PRIVATE PILOT - AIRPLANE

AIRMEN CERTIFICATION STANDARDS NOTES

JUNE 2018

Table of Content

A. Pilot Qualifications 4
Requirements for certification 4
Recent flight experience 4
Record-keeping 4
Privileges and limitations 4
Medical certificates: class, expiration, privileges, temporary disqualifications 4
Documents required to exercise private pilot privileges 4
Part 68 BasicMed privileges and limitations 4
Current Versus Proficiency 4
B. Airworthiness Requirements 5
Certificate location & expiration dates (FAR 21.181) 5
Required inspections and airplane logbook documentation 5
Airworthiness Directives and Special Airworthiness Information Bulletins 5
Purpose and procedure for obtaining a special flight permit 5
Aircraft Registration Certificate 5
Pilot-performed preventive maintenance (Part 43) 6
VFR Flight Equipment Requirements (14 CFR Part 91.205) 6
Flying with inoperative equipment 6
Required discrepancy records or placards 6
Annual Inspection & 100-hr inspection 6
C. Weather Information 7
Acceptable sources of weather data for flight planning purposes 7
Weather products and resources 7
Atmospheric composition and stability 7
Wind 7
Temperature/Dew point 7
Weather system formation, including air masses and fronts 7
Clouds 8
Thunderstorms 9
Fog (RASUPI) 9
Turbulence 9
Moisture/precipitation 9
Frost 10
Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories 10
Weather Service Flight Rules 10
Weather Information issued periods 10

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 D. Cross-Country Flight Planning 11
Route Planning 11
Preflight Actions Required (NW KRAFT) 11
Altitude selection, Glide distance, Effect of wind 11
Fuel requirements 11
Elements of a VFR flight plan 11
Risk Assessment 12
Limitations of Air Traffic Control (ATC) services 12
Fuel Planning 12
Diversion 12
Lost Procedures 12
E. National Airspace System 13
Types of Airspace 13
Types of Airspace Classes 13
Airspace Requirements 13
Airspace Visibility & Ceiling Requirements 14
Special VFR weather minimums 14
Special Flight Rules Areas (SFRA) 14
F. Performance and Limitations 15
Atmospheric conditions 15
Airplane Configuration 15
Airport Environment 15
Loading 15
Weight & Balance 16
Aerodynamics 16
Performance charts, tables, data 17
Theories in the Production of Lift 17
Airfoil Design 17
A Third Dimension 17
G. Operation of Systems 18
Primary Flight Controls 18
Secondary Flight Controls 18
Powerplant and Propeller 18
Landing gear 18
Fuel, Carburetor & Oil System 19
Electrical 19
Avionics 19
Pitot-static system 19
Gyroscopic Flight Instruments 20
Vacuum system 21
Magnetic Compass 21
Oxygen system (14 CFR Part 91.211) 21

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 Deicing and anti-icing 21
H. Human Factors 22
% of air 22
Supplemental oxygen required for heights 22
Hypoxia 22
Hyperventilation 22
Decompression sickness 22
Middle ear & sinus problems 22
Spatial disorientation 23
Motion Sickness 23
Stress 23
Fatigue 24
Alcohol & Drugs 24
Hypothermia 24
Dehydration & Heatstroke 24
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) 25

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I. Preflight Preparation
A. Pilot Qualifications Medical certificates: class, expiration, privileges,
Requirements for certification temporary disqualifications
• Eligibility Class Type Expiry (<40) Expiry (>40)
- At least 17 years old
- Read, speak, write, understand English Class 1 60 Calendar Mths AFTER 24 Calendar Mths AFTER
- Holds 3rd class medical certificate (Private Pilot, Flight Instructor,
Student Pilot, Sport Pilot)
month of examination month of examination

- Received flight & ground training

12 Calendar Mths AFTER 06 Calendar Mths AFTER
endorsement month of examination month of examination
- Meet aeronautical experience requirements, Class 1
(Airline Transport Pilot)
(Commercial Pilot, Air
Traffic Controller - ANY
pass knowledge & practical test AGE)

Class 2 60 Calendar Mths AFTER 24 Calendar Mths AFTER

Recent flight experience (Private Pilot, Flight Instructor, month of examination month of examination
Student Pilot, Sport Pilot)
• To carry passengers, within preceding 90 days:
- 3 Takeoffs & Landings (Day) as a sole Class 2 12 Calendar Mths AFTER month of examination
(Airline Transport Pilot,
manipulator of flight controls Commercial Pilot, Air Traffic FOR ANY AGE GROUP
- 3 Takeoffs & Landings to a FULL stop Controller)

(Night) 60 Calendar Mths AFTER 24 Calendar Mths AFTER

- To be done in the same category, class & Class 3 month of examination month of examination

type of plane
- Night Defined as: Between 1hr. after Sunset Documents required to exercise private pilot privileges
and 1hr. before Sunrise • Pilot Certificate
• Remaining Current • Current & Appropriate Medical Certificate
- Preceding 24 months, accomplish flight • Government Issued Photo ID
review in aircraft that pilot is authorized
- Logbook endorsement Part 68 BasicMed privileges and limitations
- After lapse, PPL not current
- Substitutes: pilot proficiency awards • Operating aircraft without holding Medical Certificate
• Holds current & valid U.S. Drivers License
program, flight instructor certificate, flight
• Comply with medical requirements/restrictions associated
simulator or FTD with it
• Complete comprehensive medical examination check
Record-keeping - Complete Medical education course every 24
• Logbook with endorsement by authorized calendar months
instructor (including all solo flights) - CMEC to be done within 48 calendar months with
• Document and record all training and aeronautical state physician with the comprehensive medical exam
experience used to meet requirements for checklist, doesn’t have to be AME
certification, flight reviews or ratings • Limitations:
• Aeronautical experience required for meeting - Operated with no more than 5 passengers on board
recent flight experience requirements - Maximum takeoff weight no more than 6,000lbs
- Aircraft authorized for no more than 6 occupants
Privileges and limitations - Altitude no more than 18,000ft MSL
• Privileges - Not flown outside of U.S.
- PIC in aircraft incidental to business & does - Indicated airspeed no more than 250kts
not carry passengers/property - Have CMEC & certificate of course completion in
- Act as PIC for aircraft towing glider/ Logbook
unpowered ultralight vehicle - Cannot fly for compensation/hire
- Act as PIC for charitable, nonprofit, - Cannot act as safety pilot (MUST BE PIC)
community event flight - Applies to students, recreational, private pilot as PIC
- May be reimbursed for search & location - Instructors must be PIC to use BasicMed
operations, (ONLY for fuel, oil, airport
expenditure, rental fees) Current Versus Proficiency
- Demonstration of aircraft in flight to • Current
prospective buyer - only as an aircraft - Accomplished minimum FAA requirement
salesman (PIC must have clocked 200hrs) - “Legal” for flight
- Conducting production flight test in light- - Doesn’t mean proficient/competent
sport aircraft for certification in light-sport • Proficiency
category - Capable of conducting flight with higher degree of
• Limitations competence, have knowledge & skills
- May not act as PIC carrying passengers/ - NOT ONLY “legal” but “safe & smart” in terms of
property for compensation/hire experience
- May not pay less than pro rata share of
operating expenses (ONLY for fuel, oil,
airport expenditure, rental fees)
*Fixed & Long-term cost cannot be shred
with others, PIC to take on ALL F&LT cost
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B. Airworthiness Requirements
Certificate location & expiration dates (FAR 21.181) • Owners/operators are to ensure that maintenance is
• Must be displayed at cabin/cockpit entrance complied with & personnel make the appropriate
• Legible to passengers/crew maintenance records and approved for return of
• Airworthiness Certificates has NO EXPIRATION DATE service
as long as it meets minimum approved design type, in • To repair/replace/remove all inoperative instruments or
conditions for safe operations, maintenance & equipments
preventive maintenance & alterations performed • Maintenance records should also include current
- Difference between Standard & Special status of airworthiness directives & appropriately
Airworthiness Certificate documented
- Standard • Thorough preflight inspection for wear & deterioration,
- White Paper structural damage, fluid leak, tire wear, inoperative
- Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, Commuter/ instruments & equipments
Transporter • Use FAR 91.213 to handle inoperative equipments
- Special
- Pink Paper Airworthiness Directives and Special Airworthiness
- Primary, Restricted, Limited, Light-sport Information Bulletins
Aircraft, Experimental • ADs are regulatory by nature, compliance is mandatory
- Experimental airworthiness certificate issued • FAA would notify owners by mail or call of unsafe
to operable aircraft that doesn’t have a type conditions due to designs defects, maintenance/other
certificate but in condition of safe flight causes
- Issued to primary category kit-built aircraft • Owners/operators could also go on FAA website to
assembled without supervision & quality check for ADs
control of production certificate holder • It’s the owner’s/operator’s responsibility to make sure all
• 2 Conditions to be Airworthy ADs are complied with
1. Conform to type design • 2 Types of Airworthiness Directives (ADs)
- Required & proper components installed - Emergency
- Consistent with drawings, specifications/ - Requires immediate compliance prior to flying
other data - Unsafe conditions
- Includes: Applicable Supplemental Type - Rapidly correct an urgent safety-of-flight
Certificate (STC), Field-Approved Alterations situation
- Determine that maintenance, preventive - Less Urgent
maintenance & alteration performed - Required action by a specific time
- Appropriately documented in aircraft
maintenance records Purpose and procedure for obtaining a special flight
2. Condition for safe operations permit
- In relations to wear & deterioration, structural • Issued for aircraft that may not currently meet
damage, fluid leaks, tire wear, inoperative applicable airworthiness requirements but capable for
instruments & equipments, etc safe flight
- Conducts preflight inspection of aircraft • Typically issued for:
- Use 14 CFR 91.213 to handle inoperative - Flying aircraft to base where repairs, alterations/
equipment maintenance are performed, point of storage
- Delivering/exporting aircraft
Required inspections and airplane logbook - Production flight testing new-production aircraft
documentation - Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
• Aircraft needs annual inspection EVERY 12 calendar (e.g. weather)
months on the last day - Conduct customer demonstration flights
• If aircraft is for hire/compensation, in addition to annual • Get an Airframe & Powerplant Mechanic to access &
inspection, 100hr inspections are required sign off form, send form to FSDO/Designated
• Airworthiness Directives Airworthiness Representative 1hr. before intended
• VOR Check (Every 30 Days) - For IFR ops departure, FSDO/DAR would come down and check
• Inspection: Annual Inspection (Every 12 Calendar the plane & give approval for special flight permit, &
Months) & 100 hourly (only for hire/compensation/flight expires after flight time
instruction)
• Altimeter Inspection (Every 24 Calendar Months) Aircraft Registration Certificate
• Transponder (Every 24 Calendar Months) • Registered with FAA Aircraft Registry
• Emergency Locator Transmitter - ELT (Every 12 • Issued to owner as evidence of registration
Calendar Months, or after 1 hr of cumulative use, or • Carried on aircraft at all times
50% of its battery life) • Expires after 36 Calendar Months (3 years)
• Static System Inspection (Every 24 Calendar Months) • Temporary cert of registration valid for < 90 days of
• Check if maintenance/preventive maintenance/ application date
alterations have been performed
• Airworthiness Certificate must be registered in U.S.

