SUMMARY
19.1 Functions of the Reproductive System
The reproductive system produces male and female gametes, enhances
fertilization of an oocyte by a sperm, nurtures the new individual until birth (in the
female), and produces reproductive hormones.
19.2 Formation of Gametes
The reproductive organs in males and females produce gametes by meiosis. 1.
Two consecutive cell divisions halve the chromosome number from 46 total
chromosomes to 23 total chromosomes. 2. Meiosis forms male and female gametes.
19.3 Male Reproductive System
Scrotum
1. The scrotum is a sac containing the testes.
2. The dartos and cremaster muscles help regulate testes temperature.
Testes
The testes are divided into lobules containing the seminiferous tubules and
interstitial cells.
Spermatogenesis
1. Spermatogenesis begins in the seminiferous tubules at the time of puberty.
2. Sustentacular cells nourish the sperm cells and produce small amounts of
hormones.
3. Spermatogonia divide (mitosis) to form primary spermatocytes.
4. Primary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to produce first secondary
spermatocytes and then spermatids. The spermatids then mature to form
sperm cells.
5. A spermatid develops a head, midpiece, and flagellum to become a sperm cell.
The head contains the acrosome and the nucleus.
Ducts
1. The epididymis, a coiled tube system, is located on the testis and is the site of
sperm maturation. Final changes, called capacitation of sperm cells, occur after
ejaculation.
2. The seminiferous tubules lead to the rete testis, which opens into the efferent
ductules that extend to the epididymis.
3. The ductus deferens passes from the epididymis into the abdominal cavity.
4. The ejaculatory duct is formed by the joining of the ductus deferens and the
duct from the seminal vesicle.
5. The ejaculatory ducts join the prostatic urethra within the prostate gland.
6. The urethra extends from the urinary bladder through the penis to the outside
of the body.
Penis
1. The penis consists of erectile tissue.
2. The two corpora cavernosa form the dorsum and the sides.
3. The corpus spongiosum forms the ventral portion and the glans penis, and it
encloses the spongy urethra. The prepuce covers the glans penis.
SUMMARY
Glands
1. The seminal vesicles empty into the ejaculatory duct.
2. The prostate gland consists of glandular and muscular tissue and empties
into the urethra.
3. The bulbourethral glands empty into the urethra.
Secretions
1. Semen is a mixture of sperm cells and gland secretions.
2. The bulbourethral glands and the urethral mucous glands produce mucus
that neutralizes the acidic pH of the urethra.
3. The testicular secretions contain sperm cells.
4. The seminal vesicle fluid contains nutrients, prostaglandins, and proteins
that coagulate.
5. The prostate fluid contains nutrients and proteolytic enzymes, and it
neutralizes the pH of the vagina.
19.4 Physiology of Male Reproduction
Regulation of Reproductive Hormone Secretion
1. GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus and released in surges.
2. GnRH stimulates release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary.
3. LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
4. FSH binds to sustentacular cells and stimulates spermatogenesis and
secretion of inhibin.
5. Testosterone has a negative-feedback effect on GnRH, LH, and FSH
secretion.
Puberty in Males
1. Before puberty, small amounts of testosterone inhibit GnRH release.
2. During puberty, testosterone does not completely suppress GnRH release,
resulting in increased production of FSH, LH, and testosterone.
Effects of Testosterone
1. Testosterone causes enlargement of the genitals and is necessary for
spermatogenesis.
2. Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Male Sexual Behavior and the Male Sex Act
1. Testosterone is required for normal sex drive.
2. Stimulation of the sex act can be tactile or psychological.
3. Sensory impulses pass to the sacral region of the spinal cord.
4. Motor stimulation causes erection, mucus production, emission, and
ejaculation.
Infertility in Males
The most common cause of male infertility is a low sperm cell count.
19.5 Female Reproductive System
Ovaries, Oogenesis, Follicle Development, and Fertilization
1. By the fourth month of development, the ovaries contain 5 million oogonia.
SUMMARY
2. By birth, many oogonia have degenerated, and for the remaining oogonia
meiosis has stopped in prophase I, causing them to become primary oocytes.
3. By puberty, 300,000 to 400,000 primary oocytes remain, of which about 400
will be released from the ovaries.
4. Ovulation is the release of an oocyte from an ovary. The first meiotic division
is completed, and a secondary oocyte is released.
5. A sperm cell penetrates the secondary oocyte, the second meiotic division is
completed, and the nuclei of the oocyte and sperm cell are united to
complete fertilization.
