

Formation of Cyclones (Causes)

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 Ample amount of warm temperature at the surface of the sea.
 Instability in the atmosphere.
 How the Coriolis force (an apparent force caused by the earth's
rotation) is impacting the area so that low-pressure area can be
created.
 When the humidity is high in the lower to middle levels of the
troposphere.
 Disturbance in the pre-existing low-level area.
 When the vertical wind shear is low.
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Effects/Impacts of Cyclone
 Tropical cyclones trigger serious rainfall and landslides. They
cause serious damage to towns and villages. Also, they destroy
coastal companies, such as shipyards and oil well.
 When these hurricanes blow far inland, human settlements are
causing a lot of devastation.
 They trigger a lot of crop damage and destroy plenty of forests.
 They are disturbing the entire civic lives, particularly when they
kill electricity and telephone lines.
 Torrential rains often accompany these cyclones, which trigger
flooding.
 Not only do they cause a lot of damage to assets, but also to
people’s lives. Civic installations are being dismantled.
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Lightning

Lightning is an electrical discharge caused by imbalances between

storm clouds and the ground, or within the clouds themselves. Most
lightning occurs within the clouds.
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Types of Lightning

 Cloud-to-Ground (CG) Lightning

Cloud-to-ground lightning begins when electrical charges in the cloud
base collect and then move down an invisible path toward the ground
called a stepped leader. Meanwhile, positive charges are gathering at
the earth’s surface and moving upward in a shorter path called a
streamer. The connection occurs above the ground, where lightning
instantaneously and violently completes the circuit, briefly joining the
cloud and ground electrically.

 Negative Cloud-to-Ground (-CG) Lightning

Negative cloud-to-ground is the most common type of CG lightning.
Once the flash illuminates, you’ll see many forks, called branching.
Sometimes lightning will appear to shoot out of a cloud straight into
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clear air, but in reality, the bolt bends downward at some point to
touch the ground and complete the circuit.
 Positive Cloud-to-Ground (+CG) Lightning
Another form of CG lighting is positive CG. This is where the current
flows in the opposite direction of negative CG lightning and from
higher in the storm cloud. These strikes typically produce a single
intense bolt, and they may rapidly-fire along the same pathway many
times without branching. Requiring a higher amount of energy than
other types of lightning, positive CG lightning is more often produced
by severe storm clouds that are at higher levels in the atmosphere,
which provide the lightning strikes the energy they need to reach the
ground.
 Cloud-to-Cloud (CC) Lightning
CC lighting travels between two separate clouds. It can be tough to tell
when the weather is overcast, but generally, a very long bolt through
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the sky will be cloud to cloud. The world record for a CC lightning
strike happened over Brazil on Halloween night in 2018, when a strike
traveled 440 miles!

 Intra-Cloud Lightning
Intra-cloud lightning occurs when the current travels within the same
cloud as it connects areas of differing charge, causing various portions
of the same cloud to light up. Sheet and heat lightning are common
types of intra-cloud lightning.
 Ball Lightning
Ball lightning is a bluish-white or yellow electrified sphere that floats
in the air or along the ground. It usually lasts between five to 10
seconds and often has a burning smell of sulfur along the way. Ball
lightning has been documented for centuries, but we are still trying to
learn what causes this unexplained phenomenon. There are many
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theories, such as tiny floating particles that act as a battery or a big
ball of compressed air emitting light from charged particles. Many
people don’t believe that ball lightning even exists, and they argue that
it’s just a hallucination. Crazy stuff!
Causes and effect of Lightning
Lightning is a visible electrical discharge from a cloud. This happens
when there is an imbalance of charges between a region of the cloud
and another surface (usually the ground, a building, another region of
the same cloud, or another cloud) that is significant enough to break
through air resistance.

Lightning is very dangerous. Lightning strikes on people, though

comparatively rare, can cause conditions ranging from amnesia to
cardiac arrest. Lightning can also cause the surrounding air to heat up
to 27,700 degrees Celsius (almost 50,000 degrees Fahrenheit), often
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setting nearby objects on fire. Lightning causes more than 20,000
fires in the U.S. per year.

Thunder-storms
A rain-bearing cloud that also produces lightning is called Thunder-
storms and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known
as thunder.
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Types of Thunder storms
 Ordinary Cell
Also called a "pulse" thunderstorm, the ordinary cell consists of a one-
time updraft and one-time downdraft. In the towering cumulus stage,
the rising updraft will suspend growing raindrops until the point where
the weight of the water is greater than what can be supported.

 Multi-cell Cluster
A thunderstorm may consist of just one ordinary cell that transitions
through its life cycle and dissipates without additional new cell
formation, but they often form in clusters, with numerous cells in
various stages of development merging together.

 Multi-cell Line (Squall Line)

Sometimes thunderstorms will form in a line that can extend laterally
for hundreds of miles. These "squall lines" can persist for many hours
and produce damaging winds and hail.
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 Super cell Thunderstorms
Super cell thunderstorms are a special kind of single cell
thunderstorm that can persist for many hours. They are responsible
for nearly all of the significant tornadoes produced in the U.S. and for
most of the hailstones larger than golf ball size. Super cells are also
known to produce extreme winds and flash flooding.