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 Pilot-performed preventive maintenance (Part 43)
• Simple/minor preservation operations & replacement of Required discrepancy records or placards
small standard parts not involving complex assembly • If any equipment in the aircraft is inoperative, place a
operations “INOP” post-it/paper over the equipment
• Some examples include: • 09 placards (MUST HAVE)
- Removal, installation & repairs of landing gear tires - Operating Limits - in full view to pilot (Day-Night-
- Replenishing hydraulic fluid VFR-IFR entry)
- Servicing landing gear struts - Maximum baggage weight in baggage
- Replacing bulbs, reflectors, lenses of position & compartment
landing lights - Fuel Capacity (near fuel shutoff valve)
- Replacing safety belts - Fuel Grade (near fuel tank filter cap)
- Replacing seats/seat parts - Spin Recovery instructions
- Trouble shooting & repairing broken circuits in - Magnetic Compass Calibration Card
landing light wiring circuits - Oil Capacity (on oil filter cap)
- Cleaning/replacing fuel and oil strainers/filter - Control Lock
elements - Maneuvering Speed (near airspeed indicator)
- Lubrication not requiring disassembly
• Pilots who maintain/perform preventive maintenance Annual Inspection & 100-hr inspection
must make entry in maintenance record of aircraft • Annual Inspection
• Entry to include: - Complete inspection of aircraft & engine
- Description of work - Required by regulations on all certificated aircraft
- Date of completion - Only Airframe & Powerplant Mechanic (A&P)
- Entry of pilot’s name, signature, certificate number, holding Inspection Authorization (IA) can conduct
type of certificate annual
- When overdue, operable by Special Flight Permit
VFR Flight Equipment Requirements (14 CFR Part (SFP)
91.205) - All ADs must be complied with
• 100-hr Inspection
Day Flight Rules - Required for aircraft under 12,500lbs, used for
hire, flight instruction
Altimeter Airspeed Indicator Landing Gear Safety Belts
Indicator
- Performed inspection by any A&P (no IA required)
- May exceed no more than 10hrs en route to reach
Tachnometer Temperature Anti-collision a place where inspection can be done
Gauge (Liquid- Lights (Beacon/ - Must have a special flight permit
cooled engine) Strobes)

Oil Pressure Oil Temperature Magnetic

(Air-cooled engine) Compass

Manifold Fuel Gauge Emergency

Pressure Locator
Transmitter (ELT)

Night Flight Rules

All Day rules + the following :

Fuses/ Landing Lights Anti-collision Position Source

Circuit (only if its for hire) Lights Lights of Power
Breakers

Flying with inoperative equipment

• Able to operate aircraft with or without Minimum
Equipment List (MEL)
- Aircraft specific
- Allows aircraft to continue operating with
inoperative instruments/equipment
- FAA deems inoperative but still maintain
acceptable level of safety with appropriate
conditions & limitations
• Inoperative instrument/equipment not part of VFR-day
type certification instruments & equipment prescribed in
applicable airworthiness regulations
• Inoperative instrument/equipment not indicated as
“Required” in equipment list/Kinds of Operations
Equipment List (KOEL)
• Inoperative instrument/equipment not required to be
operational by airworthiness directive
• KOEL found in POH Section 6-13

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C. Weather Information
Acceptable sources of weather data for flight Wind
planning purposes • Causes of winds: Pressure difference, air likes to go
• Flight Service Station (FSS) from high to low, that movement causes wind
• 1800-WX-Brief (Internet/Call) • Coriolis Force deflects winds to the right in Northern
• Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS) Hemisphere, caused by rotation of the Earth
• Lockheed Martin Flight Services (DUATS II) • Wind shear
• Telephone Information Briefing Services (TIBS/FSS) - Sudden rate of change in wind velocity (direction
• DUATS & DUATS II via internet &/or speed)
• Aviation Weather Center (AWC) - Vertical &/or horizontal wind shear
- Occurs at ANY level
Weather products and resources - Low-level temperature inversion
• Meteorological Aerodrome Reports (METARs) - Frontal zone/thunderstorm
• Terminal Forecast - Clear air turbulence (CAT) at high levels
• Pilot Reports (PIREPs) - Unexpected changes
• Automated Weather Observation Services (AWOS) - Potentially hazardous, especially at low level
• Automated Terminal Information Services (ATIS) altitude on approach & departure from airport
• Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) - Temperature inversion whenever wind speed at
2,000ft to 4,000ft AGL is 25kts or more
Atmospheric composition and stability • Microburst
- It happens during the dissipating stage of a
Low Pressure High Pressure thunderstorm
- -
- Initial updraft of aircraft and sudden downdraft
Inward Outward
- Upward - Downward - Sinking cold air accelerated by its own momentum
- Counterclockwise - Clockwise
- Rising air - Descending air Temperature/Dew point
- Cloudiness - Dissipation of clouds
- Precipitation - Good weather • Standard Temperature at sea level : 15°C
- Bad weather • Standard Pressure value at sea level : 29.92” Hg
• Temperature & dew point close together (within 5°F)
- Visible moisture in the form of:
Trough Line Ridge Line - Clouds
- Elongated area from Low - Elongated area from High - Dew
Pressure Pressure - Fog
- Relatively Low Atmospheric - Relatively High Atmospheric
Pressure Pressure
- Ideal condition for carburetor icing
- Cannot go outward against - Depletes quality of air • Dew point is temperature at which air has 100%
pressure gradient/downward - Descending air humidity (saturated)
- Area of rising air - Dissipation of cloudiness • Air temperature determines how much water vapor can
- Cloudiness & precipitation - High pressure
- Low pressure & bad weather - Good weather be held by air
• Evaporation: conversion of liquid to water vapor
• Ability to resist vertical motion • Sublimation: conversion of solid (ice) directly to
• Stable air gaseous state (water vapor)
- Vertical movement difficult • Deposition: conversion of something in gaseous state
- Small vertical disturbances dampen out & directly to solid
disappear
- Stratiform clouds Weather system formation, including air masses and
- Smooth turbulence fronts
- Steady precipitation • What causes weather?
- Fair to poor visibility - Heat Exchange
• Unstable air • Air Masses
- Small vertical movement tends to be large - Large regions of air that have similar characteristic
- Turbulence airflow, convective activity from the surrounding area
- Leads to significant turbulence, extensive vertical - Can form in the following regions
clouds, server weather - Warm & Moist
- Cumuliform clouds - Cold & Dry
- Rough turbulence - Hot & Dry
- Showery precipitation - When air masses moves over to another region, it
- Good visibility would gradually take on characteristics of the
• Significant precipitation region and take the change
- At least 4,000ft think
- Heavier precipitation = thicker clouds
• Atmospheric pressure rate of descend
- 1” Hg per 1,000ft

