1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture – 01
Introduction to Indian
Society
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Introduction to Indian Society

Social Issues:
There are two divisions in social issues:
1. Indian Society
2. Social Justice

Sources:

Indian Society Social Justice

❖ Class Notes ❖ Class Notes

❖ PW Material ❖ Visit website of Ministry
❖ 12th NCERT- Indian Society ➢ Ministry of Women and Child Development
➢ Ministry of Health and Welfare
➢ Ministry of Social justice and Empowerment

Nature of Questions asked:

❖ Salient Features of Indian Society:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates are expected to analyse the key features of Indian society, such as its
diversity, cultural richness, and historical evolution.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may require candidates to relate these features to contemporary issues,
explaining how diversity influences social dynamics.
❖ Role of Women and Women’s Organisations:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates must analyze the roles of women in Indian society, their status,
challenges, and contributions.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions often ask candidates to evaluate the effectiveness of women's organizations
in addressing gender-related issues or propose measures for women's empowerment.
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❖ Population and Associated Issues:

➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates need to analyze demographic trends, population growth, and their
implications for various aspects of society.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may require candidates to suggest policies for population control or assess
the impact of population growth on issues like education and healthcare.
❖ Poverty and Developmental Issues:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates must analyze the causes and consequences of poverty and developmental
disparities in India.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may ask candidates to propose strategies to alleviate poverty or evaluate the
effectiveness of government programs.
❖ Urbanisation, its Problems, and Remedies:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates should analyze the challenges of rapid urbanization in India.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may ask candidates to suggest solutions to urban problems like congestion,
pollution, and inadequate infrastructure.
❖ Effects of Globalisation on Indian Society:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates need to analyze the impact of globalization on various aspects of Indian
society, including culture, economy, and social inequality.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may ask candidates to discuss the role of globalization in shaping
contemporary India and suggest policies for harnessing its benefits.
❖ Social Empowerment, Communalism, Regionalism,
and Secularism:
➢ Analytical Aspect: Candidates are expected to analyze
these complex societal issues and their implications.
➢ Applied Aspect: Questions may ask candidates to
propose measures for social empowerment, address
communal and regional tensions, and uphold secular
values in society.

Society and Social Justice Syllabus:

Society- GS-I
❖ Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.
❖ Role of Women and Women’s Organisations, Population and Associated Issues, Poverty and
Developmental Issues, Urbanisation, their problems and their remedies.
❖ Effects of Globalization on Indian society.
❖ Social Empowerment, Communalism, Regionalism & Secularism.
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Social Justice -GS-II

❖ Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections of the Population by the Centre and States and the Performance
of these Schemes; Mechanisms, Laws, Institutions, and Bodies constituted for the Protection and
Betterment of these Vulnerable Sections.
❖ Issues Relating to the Development and Management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health,
Education, and Human Resources.
❖ Issues relating to Poverty and Hunger.

What is Society?
❖ R M Maclver defined society as a ‘Web of social relationship.’
❖ Some other scholars defined society as a ‘Group of people/ collectivity united by certain common
relations which marks them off from those who do not enter these relations / behavioral patterns who
fall into interaction’.
❖ Society consists of:
➢ People who have needs
➢ These people mutually interact with each other to fulfill their needs and mutual awareness of their
determined behavior.
➢ Society depends on homogeneity (similarity) and heterogeneity (difference).
➢ Division of labor means specialization of roles with interdependence and cooperation
➢ There is competition, clashes, and conflicts between people.
➢ Society forms socially controlled mechanisms such as formal institutions (constitution, law, police,
army, etc.) and informal institutions (belief, morals, customs, values, ethics, etc.).
➢ Any society is dynamic means changes are ever present in society.
➢ There is a presence of Gregarious instinct. (This is the instinct in human beings to live their life in
groups.)
Culture:
❖ Culture is a way of life, generally called the Social heritage of man.
❖ Culture is a storehouse of information.
❖ Ralph Linton defined culture as, “Culture is a way of life, habits, and practices that we learn, share,
and transmit from generation to generation.”
❖ Aristotle said, “Man is a social animal.”
❖ Language is one of the most important symbols of the culture.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 02
Salient Features of Indian
Society (Part - 1)
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Salient Features of Indian Society (Part - 1)

Introduction to Indian Society:
❖ Indian society is a grand synthesis of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological constructs.
❖ Since time immemorial 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (World is one family) has been guiding light for Indian
Society, and based on this philosophy India has accommodated and integrated many communities which has
shaped the ethos and socio-cultural fabric of Indian Society. Thus, Mark Twain rightly quoted that “India
is the cradle of human race” as India is known for its socio-cultural diversity.
❖ India accommodates the traditional values of spirit of tolerance and diversity in it.