Causes of Thunderstorms

 Moisture:
Moisture is the presence of a liquid, generally water, in trace amounts.
For a thunderstorm to occur, moisture is considered to be a
mandatory condition. It is measured in dew points.

 Rising unsteady air:

Instability is a condition in which air will rise freely on its own because
of positive buoyancy. This causes air to rise so quickly to form
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thunderstorms. For example- When we have a plastic ball at the
bottom of the swimming pool, and once we suddenly release, it will be
accelerated upward immediately
 Lifting mechanism:
While instability release is like a plastic ball rising from the bottom of a
swimming pool, lifting is caused by air being forced to rise. The object
will not rise on its own until a force causes it to rise. Thus, Instability
cannot be released without the forced lifting.

Effects of Thunderstorms

 Impact on Animals:
Animals are also affected due to thunderstorms. Heavy rainfall during
a thunderstorm makes them feel helpless. Even animals might get
injured or killed in a severe thunderstorm because of no shelter/home
available for them.
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 Impact on Properties:
We have learned how thunderstorm creates a terrible impact on living
beings. It does have a negative effect on public properties as well. A
thunderstorm can destroy the structure of a house, big buildings,
towers, and transformers in cities and villages. It sometimes brings
economic loss for the region too.
 Impact on Nature:
A thunderstorm is usually accompanied by lightning, which struck
trees and plants. It sometimes also leads to the fire in the farms and
forests, which harms the region’s biodiversity. Hence, it severely affects
the beauty of nature too.
Safety Measures during a Thunderstorm:

 Immediate Actions:
As soon as you hear thunder, alert yourself. Perform all the prior
requirements and safety measures, Switch off the lights and gas
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buttons. Prevents yourself from standing or leaning to the walls of the
roof.
 Avoid tall objects:
There are high chances that lightning during the thunderstorm strikes
the tall objects. So, if you are outside or driving, remain inside your
car. Don’t take shelter under a tree or tall objects. Also, try to stay
away from metallic things as they are conducting in nature and more
prone to striking.

 Remain inside the home:

It is highly recommended that if you are at home or inside a four roof,
you should not let yourself out during a thunderstorm. It is better to
be inside rather than risking your life in such a situation. Wait for the
storm to stop and then safely go out in case of an emergency.
 Avoid electrical appliances:
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During a thunderstorm, switch off the power supply of your home.
Active power supply during a thunderstorm increases the chances of a
short circuit to happen. It might even lead to fire, causing the whole
building to burn due to it.
 Stay away from windows:
A thunderstorm is also known for its strong winds, so it is at high risk
when you stand along with glass doors or windows. It is better to close
all the windows and stay safe inside the four walls.
 Stay Updated:

You must keep yourself updated before any thunderstorm comes to

your region. Be sure you prepare yourself before its ill effects.
As it is said,” Prevention is better than cure.”

Hailstorm
Storms that produce hail (balls of ice that fall like rain) which reaches
the ground are known as hailstorms.
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Hailstones are formed when raindrops are carried upward by

thunderstorm updrafts into extremely cold areas of the atmosphere
and freeze. Hailstones then grow by colliding with liquid water drops
that freeze onto the hailstone's surface.
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Types of Hailstorm

The first type is concentrated in tropical latitudes across flat plains .for
example, the Congo Basin, the Amazon, Southeast Asia, and
monsoonal parts of the sub-continent and northern Australia.

A second type also falls in these latitudes at higher altitudes

associated with significant orography compared to the first type

The hotspots of the third type are located in the mid-latitude plains
regions of the various regions known to be commonly associated with
hail.

The fourth cluster type occurs preferentially in high-latitude plains of

the Northern Hemisphere, outside a small area of the southern tip of
South America.
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The Fifth type is most prevalent in midlatitude elevated terrain,
including the Tibetan Plateau, the Highveld plateau of South Africa,
and along the Continental Divides of the Americas.

Causes of Hailstorm

 Thunderstorm updrafts carry water droplets high into the

atmosphere, where they freeze and form hailstones.
 Atmospheric Instability enhances the development of strong
updrafts, which are essential for sustaining hailstone formation.
 Moisture in the atmosphere causes the formation of hailstones.
 The presence of a sharp temperature gradient between the freezing
level and the warmer layers below promotes the rapid growth of
hailstones
 Ice nuclei provide the initial seeds for hailstone formation
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 Variations in wind speed and direction with altitude, known as
wind shear, can contribute to cause Hailstorm.
 Local geographic features, such as mountains or hills, can
influence the development of Hailstorm.

Effects of Hailstorm

 A hailstorm is extremely hazardous for aircraft, which can be

seriously damaged if caught in the middle of a severe hailstorm.

 Hail is not only harmful to aircraft in the sky, but also equally
dangerous for automobiles on the road. Visibility is also greatly
reduced during a hailstorm and roads become slippery. Therefore,
driving during a hailstorm can be extremely dangerous.
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 Hailstorm can lead to economic losses in terms of damage to
buildings and vehicles.

 The falling hailstones and strong winds bend and break plants,
damage crops and strip them of leaves and bark. Thus, farmers
suffer heavy losses during such storms. Months of hard work by
farmers can be destroyed almost instantly.

 It is possible for hailstones of significant size to kill the people and

animals that is unable to find cover during a hailstorm.