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 • Fronts Clouds
- A front is a boundary between 2 different air masses • Stability of the atmosphere determines the type &
- Change in wind & temperature when crossing a front vertical extent of clouds
- 4 types of Fronts (COWS) • Visible indicators & indicative of future weather
- Cold Front • Must have adequate water vapor & condensation
- Bad weather nuclei
- Forms cumulonimbus/towering cumulus clouds • Cloud types determined by height, shape & behavior
- Cold & Dense, therefore sinks • Low clouds: surface up to 6,500ft AGL
- Stable air advances & replaces warmer air - Primarily water droplets
- Lifts existing air upward in rapid rate, cooling air - Can include supercooled water droplets inducing
- Characteristics: hazardous aircraft icing
- Moves faster, 25-30 miles/hour on average, - Types of low clouds
up to 60 MPH - Stratus clouds
- Stays close to the ground - Stratocumulus clouds
- Have a steeper angle than warm front - Nimbostratus clouds
- Heavy rain with lightning - Fog
- Thunder &/or hail - Creates low ceilings
- Tornados - Hamper visibility
- Poor visibility - Can change rapidly
- Winds variable & gusting - Influence flight planning & VFR flight impossible
- Temperature/Dew point & barometric • Middle clouds: 6,500ft AGL up to 20,000ft AGL
pressure decreases rapidly - Composed of water, ice crystals & supercooled
- Occluded Front water droplets
- Fast-moving cold front catches up with slow - Types of middle clouds
moving warm front - Altostratus clouds: produce turbulence & may
- Stacking of fronts causes variety of weather contain moderate icing
conditions (e.g Fog to Thunderstorms) - Altocumulus clouds: forms when altostratus
- Lift up warm front, & eventually catch up to the clouds breaking apart, may contain light
air in front of the warm front turbulence & icing
- Cold front occlusion - May be enchanted during cross-country flights at
- Warm front occlusion higher altitude
- Warm Front • High clouds: above 20,000ft AGL
- Boundary area when warm air mass contacts & - Formed only in stable air
flows over colder air mass - Made up of ice crystals & pose no real threat of
- Characteristics: turbulence/aircraft icing
- Moves slowly, 10-25 miles/hour - Types of high clouds:
- Contains high humidity - Cirrus clouds
- Have more “stratoform”/layered clouds along - Cirrostratus clouds
frontal boundary - Cirrocumulus clouds
- Drizzle & decrease in visibility/low ceiling • Clouds with extensive vertical development
- Temperature rises - Extensive vertical development
- Once it passes, rain showers possible and - Builds vertically into towering cumulus/
gradual clearing cumulonimbus clouds
- Variable winds - Base formed in low to middle cloud base region
- Stationery Front - Can extend up to high cloud altitude level
- Forces of both the air masses are relatively - Towering Cumulus clouds
equal, mixture of both warm & cold fronts - Indicates areas of instability in the atmosphere
- Influences local weather for days - Air around & inside is turbulent
- Weather associated with front depends on amount of - Often developed into cumulonimbus clouds/
moisture, degree of stability of air forced upward, thunderstorms
slope of front, speed of front movement & upper wind - Cumulonimbus clouds
flow - Contains large amounts of moisture & unstable
• Isobars air
- Connects areas of equal/constant barometric - Produces hazardous weather phenomena:
pressure - Lightning
- Causes winds aloft to flow parallel to isobar - Hail
(Coriolis force) - Tornadoes
- Surface friction causes surface winds to flow - Gusty winds
across isobars at an angle - Wind shear
• Close Isobar
- How steep/shallow pressure gradient is
- Close = steep pressure gradient —> higher wind
speed
- Not close = shallow pressure gradient —> lesser
wind speed

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 • Cloud classification Fog (RASUPI)
- Cumulus: heaped/piled clouds • Radiation Fog
- Stratus: formed in layers - Ground cools surrounding air to dew point
- Cirrus: ringlets, fibrous clouds, high level - Clear skies
clouds, (above 20,000ft AGL) - Little/no wind
- Castellanus: common base with separate - High humidity
vertical development, castle-like - Happens at night
- Lenticularus: lens shaped, formed over • Advection Fog
mountains in strong winds - Moist air condensing as it moves over cooler
- Contain winds of 50kts or more surface
- Appear stationary as wind blows through - Common along coast
them - More persistent than radiation fog
- Would experience mountain wave - Occurs with winds, cloudy skies, wide geological
turbulence when air is stable & winds of area
40kts or greater blow across mountain/ridge - Happens day/night, anytime
- Nimbus: rain-bearing clouds • Steam Fog
- Fraction: ragged/broken - Cold & dry air moves over comparatively warm
- Alto: meaning high, also middle level cloud water
existing at 5,000ft - 20,000ft AGL - Composed entirely of water droplets, often freezes
quickly
Thunderstorms - Common during cold weather months
• 3 phases in life cycle - Low-level fog
1. Cumulus: - Low-level turbulence can occur
- Continuous updrafts - Icing can become hazardous
- Rain increases in size - Affects seaplanes
2. Mature: greatest intensity with both updrafts & • Upslope Fog
downdrafts - Warm, moist, stable air being cooled as it is forced
- Rain on Earth’s surface up terrain
- Falls through/immediately beside updrafts - Can extend 100s of feet above surrounding terrain
- Contains lightning - Quite dense
- Roll clouds - AIRMET Sierra
- Precipitation descends through cloud & • Precipitation Fog
drags adjacent air downward, creating - Warm rain/drizzle falls through cool air &
strong downdraft evaporation saturates cool air
- Downdraft spreads out along surface, - Usually associated with fronts
well in advance of parent thunderstorm - In proximity of icing, turbulence & thunderstorm
cell as mass of cool, gusty air - Dense & long-lasting
3. Dissipating: - Tough to determine location with rain
- Downdrafts • Ice Fog
- Storm raining itself out - Tiny droplets of water supercooled in air
- Rain begins to dissipate - Droplets freezes on contact with surface
• Produced by cumulonimbus clouds - 15°F or colder
- Form when there is:
- Sufficient water vapor Turbulence
- Unstable lapse rate • Present in all thunderstorms
- Initial upward boost to start the process • Server thunderstorm can destroy aircraft
• Produces wind shear turbulence, hazardous & invisible • Strongest turbulence occurs with shear between
phenomenon particularly for takeoff & landing updrafts & downdrafts
- Adverse winds found miles away from precipitation • Low-level turbulent area is the shear zone associated
- Crosswinds with gust front
- Gusts • “Roll cloud” on leading edge of storm signifies extreme
- Variable winds/sudden wind shifts turbulent zone
- Hazardous wind shear near ground during strong • Turbulence may be enchanted outside of thunderstorm
temperature inversion clouds
- Don’t fly under anvil of thunderstorm because
potential for severe & extreme clear air turbulence Moisture/precipitation
• Severe thunderstorm conditions generally associated • Shower rain
with squall line thunderstorm • Drizzle rain
- Squall line • Thunderstorm
- Non-frontal narrow band, ahead of cold front • When dew point is close to temperature, there would
- Pilots should anticipate hail, especially beneath be more moist
anvil of large cumulonimbus
• Has lightning —> what causes the thunder
• Embedded thunderstorms are obscured, occur in very
cloudy conditions

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 Frost Weather Service Flight Rules
• Forms when temperature is below freezing • VFR
• Moisture deposed in the form of frost • Ceiling: > 3,000ft
• Poses a definite flight safety hazard • Visibility: > 5 SM
• Disrupts flow of air over wings • MVFR
• Drastically reduce production of lift • Ceiling: 1,000ft - 3,000ft
• Increases drag • Visibility: 3-5 SM
• Adversely affect ability to takeoff • IFR
• Thoroughly clean & free of frost done prior to beginning • Ceiling: 500ft - 1,000ft
flight • Visibility: 1-3 SM
• LIFR
Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories • Ceiling: < 500ft
• AIRMET • Visibility: < 1 SM
- Forecast of moderate icing, turbulence
- Sustained surface winds of ≥ 30kts Weather Information issued periods
- Widespread areas of ceilings < 1,000ft &/or • Hourly: Convective SIGMET, Radar & METAR
visibility < 3 miles • 4 times daily: TAF, Winds Aloft & AIRMET
- Extensive mountain obscurement Weather report issued Issued/ Released Validity
- Sierra: IFR & mountain obscuration period
- Tango: turbulence, strong surface winds, low-level
METARs Hourly Observed
wind shear (Meteorological (53min of the hour)
- Zulu: icing & freezing levels Aerodrome Reports)
- Issued every 6 hourly (immediate updates when Radar Hourly Observed
necessary)
- Valid for 6 hours PIREPs When occurs Observed
• SIGMET (Pilot Reports)
- Advises weather that is potentially hazardous TAF 0000Z/0600Z/1200Z/ 24 hours
- Affects ALL categories of aircrafts (Terminal Aerodrome 1800Z
- Includes severe icing, severe/extreme turbulences/ Forecast)

clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with Winds Aloft 0000Z/0600Z /1200Z / Stated on report
thunderstorms (6hr/12hr/24hr forecast) 1800Z
- Dust storms/sandstorms that lowers surface/ Graphical Forecast for At least hourly Hourly
inflight visibility below 3 miles Aviation (up to 15hrs)
- Volcanic ash
- Issued when conditions occurs AIRMET Every 6 hours 6 hours

- Valid for 4 hours (but if hurricanes, valid for 6hrs) SIGMET When occurs 4 hours
• Convective SIGMET
- Severe/greater turbulence Convective SIGMET Hourly 2 hours
- Surface winds ≥ 50kts,
- Hail at surface ≥ 3/4 inch in diameter HIWAS: Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service
- Tornadoes AWOS: Automated Weather Observing System
- Embedded thunderstorms CTAF: Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
- Line of thunderstorms ATIS: Automatic Terminal Information Service
- 40% ≥ precipitation covering at least 3,000 sq.
miles
- Icing & low-level wind shear
- Affects ALL categories of aircrafts
- Issued Hourly
- Valid for 2 hours