Evolution of Indian Society:

❖ Indian Society is a grand synthesis of multi-cultural, multi ethnic and multi ideological construct.
➢ Aryanisation Process: Indian society was a stratified society from ancient times. The division of society
into Aryans and non-Aryans was mentioned in Rig Veda. The Aryan society was further divided into
four groups based on the pursuit of occupations. This division of social and economic activities became
a norm, and a part of the social devices.
➢ Religion: ‘Sanathan Dharma’ was started in Indian society. So religion was an inseparable part of Indian
society.
➢ Emergence of Hierarchical/Segmental system: In Social institutions people are divided into Varna
systems, such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas/Rajanyas, Vaishya and Shudras. Some people were kept out
of varnas such as Panchams and Avarnas.
➢ Emergence of Caste System: The cruelty of caste system in the society emerged in the Indian society on
the basis of birth of a person.
➢ Against the discontent of caste system: New Philosophies emerged such as the emergence of Buddhism
and Jainism.
➢ Immigrants, Travellers and Invaders: Immigrants, Travellers and Invaders were absorbed by Indian
society, thereby Indian culture went through a transformation influencing language culture and religion.
For Example: Shakas converted to Shaivites, Huns converted to Rajputs, Khushans inclined towards
Buddhism.
➢ Arrival of Islam in India: The confrontation of Hindu and Muslim culture led to a synthesis of
composite culture with interesting results and mixed culture as a result of Sufi writings, the bhakti
movement, Kabir Panth, Amir Khusro, etc.
➢ The advent of the Europeans: This advent marked the beginning of a new phase of re-emergence of
pan- Indian culture and national and social awakening through the process of modernization and
thought of modern values.
➢ British Rule: Britishers impacted Indian society in many ways. Like, having exploitative economic
policy, administrative structure, establishment of transport and communication, modern education and
policies.
➢ Independence of India: India after independence established a constitution and amalgamated different
caste groups, religions, race tribes, and linguistic groups. It glorifies the ideals of liberty, equality,
fraternity as its goals in a secular, socialistic framework.
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➢ Liberalization, Privatisation and Globalization (LPG) Era: Foreign culture and foreign money
impacted Indian society.

Salient Features of Indian Society:

❖ Society is Traditional as well as Modern:

➢ The spread of education and technological advances along with globalization has played a major role in
the increase of modern thinking among Indians. And it has been outwardly displayed in our lifestyle,
choices and practices.
➢ Outwardly display of modern practices like change in food practices, change in dressing style, foreign
languages, use of modern electronic gadgets for communication etc. But the traditional elements of
culture, spirituality, festivals, folk practices, customs, languages, simplicity, pursuit of truth,
universal tolerance and acceptance still exist in Indian society.
❖ Syncretic and Dynamic:
➢ Indian society has a syncretic orientation which means that Indian society is characterized by multiple
forms of belief that has shaped core values and has guided behavior of Indians from ages.
➢ Indian society and its culture has not grown in isolation rather it is a fusion of different cultures retaining
its identity. The syncretic culture of Indian society can be seen across the country.
➢ Dynamic means that Indian society is characterized by constant change, activity and progress. Indian
society keeps absorbing, accepting and evolving.
❖ Spiritual as well as Materialistic:
➢ It is true that post 1991 reforms, the importance of wealth and materialism has increased in Indian
society. However the balance between spiritualism and materialism is a characteristic which is relevant
today and was relevant even in traditional times.
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➢ In fact the classical Hindu civilization recognizes four fruits of life/four aims of life, such as Dharma,
Artha, Kama and Moksha. Out of them, the middle two are materialistic in character and other two are
spiritual in character.
❖ Balance between Individualism and Collectivism:
➢ Individualism is a moral, political and social outlook that stresses human independence, self reliance and
liberty. Whereas collectivism is the practice of giving a group priority over each individual unit.
❖ Rural and Agrarian Society:
➢ According to the 2011 census, approximately a little over 78% of the population continues to live in
rural areas, out of which 56.6% has been engaged in agriculture and allied activities.
❖ Caste System:
➢ Caste system is a unique form of stratification where there is semental and hierarchical division of society
and membership is acquired through birth.
➢ Our constitution prohibits any kind of discrimination based on caste in Indian society. However it is still
a rampant practice in India.
❖ Patriarchal Society:
➢ Indian society is largely a patriarchal society where men hold primary power predominating in the roles
of political leadership, moral authority, special privileges and control of property.
❖ Multi Ethnic and Multilingual Society:
➢ Indian Society is the embodiment of multiple ethnic identity and practices. Indian society has evolved
through the ages and also has been affected by foreign influence giving it extreme diversity. In fact
multilingualism in India is a product of its rich history and reflection of its diverse cultures.
❖ Unity in Diversity:
➢ Indian society is a grand synthesis of cultures, religion and languages of the people belonging to
different castes and communities which has upheld its unity and cohesiveness.
➢ Unity in diversity is one of the unique features of Indian society that is most often noticed about India
and has become part of India’s self-identity. Even foreign travelers like Megasthenes, Huen Tsang and
Alberuni appreciated this. However sometimes threats may be created to this unity and delivery but what
is important to remember is that to believe in the diversity. There is fundamental unity in social institutions
and practices in India.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 03
Reflection on Diversity
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Reflection on Diversity
Reflection on Diversity in India:
❖ Diverse means 'differing from each other' and 'made up of distinct characteristics, multiple cultures,
costumes, qualities, or elements'.
Various Forms of Diversity:
❖ Geographical Diversity: India is a vast country with an area of about 3.2 lakh sq km. The highly diverse
topography consists of dry deserts, plateaus, rivers, evergreen forests, snowy Himalayas, along the coast,
and fertile plains (Agrarian population is popular in these areas). From Kashmir to Kanyakumari we
will see different types of geographical diversity.
❖ Racial diversity: India has been called an Ethnological Museum. Purity in race is very less in India. This is
the primary reason behind the absence of a uniform racial composition of its inhabitants. As mentioned
earlier, India has greatly attracted waves of migration from all over the globe since time immemorial. India
has rightly been termed as the ‘melting pot’ of races and tribes. Six main racial categories are recognized in
India, such as Negritos, Proto Australoids, Mongoloids, Mediterranean, Western Brachycephals and
Nordics.

Note:
❖ “Bulk of India’s population represents racial admixture of varying degree.”
S.C.Dubey.

❖ Linguistic Diversity: India is called a ‘veritable tower of Babel’ and according to A. R. Desai, “India
presents a spectacle at the Museum of tongues.” In India, each state has its own language. It is not just the
accent, but the dialect (Indians in general speak more than 1600 dialects) that also changes from region to
region. The Census 2011 identified about 122 languages. India has 22 languages in 8th schedule and 6
classical Languages (Sankskri, Kannada, Tamil, Odia, Malayalam and Telugu). Language is the source
of collectivity (Language means a system of communication).
❖ Religious diversity: India is not a Theocratic society. India is a land of diversities. This diversity is also
visible in the spheres of religion. India is a multi-religious country consisting of Hindus (79.9%), Muslims
(14.2%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.6%), Jains (0.41%), Zoroastrians, Judaism, and tribal
population. The people of India are heavily impacted by religious theories and tenets. The Constitution's
protection of freedom of religion and practice under article 25-28, encourages religious harmony through
peaceful ways. India is based on Sarva Dharma Sambhav.
❖ Cultural Diversity: Culture is the social heritage of man or storehouse of information. Culture is a way of
life that we learn, share and transmit from one generation to the next generation. India is among the most
diverse societies with a plurality and diversity of cultures which marks it out as perhaps the largest
multicultural society in the world. Indian civilization and culture have distinctive characteristics. Despite
the fact that some individuals adhere to separate languages, customs and traditions, one may still detect a
fundamental unity in the country's literature, philosophy, and conventions. For example, the celebration of
Republic Day. Institutionalization of normative behavior results in the formation of custom.
❖ Stratificational Diversity: Stratification is a social concept. It has divisions of members in different groups
and in different social categories (layers). Stratification concept has many dimensions such as class, wealth,
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caste, gender, age, status, ethnicity, race, etc. As a form of stratification, the caste is peculiar to Indian
society. Numerous castes have their own customs, rituals, way of life and practices. Many Tribes have
different totemic practices, rights, customs, rituals. India is a country of agrarian structure, this has many
classes in it, such as big farmers, middle peasants, smalls & marginal farmers and landless laborers.
Many classes present in the Industrial system such as, Industrial capitalist, white collar workers, manual
laborers.