Avalanches

An avalanche, sometimes called a snowslide, is the rapid flow of

snow, ice and/or rock down a slope or mountain. They can be
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triggered by natural forces such as precipitation, earthquakes or
the weakening of snowpack.
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Types of Avalanches
Slab avalanches
They can occur only when a bonded layer of snow (the slab) is lying
on top of a weak layer over a sufficiently large area.
Slab avalanches can occur in dry or wet snow, even a long time
after any snowfall. They can release naturally (without human
assistance) or be triggered at any point within or even outside (in
case of remote triggering) the perimeter of the slab. Slab
avalanches are the most dangerous type and responsible for more
than 90% of the deaths that occur in avalanches.
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Slab avalanches can be dangerous even if they are not large. They
reach a high speed quickly. A person who releases a slab is often
within its perimeter and caught in the avalanche.
Loose snow avalanches
This type of avalanche often occurs during or shortly after snowfall,
or when significant warming occurs. A loose snow avalanche
consisting of dry powder generally requires a slope angle of 40°.
Especially when the snow is wet, these avalanches can reach
considerable size in continuously steep terrain.
Loose snow avalanches are often released naturally. Many of the
deaths occur in summertime, loose snow avalanche is seldom
buried because it slides down the slope away from him and usually
releases only small snow masses.
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Gliding avalanches
They can occur only on smooth substrata, typically consisting of
flattened grass or slabs of rock. The steeper the slope, the more
likely the snow is to slide. Gliding avalanches can be a major
problem for transport routes, especially in snowy winters. These
avalanches are released naturally when friction decreases at the
interface with the ground as the snow at the base of the snowpack
becomes moist.
Powder avalanches
Powder avalanches arise mostly from slab avalanches. A powder
cloud forms in the presence of a large altitude difference when a
sufficient quantity of snow becomes suspended in the air. Powder
avalanches can reach a speed of 300 km/h and cause tremendous
damage. They occur most commonly when the avalanche danger is
high or very high.
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Wet snow avalanches
Wet snow avalanches can consist of a slab or loose snow. They
frequently release naturally, especially in the event of rain or after
daytime warming, and occur in springtime in particular. The main
cause of wet snow avalanches is the presence of liquid water in the
snowpack, which significantly weakens bonding at layer
boundaries. Regions where the bonding of the snowpack is poor are
especially prone to wet snow avalanches.
Causes of Avalanches
 Snowstorm and Wind Direction
 Heavy snowfall
 Human Activity
 Vibration or Movement
 Layers of Snow
 Steep Slopes
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 Warm Temperature

Effects of Avalanches
 People and animals buried deep in the snow suffocate to death
due to a lack of oxygen.
 Destroy buildings and other constructions that come in its way.
Houses, shacks, cabins, and even the ski resorts can be ruined
during this disaster.
 The railroads and roads might have to close down due to the
damage caused by the avalanche to the transport
infrastructure.
 Power lines can be broken so that people go without electricity
for several days. Telephone and cable lines can also be
disrupted leaving people with no way to communicate with
others or seek help.
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 If the snow from an avalanche accumulates on farmland
located at the lower altitudes, it can completely destroy the
crop causing a crop failure and heavy economic losses for the
farm.
 Many local businesses, especially those engaged in the tourism
industry suffer greatly. Private property worth millions is also
lost during the disaster.
Drought
A drought means that a place has less precipitation (rain or snow)
than normal over a few months or even longer.
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Types of Drought
Meteorological Drought is based on the degree of dryness or rainfall
deficit and the length of the dry period
Hydrological Drought is based on the impact of rainfall deficits on
the water supply such as stream flow, reservoir and lake levels,
and ground water table decline.
Agricultural Drought refers to the impacts on agriculture by factors
such as rainfall deficits, soil water deficits, reduced ground water,
or reservoir levels needed for irrigation.
Socioeconomic Drought considers the impact of drought conditions
(meteorological, agricultural, or hydrological drought) on supply
and demand of some economic goods such as fruits, vegetables,
grains and meat. Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand
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for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-
related deficit in water supply.
Causes of Drought
 Land and water temperatures
 Air circulation and weather patterns
 Soil moisture levels
 Supply and demand of water issue
 Proper storage and collection of water
Effects of Drought
 Farmers may lose money if a drought destroys their crops.
 If a farmer's water supply is too low, the farmer may have to spend
more money on irrigation or to drill new wells.
 Ranchers (Farmers) may have to spend more money on feed and
water for their animals.
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 Businesses that depend on farming, like companies that make
tractors and food, may lose business when drought damages crops
or livestock.
 Businesses that sell boats and fishing equipment may not be able
to sell some of their goods because drought has dried up lakes and
other water sources.
 Power companies that normally rely on hydroelectric power
(electricity that's created from the energy of running water) may
have to spend more money on other fuel sources if drought dries
up too much of the water supply. The power companies' customers
would also have to pay more.
 Water companies may have to spend money on new or additional
water supplies.
 People might have to pay more for food.
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Heat and Cold Waves

Heat waves occur when temperatures rise above average for an

extended period of time, while cold waves occur when temperatures fall
below average for an extended period of time.
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Types of Cold and Heat Waves