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D. Cross-Country Flight Planning Preflight Actions Required (NW KRAFT)
Route Planning • NOTAMs
• Preflight • Weather —> along route of flight
- Get briefing for latest/most current weather, airport, • Known ATC Delays
enroute NAVAID information • Runway Lengths
- Find & plot Checkpoints • Alternate Airports
- Calculate fuel burn & usage • Fuel Requirements
- Compute takeoff & landing performance • Takeoff & landing distance
- File flight plan
• Ways to navigate: Altitude selection, Glide distance, Effect of wind
- Pilotage: Reference by visible landmarks • Applicable for cruising altitude selection above 3,000ft
- VFR Waypoints AGL
- Dead-reckoning: Computing direction & distance - 0° to 179°: Odd Numbers + 500ft (e.g. 3,500ft,
from a known position 5,500ft, 7,500ft, 9,500ft MSL)
- Radio Navigation: Use of radio aids - 180° to 359°: Even Numbers + 500ft (e.g.
- GPS (Global Positioning System) : Broadcast 4,500ft, 6,500ft, 8,500ft, 10,500ft MSL)
signal used by receivers to determine precise • Glide distance
position anywhere in the world - Pressure Altitude: (29.92 - current altimeter
• Types of aeronautical charts for navigation setting) x 1,000 + Field Elevation
- Sectional Charts - Density Altitude: PA + (120 x (current temperature
- Designed for visual navigation - 15°C))
- Revised semiannually • Effect of wind
- VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC) - Wind Correction Angle
- Depicts Class B airspace - True Course ± WCA = True Heading ± Variation
- More details = Magnetic Heading ± Compass Deviation =
- Larger in scale Compass Heading
- Revised semiannually
- VFR Flyway Planning Charts Fuel requirements
- Printed on reverse side of selected TAC Charts • VFR Fuel Requirements
- Coverage is the same as associated TAC - Day
- Depicts flight paths & altitudes recommended - Fuel for required flight time to first point of
to bypass high traffic areas intended landing, with at least additional 30mins
• Types of navigational aids fuel reserve
- VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional - Night
Range) : Projects radials in 360° from station - Fuel for required flight time to first point of
A. Terminal: 25NM 1,000ft - 12,000ft intended landing, with at least additional 45mins
AGL fuel reserve
B. Low: 40NM, 1,000ft - 18,000ft AGL
C. High: 40NM, 1,000ft -14,500ft AGL, Elements of a VFR flight plan
100NM, 14,500ft - 60,000ft AGL, • Type of Flight (VFR, IFR, DVFR)
130NM, 18,000ft - 45,000ft AGL • Aircraft ID (E.g N12345)
- VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical • Aircraft Type/Special Equipment (C-152/G)
Air Navigation) : Standard bearing information of • True Airspeed
VOR including distance information with DME • Departure Point
- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) • Departure Time (Proposed & Actual)
- RNAV (Area Navigation) includes INS, VOR/ • Cruising Altitude
DME-referenced, & GPS • Route of Flight (DCT - Direct / Different airport ICAO
- Limitations of VORs identifier)
- Subject to line-of-sight restrictions • Destination Airport ICAO Identifier
- Range varies proportionally to altitude of • Estimated Time Enroute
receiving equipment • Fuel on Board
• Isogonic Line • Alternative Airport
- Broken magenta lines • Pilot details
- Shows amount & direction of magnetic variation, • Number on Board
changes from time to time • Aircraft Colour
• Magnetic Variation
- Angle between true north and magnetic north Procedures for activating & closing VFR flight plan
- Expressed as East/West variation • File a flight plan on www.1800wxbrief.com
- Depending on whether magnetic north is to the • Give them the elements of VFR flight plan
east/west of true north • Get current enroute weather & airport informations,
adverse conditions, NOTAMs, TFRs, SUAs
• VFR not recommended?
• Text/Call 1800wxbrief to open flight plan
• Once landed as destination airport, text/call
1800wxbrief to close the flight plan

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 Risk Assessment Diversion
• PAVE Check List • Aviate
- P: Pilot (IMSAFE checklist) - Select alternate airport
- Illness - Turn aircraft to approximate heading of alternate
- Medication airport
- Stress - Trim plane and fly heading
- Alcohol - Estimate distance needed to reach alt. airport
- Fatigue - Estimate fuel required (enough fuel to make it to
- Emotions/Eating alt. airport?)
- A: Aircraft • Navigate
- AVIATES - Use a plotter to find exact distance and heading
- ARROW-E - Make corrections to heading
- Airworthiness Certificate - Use E6B to calculate fuel requirements
- Registration Certificate (last for 3 years) - Fly over prominent landmarks
- Radio License - Use winds aloft to calculate Ground Speed and
- Operator’s Handbook (POH) time needed to reach alt. airport
- Weight & Balance - Consider cloud heights, winds, terrains & radio
- Equipment List reception when choosing altitude
- V: Environment • Communicate
- Weather minimums - Contact ATC frequency of alt. airport
- Airport available informations
- Airspace enroute Lost Procedures
- Terrain enroute • 6 Cs
- Obstacles enroute - Circle/ Square
- E: External Pressure - Circle/square around current point so as not to
- Creates sense of pressure to complete flight leave the area and get even further away from
- At the expense of safety destination
- Desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications - Climb
- Desire to impress someone - Climb approximately 500-1,000ft above current
- Goal-completion orientation altitude to get a better visual for identification of
landmarks
Limitations of Air Traffic Control (ATC) services - Conserve Fuel
• Destination may be uncontrolled airport - At higher altitude, lean the mixture to conserve
- Get AWOS/HIWAS before entering traffic fuel usage
- Inform traffic of your entry - Communicate
- Report 10 miles, 5 miles, 2 miles - Contact last ATC frequency
- Report entry point - Contact FSS (122.2 MHz)
- 45° mid-field downwind entry - Contact 121.5 MHz if FSS frequency is
- Position report at every leg unknown
- “(Airport) traffic, White Cessna N______ is - Confess
upwind/turning crosswind/turning downwind/ - Let FSS you’re lost
mid-field downwind/turning base/turning final for - Tail number
runway ____, (airport) traffic” - Admit lost
- Destination airport heading towards
Fuel Planning - Rough description of location (visual
• As our Cessnas are old, take into consideration higher references)
fuel burn rate —> add .5 to each gallon of fuel burn - Comply
• At higher altitudes, lean mixture so as to conserve fuel - Follow the instructions ATC/FSS gives
• Choose higher altitudes in order to maintain better fuel
consumption

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E. National Airspace System • Special Use Airspace (SUA)
Types of Airspace • Prohibited Area
• Controlled Airspace - Flight of aircraft prohibited
• Uncontrolled Airspace - For security/other reasons associated with
• Special Use Airspace (SUA) national welfare

Types of Airspace Classes • Restricted Area

• Controlled Airspace - Not fully prohibited but has restrictions
• Class A - Unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft
- Not marked on charts • Warning Area
- 18,000ft MSL up to FL600 - Extending 3NM outward from coast
- Including airspace overlaying waters within 12NM - Containing activity that may be hazardous to
of coast nonparticipating aircraft
- Including designated airspace beyond 12NM of - Warn of potential danger
coast • Military Operations Area (MOA)
- IFR flight ONLY - Vertical & lateral limits established for separating
- Altimeter setting: 29.92” Hg certain military training activities from IFR traffic
- Private Pilot with Instrument Rating (IR) - Exercise extreme caution flying within MOA
• Class B - Contact controlling agency for traffic advisories
- Solid Blue Line prior to entering active MOA
- From Surface up to 10,000ft MSL • Alert Area
- Surrounds busiest commercial airports - Contain high volume of pilot training
- Consist of surface area of 2 or more layers - Unusual type of aerial activity
- Maximum speed: 250kts - Pilots be responsible for collision avoidance
- Maximum speed below Class B: 200kts • Controlled Firing Area (CFA)
- At least student pilot with endorsement, private - Contains activities in controlled environment
pilot - Activities would be suspended immediately
- Has 30NM Mode-C Veil around it when aircraft might be approaching the area
• Class C - Not charted
- Solid Magenta Line • Temporary Flight Restriction Area (TFR)
- 5NM radius from surface up to 4,000ft AGL - Type of NOTAM
- 10NM radius from 1,200 up to 4,000ft AGL - Restricted to air travel due to:
- Maximum speed below 2,500ft AGL: 200kts - Hazardous condition
within 4NM of airport - Special event
- At least student pilot certificate - General warning
• Class D - Cannot do flight training but might be able to do
- Blue Dashed Lines 25 cross-country
- Surface up to 2,500ft AGL, with a radius of - Get a squawk code for entry & departure
4NM/5NM from center of airport
- Maximum speed below 2,500ft AGL: 200kts Airspace Requirements
within 4NM of airport Class Entry Two-way Altitude encoding
- At least student pilot certificate requirement Communication Transponder
• Class E
- Shaded Magenta Lines (700ft-1,200ft AGL) A ATC Clearance " "
- No depiction (1,200ft AGL-17,999ft MSL) ATC Clearance Within 30NM of
- Dashed Magenta Line : Class E extension B " Primary Airport "
(surface to 17,999ft MSL)
- Federal airways (Victor airways)/low-altitude VFR: Radio Within Class C &
C Contact above lateral limits
RNAV routes (1,200ft AGL-17,999MSL) "
IFR: Clearance
- Special Class E (>700ft AGL) "
- Above Class A at FL600 to undefined upper VFR: Radio Unless required by
limit D Contact " other airspaces
- At least student pilot IFR: Clearance
- Maximum speed below 10,000ft AGL: 250kts
VFR: Radio IFR only Unless required by
• Uncontrolled Airspace E Contact other airspaces
• Class G IFR: Clearance
- Surface up to Class A,B,C,D/E
- Too low for radar detection G "
Unless required by
other airspaces
- Very little traffic
- Slow moving planes