6. A primordial follicle is a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flat
granulosa cells.
7. In primary follicles, the oocyte enlarges, and granulosa cells become
cuboidal and form more than one layer. A zona pellucida is present.
8. In a secondary follicle, fluid-filled vesicles appear, and a theca forms around
the follicle.
9. In a mature follicle, vesicles fuse to form an antrum, and the primary oocyte
is surrounded by cumulus cells.
10. During ovulation, the mature follicle ruptures, releasing the secondary
oocyte, surrounded by cumulus cells, into the peritoneal cavity.
11. The remaining granulosa cells in the follicle develop into the corpus
luteum.
12. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists. If there is no
fertilization, it degenerates.
Uterine Tubes
1. The ovarian end of the uterine tube is surrounded by fimbriae.
2. Cilia on the fimbriae move the oocyte into the uterine tube.
3. Fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube, which is near
the ovary.
Uterus
1. The uterus is a pear-shaped organ. The uterine cavity and the cervical canal
are the spaces formed by the uterus.
2. The wall of the uterus consists of the perimetrium, or serous layer; the
myometrium (smooth muscle); and the endometrium.
Vagina
1. The vagina connects the uterus (cervix) to the vestibule.
2. The vagina consists of a layer of smooth muscle and an inner lining of moist
stratified squamous epithelium.
3. The wall of the vagina produces lubricating fluid.
4. The hymen covers the vestibular opening of the vagina in young females.
External Genitalia
1. The vestibule is a space into which the vagina and the urethra open.
2. The clitoris is composed of erectile tissue and contains many sensory
receptors important in detecting sexual stimuli.
3. The labia minora are folds that cover the vestibule and form the prepuce.
4. The greater vestibular glands produce a mucous fluid.
5. The labia majora cover the labia minora, and the pudendal cleft is a space
between the labia majora.
6. The mons pubis is an elevated area superior to the labia majora.
Mammary Glands
SUMMARY
1. Mammary glands are the organs of milk production.
2. The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that consist of glandular
lobes and adipose tissue.
3. The lobes connect to the nipple through ducts. The nipple is surrounded by
the areola.
4. The female breast enlarges during puberty under the influence of estrogen
and progesterone.
19.6 Physiology of Female Reproduction
Puberty in Females
1. Puberty begins with the first menstrual bleeding (menarche).
2. Puberty begins when GnRH, LH, and FSH levels increase.
Menstrual Cycle
1. The cyclical changes in the uterus are controlled by estrogen and
progesterone produced by the ovary.
2. Menses (from day 1 to day 4 or 5): Menstrual fluid is produced by
degeneration of the endometrium.
3. Proliferative phase (from day 5 to day of ovulation): Epithelial cells multiply
and form glands.
4. Secretory phase (from day of ovulation to day 28): The endometrium
becomes thicker, and endometrial glands secrete. The uterus is prepared for
implantation of the developing blastocyst by day 21.
5. Estrogen stimulates proliferation of the endometrium, and progesterone
causes thickening of the endometrium. Decreased progesterone causes
menses.
6. FSH initiates the development of the follicles. 7. Estrogen produced by the
follicles stimulates GnRH, FSH, and LH secretion, and FSH and LH stimulate
more estrogen secretion. This positive-feedback mechanism causes FSH and
LH levels to increase near the time of ovulation.
7. LH stimulates ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum.
8. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit LH and FSH secretion following ovulation.
9. If fertilization does not occur, progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum
decreases and menses begins.
10. If fertilization does occur, the corpus luteum continues to secrete
progesterone and menses does not occur.
Menopause
The cessation of the menstrual cycle is called menopause.
Female Sexual Behavior and the Female Sex Act
1. Female sex drive is partially influenced by testosterone-like hormones
produced by the adrenal cortex and estrogen produced by the ovary.
2. Autonomic nerves cause erectile tissue to become engorged with blood, the
vestibular glands to secrete mucus, and the vagina to produce a lubricating
fluid.
Control of Pregnancy
1. Behavioral methods are effective only when used consistently.
2. Barrier methods prevent contact between sperm cell and oocyte.
3. Chemical methods prevent oocyte ovulation.
4. Surgical methods are typically permanent.
Infertility in Females
SUMMARY
Causes of infertility in females include malfunctions of the uterine
tubes, reduced hormone secretion from the pituitary or ovary, and
interruption of implantation.