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Causes of Cold and Heat Waves
 Any abnormal or extreme weather events are attributed to climate
change these days
 An anticyclonic formation is one of the main reasons for the
warming on the west coast.
 Inactive western disturbances frequently cause rainfall deficits in
plains and hilly regions, which are reflected in higher
temperatures, resulting in a heat wave
 The dusty, hot and dry winds blow during summer months making
the regions vulnerable to frequent heat waves.
 Snowfall reaches brings chilly winds to the region.
 The flow of cold or dry air near the surface
Effects
Cold waves
 Death and/or injury to livestock/wildlife
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 Increase in caloric demand of the body
 Hypothermia (temperature falls) in Human Beings
 Crop failure or death of plants
Heat Waves
 This indicates that there has been an increase in electricity usage
in the country.
 Peak power demand is the highest amount of power required at a
specific point in time.
 Heatwaves triggered by climate change causing immense strain on
public health, agriculture, and various socio-economic and cultural
systems
BIOLOGICAL DISASTER
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Biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability
or death on a large scale among humans, animals and plants due to
micro-organisms like bacteria, or virus or toxins.
Epidemic Level: Indicates a disaster that affects many people in a given
area or community. Cholera, measles, malaria, and dengue fever etc.
Pandemic Level: Indicates a disaster that affects a much larger region,
sometimes an entire continent or even the whole planet. For example,
H1N1, Swine Flu, Carona-19.
An epidemic is defined as an unforeseen rise in disease cases in a
particular region. Examples of epidemics include smallpox, measles,
polio, yellow fever, and smallpox.
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Types of Epidemics
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Common-Source Epidemics
Common-source epidemics are frequently, but not always, due to
exposure to an infectious agent.
They can result from contamination of the environment (air, water,
food, soil) by industrial chemicals or pollutant.
Eg., Bhopal gas tragedy in India and Minamata disease in Japan
resulting from consumption of fish containing a high concentration of
methyl mercury.
Propagated Epidemics
A propagated epidemic is most often of infectious origin and results
from person-to-person transmission of an infectious agent (e.g.,
epidemics of hepatitis A and polio).
The epidemic usually shows a gradual rise and tails off over a much
longer period of time.
The speed of spread depends upon herd immunity, opportunities for
contact and secondary attack rate.
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Mixed Epidemics
Some epidemics have features of both common-source epidemics and
propagated epidemics.
The pattern of a common-source outbreak followed by secondary
person-to-person spread is not uncommon.
These are called mixed epidemics.

Causes of Epidemics

 Change in the ecology

 Genetic change in the pathogen reservoir or the introduction of an
emerging pathogen.
 Infected food supplies such as contaminated drinking water and
the migration of populations of certain animals, such as rats or
mosquitoes.
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 Certain epidemics occur at certain seasons. For example,
whooping-cough occurs in spring, whereas measles produces two
epidemics, one in winter and one in March. Influenza, the common
cold, and other infections of the upper respiratory tract, such as
sore throat, occur predominantly in the winter.
 Disease outbreaks are usually caused by an infection, transmitted
through person-to-person contact, animal-to-person contact, or
from the environment or other media.
 Outbreaks may also occur following exposure to chemicals or to
radioactive materials. For example, Minamata disease is caused by
exposure to mercury.
 Epidemics may be the consequence of disasters of another kind,
such as tropical storms, floods, earthquakes, droughts, etc.
 Occasionally the cause of an outbreak is unknown, even after
thorough investigation.
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Effects of Epidemics

 Epidemics can lead to widespread illness, hospitalizations, and

fatalities.
 Epidemics can disrupt economic activities by causing worker
absenteeism, reducing productivity, and disrupting supply chains.
 Industries such as tourism, hospitality, and retail often experience
significant losses during epidemics due to decreased consumer
demand and restrictions on travel and gatherings.
 Epidemics can lead to fear, stigma, and discrimination against
affected individuals or groups.
 Social distancing measures implemented to control the spread of
disease can also lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness,
particularly among vulnerable populations
 Epidemics can cause widespread anxiety, stress, and uncertainty
about the future.
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 Epidemics can overwhelm healthcare systems, leading to shortages
of hospital beds, medical supplies, and healthcare workers.
 Epidemics often result in the closure of schools and universities to
prevent the spread of disease among students and staff.

PEST ATTACKS
A pest is any organism harmful to humans or human concerns. The
term is particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock,
and forestry or cause a nuisance to people, especially in their homes.
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Types of Pests attacks

Regular pest: Frequently occurs on crop - Close association e.g. Rice
slem borer, Brinjal fruit borer
Occasional pest: Infrequently occurs, no close association e.g.
Caseworm on rice, Mango stem borer
Seasonal pest: Occurs during a particular season every year e.g. Red
hairy caterpillar on groundnut, Mango hoppers
Persistent pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is
difficult to control e.g. Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava
Sporadic pests: Pest occurs in isolated localities during some period.
e.g. Coconut slug caterpillar.
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Causes of Pest Attacks
 Changes in temperature, humidity, and precipitation can influence
pest populations.
 Disruption of natural ecosystems
 Accumulation of organic matter, food residues, and standing water
in and around buildings can provide breeding grounds for pests
such as flies, mosquitoes etc.
 Gaps, cracks, and holes in buildings allow pests easy access
indoors.
 Common entry points include gaps around doors and windows,
openings around utility lines, and damaged building structures.
 Improperly stored food, spilled crumbs, and open garbage
containers can provide sustenance for pests like ants, cockroaches
etc.
 Overgrown vegetation, and dense landscaping can harbour pests
such as rodents, mosquitoes etc
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 Overuse or misuse of pesticides.