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 Airspace Visibility & Ceiling Requirements
Class Visibility Cloud Clearance

A N.A N.A

B 3 SM Clear of Clouds

500ft below
C 3 SM 1,000ft above
2,000ft horizontal

500ft below
D 3 SM 1,000ft above
2,000ft horizontal

500ft below
E 3 SM 1,000ft above
(<10,000ft MSL) 2,000ft horizontal

1,000ft below
E 5 SM 1,000ft above
(≥10,000 MSL) 1 SM horizontal

G - Day
1 SM Clear of Clouds
(≤1,200ft AGL)

500ft below
G -Night 3 SM 1,000ft above
(≤ 1,200ft AGL) 2,000ft horizontal

G - Day 500ft below

(>1,200ft AGL - 1 SM 1,000ft above
9,999MSL) 2,000ft horizontal

G - Night 500ft below

(>1,200ft AGL - 3 SM 1,000ft above
9,999 MSL) 2,000ft horizontal

G 1,000ft below
(>1,200ft AGL & 5 SM 1,000ft above
≥10,000ft MSL) 1 SM horizontal

Special VFR weather minimums

• Must get ATC clearance
• Clear of Clouds
• 1 SM Ground Visibility

Special Flight Rules Areas (SFRA)

• Defined dimensions above land areas/territorial waters
• Flight is subjected to the rules set forth in 14 CFR Part
93

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F. Performance and Limitations • Ground effect
Atmospheric conditions - Improved performance airplane experiences when
• Density Altitude operating near the ground
- Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard - Airflow around wings is restricted by ground
temperature surface
- Vertical distance above sea level in standard - Reduces wing’s upwash, downwash & wingtip
atmosphere at which given density is found vortices
• Density of air has direct effect on: - During landing, drag may be 40% less than out of
- Lift produced by wings ground effect, therefore excess speed causes
- Power output of engine significant float distance
- Propeller efficiency - During takeoff, reduced drag in ground effect
- Drag forces might cause the aircraft to become air-borne initially
• Factors affecting air density with a deficiency of speed but would settle back to
- Altitude the runway after moving out of ground effect
- Higher altitude, air is less dense • Airspeed - Cessna 152
- Temperature - VS0 : Stall with Flaps: 35kts
- Warmer air, air is less dense - VS1 : Stall w/o Flaps: 40kts
- Humidity - VR : Rotation Speed: 50kts
- More humid, air is less dense - VX : Best Angle of-Climb: 55kts
• How does factors affect density altitude - VY : Best Rate of-Climb: 67kts
- Density altitude increase (low air density) due to: - VFE : Maximum Flaps Extended: 85kts
- High Altitude - VA : Maneuvering Speed: 104kts
- High Air Temperature - VNO : Maximum Structural Cruise: 111kts
- High Humidity - VNE : Never Exceed Speed: 149kts
- Density altitude decrease (high air density) due to: - VG : Best Glide Speed: 60kts (w/ 10° Flaps),
- Low Altitude 65kts (w/o Flaps)
- Low Air Temperature - Maximum Crosswind : 12kts
- Low Humidity
• Factors affecting performance of aircraft Airport Environment
- Air Density (Density Altitude) • Towered/untowered airport
- Surface wind • Ground, Tower & CTAF Frequencies
- Runway surface • Runway Lengths
- Upslope/downslope of runway • Pressure & Density Altitude of Airport
- Weight of aircraft • Wind direction
• Glide slope lights availability
Airplane Configuration • Traffic pattern altitude
• Stalls • Airport diagrams
- Excessive angle of attack (AOA) • Taxiways
- Airflow is separated from upper surface of the
wings Loading
- Critical angle varies from 16° to 20° • Center of gravity (CG)
- Regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor/density - Forward CG
altitude - Higher stall speed: AOA at higher speed due to
• Spins increased wing loading
- Results from aggravated stalls in either a slip or - Slower cruise speed: increased drag, >AOA
skid required to maintain altitude
- Exceeding critical AOA, while applying excessive/ - More stable: increases longitudinal stability
insufficient rudder & ailerons - Greater back elevator pressure required: longer
- Occurs in any phase but more likely: takeoff roll, higher approach speed & problems
- Engine failure on takeoff during climb out with landing flare
- Crossed-control turn from base to final - Rearward/Aft CG
- Engine failure on approach to landing - Lower stall speed: less wing loading
- Go-around with full nose-up trim - Higher cruise speed: reduced drag, smaller
- Go-around with improper flap retraction AOA required to maintain altitude
• Procedures for recovery from spin - Less stable: stall & spin recovery more difficult,
- Power to idle causes longitudinal instability
- Aileron to neutral
- Rudder -apply full opposite against rotation until
aircraft is straighten out
- Elevator - pitch down to break stall
• Adverse Yaw
- Downward deflected aileron produces more lift,
which also produces more drag
- Added drag pulls/veer airplane’s nose in the
direction opposite to the desired direction

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 • Performance affected by overloading • 4 types of Left-Turning Tendencies
- Higher takeoff speed/Longer takeoff/landing 1. Torque effect
- Reduced rate & angle of climb - Newton’s 3rd Law of Physics
- Lower maximum altitude - For every action, there is an equal &
- Shorter range opposite reaction
- Reduced cruising speed & maneuverability - When engine & propeller revolves in one
- Higher stalling/landing speed direction, there is an equal force trying to
- Excessive weight on nosewheel rotate the aircraft in opposite direction
- Greatest when at low airspeed with high
Weight & Balance power settings & high AOA
• Empty weight - Effects of torque
- Weight of airframe, engine, permanently installed - In flight: acts around longitudinal axis,
equipment & unusable fuel making aircraft roll, aircrafts rigged to
• Gross weight create more lift on wing being forced
- Maximum allowable weight of both airplane & downward
contents - On the ground: additional turning
• Useful load moment around vertical axis induced,
- Weight of pilot, co-pilot, passengers, baggage, results in more ground friction/drag on left
usable fuel & drainable oil tire, causing further turning moment to
• Arm the left
- Horizontal distance in inches from reference datum - Tends to roll/bank the plane to the left
line to CG of item because rotation of propeller is to the
• Moment right (view from cockpit)
- Weight x Arm 2. P-Factor (Asymmetrical propeller loading)
- Expressed in pound-inches - Downward blade taking more air than
• Center of gravity (CG) upward blade
- Point which aircraft would balance if suspended - Greater AOA on downward blade, therefore
• Datum greater lift as compared to upward blade
- Imaginary vertical plane/line from all measurements - Greater thrust on downward moving blade,
of arm taken pushing it to the left
- Established by manufacturer 3. Gyroscopic precession
- Rigidity in space
Aerodynamics - Gyroscope remains in fixed position, but
• 4 types of dynamic forces gimbal would rotate
1. Lift - upward acting force - Precession
2. Weight - downward acting force - Resultant force will be exerted 90° ahead
3. Thrust - forward acting force in direction of rotation & in same direction
4. Drag - backward acting force force is applied
- Steady, straight & level, unaccelerated flight would - Downwind pushes out & up propeller
cause the opposing forces to be equal pulls in
• Airfoils - Yaws aircraft to the left
- Structure that gets reaction from air moving over its 4. Spiraling Slipstream (Corkscrewing pattern)
surface - Slipstream strikes the vertical tail surface on
- Examples: the left side
- Wings - Pushes tail to the right, yawing the aircraft to
- Horizontal tail surfaces the left
- Vertical tail surfaces • Centrifugal force
- Propellers - “Equal & opposite reaction” of aircraft to the
• Angle of incidence change in direction
- Formed by longitudinal axis of aircraft & chord of - Acts “equal & opposite” to horizontal component
wing of lift
- Measured angle at which wing is attached to • Load Factor
fuselage - Ratio of total load supported by aircraft’s wings to
- Fixed angle, cannot be changed by pilot actual weight of aircraft & contents
• Relative wind - Actual load supported by wings divided by total
- Direction of airflow with respect to wing weight of aircraft
- Wing move forward & downward, relative wind - Importance of load factor
move backward & upward 1. Dangerous to overload imposed on
- Flight path & relative wing always parallel but aircraft structure
travel in opposite directions 2. Increased load factor increases
• Angle of Attack (AOA) stalling speed, making stalls possible
- Angle between wing chord line and direction of at seemingly safe flight speeds
relative wind - Stalling speed increases in
- Can be changed by pilot proportion to the square root of
load factor