Effects of Pest Attacks

 Pests can cause significant damage to crops by feeding on plant

tissues, fruits, and seeds, leading to reduced yields and quality.
 Crop losses due to pest attacks can contribute to food insecurity.
 Pests such as termites, carpenter ants, and rodents can cause
structural damage to buildings, infrastructure.
 Certain pests, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and rodents, can
transmit diseases to humans and animals..
 Pesticide use to control pest populations can have adverse effects
on human health.
 Pest infestations in homes, workplaces, and communities can
cause psychological distress, anxiety, and discomfort for
individuals affected.
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Forest fires

Forest fires are wildfires that spread uncontrollably, burning plants,

animals, grasslands and brush lands that fall in their path.
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Types of forest fires

Ground Fire
Ground fires may eventually burn through the ground surface and
become surface flames, depending on the conditions of the fire. These
fires spread more slowly than surface fires and can burn for months at
a time.

Surface Fire
Surface fire is a fire that can range in intensity from low to high
depending on the conditions. Surface fires usually spread slowly, but
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they can spread quickly if they start in a steeply sloped landscape or
are propelled by the wind. Most surface fires, on the other hand, die
out before progressing to the next level.

Crown Fire
These fires burn and spread from one treetop to the next, commonly
known as the tree crown or canopy. Crown fires can quickly spread.
Crown fires burn quickly because of their height, which exposes them
to wind. Crown fires often evolve into particularly severe fires as a
result of their rapid spread.
Causes for Forest fires
 Lightning is one of the most common sources of natural forest
fires.
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 Forest fires can also develop as a result of dry vegetation
spontaneously combusting.
 The most prevalent cause of man-made forest fire is smoking near
plants and discarding the cigarette into dry vegetation without
extinguishing the flames.
 Other prominent causes of man-made forest fires include mosquito
coils and candles, which catch fire over time but go undiscovered
until they become a large, uncontrollable fire.
 Electrical faults or downed power lines can ignite fires if they come
into contact with dry vegetation or other combustible materials.
 Accumulation of dead vegetation, fallen trees, and other
combustible materials can create fuel for fires to spread quickly
and intensify.
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 Hot, dry, Droughts, heat waves and windy weather conditions can
create favorable conditions for the rapid spread of forest fires.

Effects of Forest fire

 Homes, wildlife and plants are all destroyed by forest fires.
 When a forest fire burns through the soil, the temperature rises to
dangerous levels, and all of the nutrients are lost.
 Large amounts of smoke are emitted into the air, making breathing
difficult and polluting the environment.
 Workers in the agricultural field have lost income and jobs as a
result of the wildfire, which damaged their field produce and
animals.
 Forest fires can alter the hydrological cycle by reducing vegetation
cover, increasing runoff, and altering water infiltration rates.
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 Forest fires can have significant economic impacts on communities
dependent on forestry, tourism, and outdoor recreation.

Technological Disasters
Technological disasters encompass a wide range of events that result
in significant harm or damage due to failures or malfunctions in
technology-related systems. Eg: Chemical, Industrial, Nuclear,
Radiological etc
Chemical disasters

Chemical disasters, also known as chemical accidents or chemical

incidents, occur when hazardous chemicals are released into the
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environment, resulting in harm to human health, the environment, or
property.
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Types of chemical disasters
 Flammable - Materials that burn or ignite. Examples of a
flammable hazard: Acetonitrile, Methanol, Diesel Fuel, Mineral
Spirits
 Corrosive -Materials that cause visible destruction and/or
irreversible alterations at point of contact. Examples of a
Corrosive Hazard: Acetic Acid, Photographic Fixer, Sodium
Hydroxide
 Reactive - Materials that are liable to explode or react violently
on contact with air, water or other chemicals. Examples of a
Reactive Chemical Hazard: Benzoyl Peroxide, Nitric Acid, Picric
Acid, Silane, Sodium Metal
 Toxic - Materials that cause harm if they enter the body, such as
carcinogens, mutagens, and poisons. Examples of a Toxic
Chemical Hazard: Benzene, Bromine, Powdered Inks and/or
Pigments, Sodium Azide, Formaldehyde
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 Irritants - Materials that cause harm by irritating the eyes
and/or skin, and cause allergic reactions, drowsiness, lack of
coordination and/or organ damage. Examples of an Irritant:
Ammonia, Poison Ivy, Sulfur Dioxide
 Environmental - Materials that are toxic and/or cause harm to
the environment at large, particularly aquatic animals. Examples
of an Environmental Hazard: Anthrax, Arsenic, Asbestos, Lead,
Mercury, Oil

Causes of Chemical Disasters

 Organic solvents are the most common source of fires and
explosions in the chemical industry
 A majority of the industrial accidents occur due to human error as
a result of non-compliance of Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs)
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 Another common cause that results in chemical disasters is
improper maintenance of equipment.
 Non-availability of an emergency response team to mitigate
accidents.
 Hazardous waste processing and its proper disposal need special
attention as these activities can also contribute to fire, explosions
and toxic releases to the environment.

Effects of Chemical Disasters

 Chemical Disaster can cause immediate health effects like eye
irritation, skin burns, poisoning.
 The long term health effects of chemical disaster could be
development of asthma, allergies.
 Negatively affects the mental, physical and intellectual
development of children
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 Weakening of the immune system, birth defects, cancer etc
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Industrial disasters

Disasters caused by industrial companies, either by accident,

negligence or incompetence. They are a form of industrial accident
where great damage, injury or loss of life is caused.
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Types of Industrial Disasters
Chemical Spills/Leaks
Chemical spills or leaks from industrial plants can result in the release
of hazardous substances into the environment, causing contamination
of soil, water, and air. This can lead to acute and chronic health
problems for nearby populations and ecosystems.
Explosions
Industrial explosions can occur in manufacturing plants, refineries,
chemical facilities, or storage depots due to factors such as equipment
failure, improper handling of materials, or ignition sources. These
explosions can result in fatalities, injuries, and significant damage to
infrastructure.
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Fires
Industrial fires can occur in factories, warehouses, refineries, or other
industrial facilities due to electrical faults, overheating equipment,
chemical reactions, or human error. Fires can spread rapidly and
cause loss of life, property damage, and environmental pollution.
Nuclear Accidents
Nuclear accidents can occur in nuclear power plants or facilities
involved in the production, handling, or disposal of radioactive
materials. Events such as reactor meltdowns, containment breaches,
or radioactive leaks can have long-term environmental and health
consequences.
Industrial Pollution
Industrial pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the
environment from industrial activities such as manufacturing, mining,
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or energy production. Pollutants can include chemicals, heavy metals,
greenhouse gases, and particulate matter, leading to air and water
pollution, soil contamination, and negative impacts on human health
and ecosystems.
Toxic Gas Releases
Toxic gas releases from industrial facilities can occur due to chemical
reactions, equipment failure, or accidental releases. Exposure to toxic
gases such as chlorine, ammonia, or hydrogen sulfide can cause
respiratory problems, chemical burns, and even death.
Workplace Accidents
Workplace accidents in industrial settings can involve machinery
accidents, falls from heights, electrocutions, or exposure to hazardous
materials. Failure to implement proper safety measures and training
can result in injuries, fatalities, and occupational health issues.
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Supply Chain Disruptions
Industrial disasters can also result from disruptions in the supply
chain, such as transportation accidents, shortages of critical
materials, or interruptions in energy supplies. These disruptions can
impact industrial operations, leading to production delays, economic
losses, and societal impacts
Causes of Industrial Disasters
 Mistakes made by workers, operators, or management personnel
can lead to industrial disasters
 Poorly maintained equipment can cause industrial disasters.
 Failure to regularly inspect, repair, and replace worn-out
components can lead to equipment breakdowns, structural
failures, or leaks.
 Uncontrolled chemical reactions or process upsets in industrial
plants can result in explosions, fires, or releases of toxic gases.
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 Natural events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, or
tornadoes can cause industrial disasters by damaging
infrastructure, disrupting operations.
 Non-compliance with safety regulations and standards can
increase the likelihood of industrial disasters.

Effect of Industrial Disasters

 Industrial disasters can result injuries, and long-term health
effects for workers.
 Industrial disasters can cause significant environmental pollution
and degradation.
 Industrial disasters can result in substantial economic losses for
affected industries, businesses, and communities.
 Industrial disasters can disrupt social cohesion and community
well-being.
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 Industrial disasters can leave lasting psychological scars on
survivors, witnesses, and rescue workers.
 Industrial disasters can pose public health risks through exposure
to hazardous substances, contaminated food and water supplies,
or infectious diseases.
Radiological Disaster

A radiological disaster, also known as a nuclear disaster or radiological

emergency, involves the release of radioactive materials into the
environment, resulting in widespread contamination and potential
health risks for human populations and ecosystems.
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Types of Radiological Disaster

 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents: Accidents at nuclear power
plants can lead to the release of radioactive materials into the
environment.
 Radiation Spills and Leaks: Spills or leaks of radioactive materials
can occur during transportation, storage, handling, or disposal
processes.
 Radiological Terrorism Terrorist activities such as the dispersal of
radioactive substances in urban areas or the sabotage of nuclear
facilities can result in widespread contamination and public panic.
 Dirty Bombs (Radiological Dispersal Devices): Dirty bombs are
improvised explosive devices that combine conventional explosives
with radioactive materials
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 Accidental Exposure to Radiation Sources: Accidents involving
industrial radiography equipment, medical radiation therapy
devices, or research facilities can lead to unintended exposure to
ionizing radiation.
 Radiation Contamination from Mining and Mining Waste:
Mining operations involving radioactive materials such as uranium,
thorium, or rare earth elements can generate radioactive waste and
environmental contamination.
 Radiation Contamination from Nuclear Testing: Nuclear
weapons testing, both atmospheric and underground, can release
radioactive fallout into the environment, contaminating soil, water,
and food supplies.
Effects of Radiological Disaster
 Exposure to ionizing radiation emitted by radioactive materials can
cause acute and long-term health effects.
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 Radiological disasters can contaminate air, water, soil, and food
supplies with radioactive isotopes, posing risks to ecosystems and
wildlife.
 Radiological disasters can have profound psychosocial effects on
affected individuals and communities, including fear, anxiety,
trauma, and uncertainty about the future.
 Radiological disasters can disrupt economic activities,
infrastructure, and social systems, leading to economic losses,
unemployment, and social dislocation.
 Given the transboundary nature of radiological disasters and their
potential to affect neighbouring countries and regions.
Differences between Radiological and Nuclear Disasters