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 • 2 types of Drag Airfoil Design
- Parasite drag • Low Pressure Above
- Direct result of air resistance - Air moving over upper surface fired to move faster
- Varies with speed of aircraft than air moving along bottom surface
- 3 types - Increased velocity reduces pressure above airfoils
1. Form drag - Lowered pressure is a component of total lift
2. Interference drag - Top surface creates downward backward flow,
3. Skin friction drag meeting bottom airfoil flow at trailing edge
- Induced drag - Creation of downward backward flow results in
- Created vortex around the wings upward forward force on airfoil
- Changes downward angle of air flowing over • High Pressure Below
wings - Positive pressure results particularly at higher AOA
- Tilts direction of lift backwards - Airflow virtually stops close to leading edge, then
- From vertical lift to slightly aft lift gradually increases speed
- Higher at lower airspeed - Because of slower speed, there is higher pressure
- With an increase in pressure differential between
Performance charts, tables, data upper & lower camber, lift is generated
• POH Section 5 & 6 • Pressure Distribution
- Takeoff/Landing distance - High AOA, Center of Pressure (CP) moves
- Rate of climb foreward
- Time, fuel & distance to climb - Low AOA, CP moves aft
- Cruise performance - Affects position of air loads imposed on wing
- Center of gravity moment envelope structure
- Center of gravity limits - Aerodynamic balance & controllability governed by
• If weight & balance out of limits: changes in CP
- Reduce baggage weight • Airfoil Behaviour
- Reduce fuel by draining/burning fuel on ramp - Airfoil inclined against airflow
- Shift baggage weight arm - Produces different flow caused by airfoil’s
relationship to oncoming air
Theories in the Production of Lift - Movement of aircraft upwards/downwards is
• Factors for affecting lift generated by wings caused by deflection causing air to turn about
- Speed of wing through the air object within air stream
- Angle of Attack - Velocity about the object changes in both
- Planform of wing magnitude & direction, resulting in measurable
- Wing area velocity force & direction
- Air density
• Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion A Third Dimension
- 1st Law (Law of Inertia): Nothing starts/stop until a • Tip of airfoil has aerodynamic effect
compelling force is applied to it (may add to its • High-pressure area pushes around tip to low-pressure
motion, slow it down, or change its direction) area
- 2nd Law (Law of momentum): Force = Mass X • Creates rotating flow called tip vortex
Acceleration, therefore when greater acceleration • Vortex flows behind airfoil, creating downwash
is provided, more force is generated, the faster extending to trailing edge of airfoil
you go, more lift is created • Results in overall reduction in lift for affected portion of
- 3rd Law (Law of Reaction): For every action, there airfoil
is an equal & opposite reaction • Winglets are added to counteract by reducing flow,
- Due to AOI/ AOA, lower surface of wing acting as a dam to prevent vortex from forming
deflects air downward (action force), which • Tapering the airfoil counteracts by reducing pressure
causes upward force (reaction force) differential & smoothing airflow around the tip
• Bernoulli’s Principle of Differential Pressure
- Pressure of fluid(liquid/gas) decrease at points
where speed increases
- High speed airflow —> low pressure
- Low speed airflow —> high pressure
- Airfoil designed to increase velocity of airflow above
surface, thus decreasing pressure
- Pressure on upper camber is lesser than lower
camber, therefore, generates a lift force over upper
camber

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G. Operation of Systems Powerplant and Propeller
Primary Flight Controls • Engine & propeller
• Conventional Hinged Ailerons • Thrust to move plane
- Rear of wings • Source of power for electrical, vacuum, etc.
- Controls roll (left up, right down) • Covered by cowling/enclosed in a nacelle for
- Operated simultaneously in opposite direction protection & streamlining
- Permits rolling (banking) • Engine
- Downward aileron has higher AOA & lift - Single Engine
- Upward aileron has lower AOA & lift - AVCO Lycoming Model O-235-L2C
• Rudders - 110 Brake Horsepower @ 2,550 RMP
- Rear of vertical stabilizer - 4-cylinder
- Controls yaw (360° turnable) - Horizontally-opposed
- Provides directional control of aircraft - Air-cooled
• Elevators - Normally-Aspirated
- Rear of horizontal stabilizer - Direct-driven (crankshaft between prop and
- Controls pitch engine)
- Push/pull yoke - 4 strokes of engine
- Adjust AOA (raising/lowering elevator) 1. Intake: intake valve opens & fuel-air
mixture drawn into the cylinder
Secondary Flight Controls 2. Compression: to obtain a greater power
• Trim devices output from fuel-air mixture once ignited
- Relieve the need to maintain continuous pressure 3. Combustion: fuel-air mixture ignites
on primary controls causing a tremendous pressure forcing
- Manually operated piston downward, creating power that
- Vertically mounted turns crankshaft
- Small airfoils attached/recessed into trailing edge 4. Exhaust: purge cylinder of burned gas
of primary control surface and begins when exhaust valve opens
- Opposite direction from primary controls - Ignition provided by 2 engine-driven magnetos,
- Not used to position primary controls with 2 spark plugs per cylinder (total 8 spark
- Determined by reference to trim indicator in cockpit plugs)
• Wing flaps - Magnetos need to be actuated by started, after
- Increase lift & drag engine starts, starter system disengages
- Permit slower landing speed, decreasing landing - Advantages of dual ignition:
distance - Increased safety: if one fails, engine still
- Permits steep angle of descent operable on the other until safe landing
- Doesn’t increase in speed made
- Shorter takeoff distance - More complete & even combustion of
- Provides steeper climb mixture
- Plain flaps: when flaps is down, changes chord • Propeller
line, AOA & camber of wing - McCauley Accessory Division
- Split flaps: increase AOA by changing chord - Twin blade
line, least change in pitching, greatest drag - One-piece
- Slotted flaps: air to pass through, delay airflow - Forged aluminium alloy
separation - Maximum: 69 inches in diameter
- Fowler flaps: tilt downwards, slide rearwards, - Minimum: 67.5 inches in diameter
less lift, more drag, increase AOA, camber & - 12 inches from ground
wing area - Connected & driven by engine
• Leading edge devices - Fixed pitch
- Allows smooth airflow at higher AOA
- Delay airflow separation Landing gear
- Doesn’t increase wing camber • Tricycle wheel
- Delay stalls to higher AOA • Steerable nose wheel with shock strut air/oil fluid
- Slats at low AOA, flushed against leading edge • 2 main wheels
- Slats at high AOA, moves forward • Hydraulically actuated disc-type
- Opens a slot, allow air to flow smoothly over wings • Nose wheel tire pressure: 30 PSI (Found in POH
upper surface Section 8-12)
• Spoilers • Main wheels tire pressure: 21 PSI (Found in POH
- Mounted on upper surface of each wing Section 8-12)
- “Spoil”/disrupt smooth airflow
- Reduces wings lifting force
- Spoiler increases rate of descent w/o increasing
speed

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 Fuel, Carburetor & Oil System Electrical
• Fuel System • Powered by 28V, direct-current electrical system
- 2 fuel tanks (left & right wing) • Engine-driven 60-amp alternator
- 13 gallons each tank, total 26 gallons • 24V battery
- 24.5 gallons usable, 1.5 gallons unusable • Power supplied to bus bar, controlled by master switch
- Gravity fed • Bus bar connects to circuit breakers
Left Fuel Tank Right Fuel Tank • Circuit breakers
- Protects overloading
- When overloaded, can reset
Drain Valve Drain Valve

Fuel
Shutoff

- 1 circuit breaker for each component

Valve

Fuel Line Drain Plug • Equipment using electrical power

- Radio Equipment
- Turn Coordinator
Fuel Strainer
Fuel
Primer Drain Control
Strainer

Throttle
Control - Fuel Gauges
- Pitot Heat
Carburetor
Mixture
Control

- Fuel flows into carburetor and mixes with air to - Landing/Taxi Lights
form fuel/air mixture - Strobe Lights
- Uses 100 LL (Low Lead) aviation fuel, blue in - Interior Lights
colour - Instrument Lights
- Primer draws fuel from fuel strainer directly into - Position Lights
cylinder intake ports, which allows quicker & - Flaps
more efficient engine start - Oil Temperature gauge
• Carburetor • Ammeter
- Float-type carburetor - Indicates flow of current, in amperes, from
- Directly mechanically linked to throttle & mixture alternator to battery/from battery to electrical
- Process of mixing correct proportion of fuel & air to system
form mixture - When engine running & master on, indicates
- Atomize fuel & supply mixture to engine charing rate to battery
- Carburetor Heat - If gone off-line, no longer functioning/electrical load
- Controlled by pilot exceed output of alternator, indicates discharge
- Allows unfiltered, heated air from shroud rate of battery
located around exhaust to enter directly into the
carburetor Avionics
- Used anytime during suspected/known of • Powered by engine battery
carburetor icing • Connects to bus bar
- Heated air would produce richer mixture • Shows T/Tx for transmitting and R/Rx for receiving
- Therefore decrease in RMP up to 15% when • Might have 1 or 2 radio channels
carb heat is on • Including navigation channels
• Oil System
- Wet sump oil system Pitot-static system
- Maximum capacity: 6 quarts (7 quarts for full flow • Airspeed indicator (Pitot-static)
oil filter) - Measures airspeed
- Minimum capacity: 4 quarts - Measures difference between RAM air pressure &
- Oil pump draws oil from sump and routes to static pressure
engine - Diaphragm would expand & contract according to
- After oil passes through engine, it returns to sump the pressure
by gravity flow - Errors of airspeed indicator
- Oil is not contained, thus not certified for aerobatic - Position Error
flights - Cause by static port sensing erroneous
- Oil filler cap/oil dipstick located at rear of engine on static pressure
the right - Slipstream flow causes disturbance at static
- Accessible through access door in engine cowling port preventing actual pressure
- For the first 50 hours of a new oil system, refill measurement
sump with Straight Mineral Oil - Varies with airspeed, altitude & configuration
- After which, use Ashless Dispersant Oil - Density Error
- Oil Pressure - Changes in altitude & temperature not
- Normal operating range: 60-90 PSI (Green) compensated for by instrument
- Minimum range: 25 PSI (Red) - Compressibility Error
- Maximum range: 100 PSI (Red) - High RAM air enters pitot tube, causing
- Oil Temperature results to be higher than normal
- Electrical-resistant type-sensor - Instrument error
- Normal operating range: 100℉ - 245℉ - RAM air blocked, drain hole open
(Green) - Airspeed show 0 as air will bled from
- Maximum range: 245℉ (Red) drain hole
- Pitot tube freezes, static working
- Airspeed indicator works like altimeter
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 - Pitot tube working, static freezes - True Altitude: true vertical distance of aircraft
- Shows inaccurate reading above sea level
- Everything freezes - Airport, terrain obstacle elevations found
- Airspeed indicator will freeze, stays at on charts are true altitude
current reading no matter fast or slow - Density Altitude: pressure altitude corrected
for non-standard temperature variations
- Directly related to aircraft’s takeoff, climb &
Static Port landing performance
• Vertical speed indicator (VSI) (Static)
Diaphragm