Radiological Disaster:
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Definition: A radiological disaster involves the release of radioactive
materials into the environment, leading to contamination and potential
health risks.
Causes: Radiological disasters can result from various sources,
including accidents at nuclear facilities (such as power plants or
research reactors), transportation incidents involving radioactive
materials, industrial accidents, radiological terrorism, or mishandling
of radioactive sources.
Characteristics: The release of radioactive materials may occur due to
equipment failures, human error, natural disasters, or deliberate acts.
The scale and severity of radiological disasters can vary depending on
factors such as the type and quantity of radioactive materials released,
the duration of exposure, and the pathways of dispersion.
Consequences: Radiological disasters can lead to contamination of air,
water, soil, and food supplies, posing risks to human health,
ecosystems, and agricultural productivity. Health effects may include
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radiation sickness, cancer, genetic mutations, and other long-term
illnesses.

Nuclear Disaster:

Definition: A nuclear disaster involves accidents or incidents

specifically related to nuclear facilities or activities, resulting in
radioactive releases and widespread consequences.
Causes: Nuclear disasters typically occur as a result of accidents at
nuclear power plants, such as reactor meltdowns, core breaches, or
criticality accidents. Natural disasters, human error, equipment
failures, design flaws, or inadequate safety measures can contribute to
the occurrence of nuclear disasters.
Characteristics: Nuclear disasters involve the release of radioactive
materials from nuclear reactors, spent fuel pools, or other nuclear
facilities. These releases can lead to the contamination of surrounding
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areas, evacuation of populations, and long-term environmental
impacts. Examples of nuclear disasters include the Chernobyl disaster
in 1986 and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011.
Consequences: Nuclear disasters can have catastrophic
consequences, including widespread radioactive contamination, health
effects on exposed populations, environmental damage, economic
losses, and social disruption. The long-term effects of nuclear disasters
may persist for decades or even centuries, requiring extensive cleanup,
remediation, and monitoring efforts.

MAN-MADE DISASTER

Man-made disasters have an element of human intent, negligence, or

error involving a failure of a man-made.
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Building Collapse

A building collapse is the sudden structural failing, partially or

entirely, of a building, threatening human life and health. This
scenario may be caused by construction activity, an earthquake or fire.
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Causes

 Weaknesses or defects in the building's design, materials, or

construction can lead to structural failure.
 Events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, or floods can
cause buildings to collapse.
 Buildings that are old or poorly maintained may deteriorate over
time, leading to structural weaknesses that increase the risk of
collapse.
 Explosions caused by gas leaks, industrial accidents, or terrorist
attacks can result in the collapse.
 Excessive weight or load placed on a building, such as heavy
equipment or overcrowding
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Effects

 One of the most tragic consequences of a building collapse disaster

is the loss of human life.

 Survivors of building collapses often suffer severe injuries;

including fractures, crush injuries, head trauma, and internal
injuries.

 Disrupt people's lives, livelihoods, and social support networks,

leading to further stress and instability.

 Significant economic consequences, including property damage,

loss of productivity, and disruption of business activities.
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 Damage to infrastructure, including roads, utilities, and
transportation systems.

 Environmental hazards, such as the release of hazardous

materials, contamination of soil and water.

Rural and Urban fire

A rural or urban fire as a man-made disaster refers to a situation

where fire, whether accidentally or intentionally ignited by human
activities, spreads uncontrollably, resulting in significant damage to
property, loss of life, and environmental impact.
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Causes

Rural fires can be caused by various human activities such as

agricultural burning, campfires, discarded cigarettes, industrial
accidents, machinery sparks. These fires can ignite vegetation in
forests, grasslands, farmlands, or rural residential areas.

Urban fires are often sparked by human-related factors such as

electrical faults, gas leaks, cooking accidents, unsafe heating practices,
fireworks, industrial mishaps. These fires typically occur in densely
populated urban areas, affecting residential buildings, commercial
properties, and industrial facilities.
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Effects

Rural fires have extensive impacts on the environment, including

deforestation, destruction of wildlife habitats, soil erosion, and loss of
biodiversity. These fires can also threaten rural communities,
agricultural assets, livestock, and infrastructure like power lines and
communication networks.

Urban fires can cause extensive damage to buildings, infrastructure,

and personal property. They pose significant risks to human life due to
the high population density in urban areas. The spread of fire and
smoke can lead to injuries, fatalities, displacement of residents, and
disruption of essential services like water, electricity, and
transportation.
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Road and Rail accidents

Road and rail accidents can be considered disasters when they result
in significant loss of life, injuries, and property damage, especially
when they occur on a large scale or involve multiple vehicles.
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Causes

Road accidents can occur due to various factors, including human

error (such as speeding, reckless driving, driving under the influence of
alcohol or drugs, distracted driving), vehicle defects, adverse weather
conditions, poor road design or maintenance, and inadequate traffic
management.