- Measures rate of climb

RAM Air —> - When climbing, static port senses low pressure,
Drain hole
therefore immediately changing the diaphragm
- Different types of airspeed
- Ground Speed (GS): Speed of aircraft over Static Port
ground, not affected by altitude, pressure,
temperature, density altitude or atmospheric
Diaphragm

conditions (D = S x T)
- True Airspeed (TAS): Speed of aircraft as it - Limitations
Calibrated leak

moves through the air, speed is in relation to - Due to calibrated leak, there would be a delay
air mass it passes through, headwind of 6-9 seconds
requires more speed, tailwind requires less - Errors of VSI
speed - Static port freezes
- Indicated Airspeed (IAS): Measured speed - VSI would show 0 even when climbing/
as aircraft moves through air masses descending
according to the pitot tube, when altitude
increases, pressure of decreases, thus, IAS Gyroscopic Flight Instruments
< TAS • Turn Coordinator
- Calibrated Airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for - Electrically operated
instrument/position/installation errors - Uses principle of precession
• Altimeter (Static) - Indicates rate of turn, rate of roll, direction of turn &
- Measures altitude of aircraft quality of turn
- Aneroid wafer set according to altimeter pressure - Reacts by trying to move in reaction to force
given on ground applied, thus moving miniature aircraft in proportion
- Aneroid wafers expands & contracts as to rate of turn
atmospheric pressure changes - Ball measures relative strength of the force of
- Through shaft & gear linkage, rotates pointers on gravity and force of inertia
sail of instrument - Slip/skid indicator (ball) is liquid-filled
• Heading Indicator (directional gyro)
- Vacuum operated
Static Port
Aneroid Kollsman - Uses principle of rigidity in space & precession
- Provides heading/direction of aircraft
Wafer Window

- Rotors turns in vertical plane on horizontal axis

- Limitations of altimeter - Compass card is fixed to gyro
- ± 75ft of elevation - Points on card hold same position in space relative
- Errors of altimeter to vertical plane
- Static port freezes - As instrument case & aircraft revolve around
- Altimeter freezes, maintaining current altitude vertical axis, card provides clear & accurate
- Inherent error heading information
- Pressure error - Limitations of H.I
- Higher pressure indicates a lower altitude - Oriented in space & earth rotates 15° per hour
than actual - Will creep/drift from a heading to which it is set
- Lower pressure indicates a higher altitude to
than actual • Attitude Indicator (artificial horizon)
- Temperature error - Vacuum operated
- Warmer day indicates lower altitude than - Gyro mounted on horizontal plane on vertical axis
actual - Uses principle of rigidity in space
- Colder day indicates higher altitude than - Indicates the aircraft in a pitch &/or bank
actual - Horizon bar indicated true horizon
- Types of altitude - Bar fixed to gyro & remains horizontal as airplane
- Absolute Altitude: vertical distance of aircraft pitches/banks
above ground - Indicated attitude of aircraft relative to true horizon
- Indicated Altitude: altitude shown on altimeter
- Pressure Altitude: altitude when altimeter set
to 29.92, used for computations of density
altitude, true altitude & TAS, etc

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 Vacuum system Deicing and anti-icing
• Engine-driven vacuum pump • Carb Icing
• Provides suction which pulls air from instrument case - Vaporization of fuel, combined with expansion of air
• Normal pressure directed against rotor vanes to turn as it passes through carburetor
gyro at high speed - First indication: loss of RPM & increase in RPM
• Air drawn in through a filter from cockpit & eventually after initial drop with engine roughness
vented outside - Occurs when temperature below 71°F/21°C &
relative humidity above 80%
Magnetic Compass • Deicing equipment
• Magnets mounted on compass aligned to Earth's lines - Removes ice already formed on protected
of magnetic force surfaces
• Float assembly housed in a bowl filled with acid-free - Generally limited to pneumatic boots on wing & tail
white kerosene leading edge
• Shows heading/direction of aircraft • Anti-icing equipment
• Limitations - Prevents ice from forming on certain protected
- Float is free to rotate & tilt up to approximately 18° surfaces
angle of bank - Examples:
- Exceeding 18° bank may cause compass to be - Heated pitot tube & static ports
erratic and unpredictable - Carburetor heat
• Types of compass error - Heated fuel vents
- Oscillation error - Propeller blades with electrothermal boots
- Erratic movement of compass card cause by - Heated windshield
turbulence/rough control - Normally actuated prior to flight into suspected
- Deviation error icing conditions
- Due to electrical & magnetic disturbances in • Types of icing
aircraft 1. Instrumental
- Variation error - Pitot-static icing
- Angular difference between true & magnetic 2. Structural
north - Requires 2 conditions
• Dip errors - Visible moisture
• Acceleration error - At/below freezing temperature when
- On East/West heading, while accelerating, moisture strikes aircraft
magnetic compass will show a turn to the - Over aircraft structure
north, when decelerating, will show turn to the - Prevents smooth airflow over airfoils
south - 3 types of structural icing
- ANDS 1. Clear Ice: forms when large
- Accelerate supercooled water droplets/freezing
- North drizzles/freezing rain hits aircraft &
- Decelerate freezes slowly, disrupts airflow,
- South changes shape of airfoil, most
• Northerly turning error dangerous form of icing
- Compass leads in south half of a turn, lags in - Forms when temperature is
the north half of a turn between 2°C to -10°C
- UNOS 2. Mixed Ice: drops varies in size, liquid
- Undershoot intermingled with snow/ice particles,
- North ice particles imbedded in clear ice,
- Overshoot rough accumulation, mixture of clear
- South & rime ice
- Forms when temperature is
Oxygen system (14 CFR Part 91.211) between -10°C to -15°C
• Above 12,5000ft - 14,000ft MSL 3. Rime Ice: forms when small water
- No oxygen required if flight is below 30mins droplets hits aircraft & freezes rapidly,
- If flight is longer than 30mins, flight crew needs super thick, milky white (air trapped in
supplemental oxygen ice) (found in stratiform clouds/light
• Above 14,001ft MSL drizzle)
- Flight crew needs supplemental oxygen during - Forms when temperature is
entire flight time between -15°C and -20°C
• Above 15,001ft MSL 3. Induced
- Everyone on board provided with supplemental - Carburetor System
oxygen - Carb Ice