Rail accidents can be caused by various factors, including human

error (such as train operator mistakes, signal failures,
miscommunication), mechanical failures or defects in trains or tracks,
inadequate maintenance, weather-related issues (such as flooding or
landslides affecting rail infrastructure), and sabotage or terrorist
attacks.
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Effects

Road accidents can result in death, injuries ranging from minor to

severe, and significant damage to vehicles, infrastructure, and
roadside property. They can also cause traffic congestion, delays in
emergency response, and economic losses due to medical expenses,
property damage, and loss of productivity.

Rail accidents can result in derailments (Train come out of rail),

collisions, and other incidents that lead to death, injuries to
passengers and railway workers, and damage to trains, tracks,
stations, and nearby property. They can disrupt transportation
services, cause environmental pollution (such as spills of hazardous
materials), and have economic consequences due to property damage,
transportation delays, and legal liabilities.
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Nuclear, Radiological, Chemicals and Biological Disasters study
from previous notes.

Global Disaster Trends

 On average, there are about 6,800 natural disasters that happen

every year worldwide.
 Compared to the average over the last 30 years (1991-2020), the
total frequency of global natural disasters in 2021 was 13% higher,
with 81% lower in deaths, 48% less in the affected population, and
82% more in direct economic losses.
 Global flood disasters in 2021 were the most frequent, 48% more
than the historic levels, causing 4,393 deaths.
 The direct economic losses caused by storm disasters were the
largest, reaching USD 137.7 billion.
 Earthquakes and their disaster losses were relatively small
compared to others.
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 The number of deaths from wildfires decreased, but the population
affected rose by 219%.
 Among all continents, Asia had the largest number of deaths due
to disasters, followed by North America; and by Europe.

 Natural disasters affect 218 million people and claim 68,000

lives per year. ( Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
Disasters)
 In 2020, 22 of the natural disasters that occurred in the United
States cost at least $1 billion in damages and repairs. (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
 Drought affected more than one billion people between 1994
and 2013 ( Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of
Disasters)
 In the last 25 years, there have been almost 7,000 natural
disasters that have killed over 1.35 million people. (Center for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters)
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 Hurricanes can produce winds higher than 75 miles per hour.
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
 In 2013, over the course of three days, 343 tornadoes spawned
in the Southwest United States across 13 states. (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
 Natural disaster losses totalled $74.4 billion in 2020.
(Insurance Information Institute)
 20.5% of people have no emergency funds saved to rebuild after
a natural disaster. (The Zebra).
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Climate change

Climate change refers to a change in the climate that persists for

decades or longer, arising from either natural causes or human
activity.

Climate change could also lead to changes in the geographic

distribution of weather-related hazards, which may lead to new
patterns of risk.

Between 2023 and 2027 will be more than 1.5°C above pre-industrial
levels for at least one year.

Droughts:- Drought is a prolonged dry period in the natural climate

cycle that can occur anywhere in the world. It is a slow-onset disaster
characterized by the lack of precipitation, resulting in a water
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shortage. Drought can have a serious impact on health, agriculture,
economies, energy and the environment (already discussed)

Sea level rise:- When sea levels rise as rapidly as they have been, even
a small increase can have devastating effects on coastal habitats
farther inland, it can cause destructive erosion, wetland flooding,
aquifer and agricultural soil contamination with salt, and lost habitat
for fish, birds, and plants. Sea level rise poses a serious threat to
coastal life around the world. Consequences include increased
intensity of storm surges, flooding, and damage to coastal areas

Infectious diseases:- Infectious diseases are disorders caused by

organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. They're
normally harmless or even helpful. But under certain conditions, some
organisms may cause disease. Some infectious diseases can be passed
from person to person.
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Wildfires(Forestfires) (Already discussed) & Cyclones (Already
discussed)

Urban disasters

When disasters affect cities or urban areas (non-rural contexts) they

are referred to as urban disasters.
Earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones and floods, fires, and disease
epidemics.

Causes
 Climate change exacerbates the frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events, leading to increased risks of flooding, heat waves,
storms, and other climate-related disasters in urban areas.
 Inadequate urban planning, zoning regulations, and land use
management can contribute to increased vulnerability to disasters.
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 High population density and overcrowding in urban areas increase
the risk of disasters by placing more people.
 Poorly maintained infrastructure, including buildings, roads,
bridges, utilities, and transportation systems.
Effects
 Urban disasters can result in significant loss of life and injuries
among residents, workers, and responders.
 Disasters often force people to evacuate their homes and
communities, leading to temporary or long-term displacement.
 Urban disasters can cause extensive damage to infrastructure,
including buildings, roads, bridges, utilities, transportation
systems, and communication.
 The economic impact of urban disasters can be substantial,
including direct costs related to property damage, loss of assets,
and disruption of business activities.
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 Urban disasters can have adverse effects on the environment,
including pollution of air, water, and soil.
 Urban disasters disrupt essential services such as healthcare,
education, sanitation, and emergency response.