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H. Human Factors - Turn off any cabin heat
% of air - Land as soon as possible
• 78% Nitrogen (N2)
• 21% Oxygen (O2) Hyperventilation
• 1% other gases • Under stress/experiencing anxiety
• Breathe too rapidly
Supplemental oxygen required for heights • Too much CO2 being exhaled
• Day: above 10,000ft MSL • Lack of CO2 in the blood
• Night: above 5,000ft MSL (eyes needs extra oxygen to • Symptoms:
function) - Dizziness
- Weakness
Hypoxia - Fainting
• Lack of O2 going into the brain & tissues/cells - Tingling of lips, hands & feet
• Symptoms (differs for each person): - Seizures
- Light-headedness - Headache
- Euphoria - Spasms
- Dizziness • Treatment:
- Fatigue - Deliberately slowing down breathing down to
- Blue fingernail & lips (cyanosis) normal rate
- Headache - Breathe into paper bag (re-breathe CO2 exhaled)
- Lost of vision (eventually)
- Tinging sensation at fingertips Decompression sickness
- Nausea • Transition between pressures causes N2 not being
- Shortness of breathe able to leave the body during normal respiration
- Seizures • Excess N2 would bubble up from the cells, causing
- Blackout/knock out damage around joints & nerves
- Basically don’t feel right • Encountered usually due to scuba diving before flight
• Types of hypoxia • During diving, increased pressure is experienced
1. Hypoxic hypoxia • Divers need to make decompression stops to release
- Due to increase in altitude N2 in the body
- Pressure reduces at higher altitude • Cannot take passenger who dived within 12hrs of the
- Use 100% aviation grade oxygen tanks (for flight or 24hrs of the flight (if they have done diving that
altitude up to 40,000ft MSL) requires decompression stops)
2. Stagnant hypoxia • Symptoms:
- Decrease in blood flow in body - Joint pain (The Bends)
- Poor blood circulation - Tingling sensations
- Causes: - Seizures
- Fat people has a higher tendency - Unconsciousness
- Tight pants • Treatment:
- High blood pressure - Quickly descending to lower altitude
- Results in blackout - Administering 100% aviation oxygen if available
3. Hypemic hypoxia - Go to hospital
- Blood unable to accept & transport O2 into - Go to divers recompression chamber (to re-
cells pressurize individual, removing access bubbles
- Blood lost from blood)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO) poisoning
- Attaches to hemoglobin, prevents O2 Middle ear & sinus problems
getting into blood cells • During climb, middle ear air pressure may exceed
- Odourless & colourless pressure of air in external ear canal
- By product of all internal combustion in • During descent, middle ear air pressure is lesser than
the engine pressure of air in external ear canal
- CO is absorbed 200x more rapidly than O2 • Equalizing outside & internal air pressure
- Causes: • Inner ear equalizes via the eustachian tube (travels from
- Crack in exhaust system causing CO to inner ear to back of throat)
enter cockpit • Treatment:
- Smokers experience hypemic hypoxia - Swallow
whenever they inhale smoke - Yawn
4. Histotoxic hypoxia - Chew
- Poison by drugs/alcohol - Valsalva Maneuver (hold nose and blow through
- 1 oz of alcohol has same effect as climbing gently)
2,000ft in altitude - Stop the descent & climb back up to higher
• Treatment for suspected of Hypoxia: altitude
- Increase in take of oxygen - Slowly descent & clear ears regularly
- Descend to a lower altitude
- Open all fresh air sources (windows & air vents)

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 Spatial disorientation Motion Sickness
• Lack of orientation with regards to position, attitude/ • Brain receiving conflicting message about state of body
movement of aircraft in space • When flying in turbulence/aerobatic maneuvers, inner
• Body uses 3 integrated system to ascertain orientation ear supplying brain with information about movement
1. Vestibular system • Anxiety & stress may cause motion sickness
- Organs found in inner ear that sense • Symptoms:
position by the way we are balanced - General discomfort
2. Somatosensory system - Nausea
- Nerves in skin, muscles, joints & hearing - Dizziness
sense position by Earth’s gravitational pull, - Paleness
feeling & sound - Sweating
3. Visual system - Vomiting
- Uses eyes to sense position based on what - Feeling hot & faint
is seen • To prevent/reduce problem:
- Helps to identify pitch, roll & yaw movement - Avoid lessons in turbulent conditions
of aircraft - Start with shorter flights
• Flying might cause 3 systems to supply conflicting - Opening fresh air vents, allowing fresh air to blow
information to the brain, leading to disorientation on your face
• Types of illusions - Focus on objects outside of aircraft
- Vestibular illusions - Avoid unnecessary head movements
- The Leans
- Bank entered too slowly to set fluid motion Stress
to roll • Body’s response to physical & psychological demands
- Might feel compelled to lean in perceived • Chemical hormones (adrenaline) being released into
vertical plane until illusion subsides blood
- Coriolis illusion • Increases metabolism to provide more energy to
- In a turn long enough that fluid in ear canal muscles
moves in same speed of canal • Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure &
- Causes illusion of doing maneuver that is not perspiration increases
happening • Examples of stressors:
- May get into dangerous attitude in attempt - Physical stress (noise/vibrations)
to correct aircraft’s perceived attitude - Physiological stress (fatigue)
- Use instrument to cross-check - Psychological stress (difficult work/personal
- Graveyard spiral situations)
- Prolonged coordinated constant-rate turn • Acute Stress (short term)
gives pilot illusion of not turning - Involves immediate threat perceived as danger
- Might lead to loss of aircraft control - Triggers “fight or flight” response to individual
- Somatogravic illusion - Able to cope with acute stress and prevent stress
- Illusion of being in a nose-up attitude overload
- Pilot might push aircraft into nose-low/dive • Chronic Stress (long term)
attitude - Intolerable burden
- Inversion illusion - Exceeds ability of individual to cope
- Abrupt change from climb to straight-&-level - Causes performance to fall sharply
creates illusion of tumbling backwards - Unrelenting pressures:
- Elevator illusion - Loneliness
- Creates illusion of being in a climb/descend - Financial worries
- Pilot might react wrongly to recover - Relationship/work problems
- Visual illusion
- False horizon
- Sloping cloud formation
- Obscured horizon
- Aurora borealis
- Dark scene spread with ground lights &
starts
- Certain geometric patterns of ground light
- Provides inaccurate visual information
- Pilot may place aircraft in dangerous attitude
- Autokinesis
- Stationary light appears to move when
stared at for many seconds
- Pilot could lose control of aircraft in
attempting to align aircraft with false
movement of light

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 Fatigue Dehydration & Heatstroke
• Frequently associated with pilot error • Dehydration
• Effects of fatigue: • Body consist up to 60% of water
- Degradation of attention & concentration • Require 2-4 quarts of new water everyday
- Impaired coordination • Critical loss of water
- Decreased ability to communicate • Causes of dehydration:
- Influences ability to make effective decisions - Hot flight decks & flight lines
• Results from: - Wind
- Sleep loss - Humidity
- Exercise - Diuretic drinks (coffee, tea, alcohol & caffeinated
- Physical work soft drinks)
- Stress • Symptoms:
- Prolonged performance of cognitive work - Fatigue: makes top physical & mental
• Acute fatigue performance difficult/impossible
- Tiredness after strenuous effort - Headache
- Excitement - Abdominal cramps
- Lack of sleep - Sleepiness
- Skill fatigue - Dizziness
- Timing disruption - Nausea
- Disruption of perceptual field - Tingling of hands & feet
• Chronic fatigue - Extreme thirst
- Usually has psychological roots • Flying long periods in hot summer temperature/high
- Continuous high stress level altitudes increases susceptibility to dehydration
- Requires treatment by physician • Heatstroke
- Symptoms: • Mild heatstroke cause loss of physical & mental
- Weakness abilities
- Tiredness • Serve heatstroke can result in unconsciousness &
- Palpitations of heart even death
- Breathlessness • Symptoms:
- Headache - Feeling hot (often w/o sweating)
- Irritability - Dizziness & fainting
- Stomach/intestinal problems - Muscle weakness & cramps
- Generalized aches & pain throughout body - Rapid heartbeat & breathing
- Might lead to emotional illness - Nausea & vomiting
• Treatment of fatigue: - Confusion, disorientation, seizures &
- Get plenty of sleep before flight unconsciousness
- Drink plenty of water before & during flight • Treatment:
- During long flight, periodically shift position in seat - Be sure to stay properly hydrated
- Try to find shade & fresh air
Alcohol & Drugs - Wear loose fitting/light colour clothing & hat
• 1 oz of alcohol has measurable negative short-term - Make use of air vents/cockpit ventilation
effect on ability to reason & perform complex tasks
• FAA regulations: Prohibited from flying within 8hrs of
consuming ANY alcohol
• FAA Regulations also prohibits flying under the influence
of drugs (legal/illegal drugs)
• Can impair physical & mental performance
• Read packaging of drugs carefully & consult AME
before consuming ANY medication before flying
• Not only for flight crews
• Illegal to take passengers under the influence of
alcohol/drugs

Hypothermia
• Body loses heat faster than it can produce
• Boy temperature falls below 95°F (35°C)
• Symptoms:
- 1st stage: shivering, reduced circulation
- 2nd stage: slow, weak pulse, slowed breathing,
lack of coordination, irritability, confusion, sleepy
behavior
- 3rd stage: slow, weak, or absent respiration &
pulse

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 Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)
• Systematic approach to the mental process to
consistently determine the best course of action in a
given set of circumstances
• Basic steps of ADM
- Define problem
- Choose course of action
- Implement decision
- Evaluate outcome
• DECIDE Model
- Detect the change
- Estimate the need to counter/react to change
- Choose desired outcome
- Identify necessary actions to control change
- Do necessary actions
- Evaluate results of action countering change
• 3Ps (continuous loop)
- Perceive given set of circumstances (PAVE
checklist)
- Process by evaluating impact on flight safety
(CARE)
- Consequences of each hazard
- Alternatives available
- Reality of the situation
- External Pressures
- Perform by implementing best course of action
(TEAM)
- Transfer: can risk be transferred someone else?
- Eliminate: possible to eliminate hazard?
- Accept: benefits of accepting risks outweighs
costs?
- Mitigate: what to do to reduce risk?
• Personal minimums
- Set limits unique to each individual based on
current level of experience & proficiency
• 5 Hazardous Attitudes (RAIMI)
- Resignation (What’s the use?)
- I’m not helpless. I can make a difference
- Anti-authority (Don’t tell me!)
- Follow the Rules
- Invulnerability (It won’t happen to me)
- It could happen to me
- Macho (I can do it)
- Taking chances is foolish
- Impulsivity (Do something quickly!)
- Not so fast. Think first

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