Note:
❖ The enduring spirit of tolerance underlying freedom of speech and affection has remained a fundamental
characteristic of Indian society, actively contributing to the preservation of peace and solidarity amidst its
rich diversity. In the example , you can provide Quote of Dr. Ambedkar, Gandhi ji.
❖ Indian culture is not evolved in isolation, there is fusion of multiple cultures. Example: Art and culture,
languages, festivals, religion, Orthogenetic influences (coming from within the society), Heterogenetic
influences (coming from outside of society). This has resulted in the cultural diversity of India.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture – 04
Caste System (Part - 01)
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Caste System (Part - 01)

Caste System:
❖ Caste is prominently a unique feature of Indian society.
❖ Traditional social order is defined by the caste.
❖ Castes are innumerable and each caste has its own subdivisions known as subcaste.
❖ Caste is not merely restricted to Hindu
NOTE:
religion and present in other communities as
❖ Endogamy refers to the practice of marrying
well such as Muslims, Christians and Sikhs
exclusively within a particular group, whether it is
as well.
mandated by custom or enforced by law. In
❖ Caste is one of the social institutions endogamous communities, there can be either strict
prevailing in India. Caste system is prohibitions against marrying outside the group or
understood as segmental and hierarchical a prevalent preference for marrying individuals
division of system, where in each caste from within the same group.
membership is acquired by birth.
❖ Caste system has numerous layers of stratification even within the same fold.
❖ Caste word comes from the Spanish word ‘Casta’, which means lineage or race. Some says, Caste word
comes from the Latin word ‘Castus’, which means purity.
❖ The caste system is associated with the Hindu religion, as per Rig Veda, there were four categories known
as ‘varnas.’ Varnas consist of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Varna is the four-fold
division of society into Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, while Jati (Jana by birth) is a generic
term referring to species.
Features of Caste System:
❖ Segmental Division of Society: Caste is acquired by birth and cannot be changed or left, but can be
expelled if a person is expelled from their caste. Here, Members of the society are divided into segments.
❖ Hierarchical Division of Society: Castes teach us a fundamental social principle of hierarchy, which is
represented by a ladder of command. For instance, upper caste Brahmins - lower caste Dalits.
❖ Notion of Purity and Pollution: Different groups of caste are arranged in hierarchical arrangement. Pure
caste is ranked at the top, and impure is ranked at the bottom. According to this purity and pollution in
society, these people get privileges and sanctionings.
❖ Restrictions on Commensality (Fooding and Dining habits) & Social Relations: Caste groups are subject
to restrictions on contact, dining to maintain purity.
❖ Civil and religious disabilities: This comprises restrictions based on contact, dress, speech, rituals etc.
and are placed on every caste group. It was done in order to maintain the purity of specific caste groups. For
example, lower-caste groups had no access to wells, they were restricted from entering temples etc.
❖ Restriction on Occupational Choices: Castes were traditionally linked to occupations, making occupation
hereditary.
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❖ Caste Endogamy: Endogamy is the principle of marriage within one's own caste or sub -caste. It is
fundamental for the perpetuation of the caste system. Inter-caste marriages are prohibited. However
nowadays the phenomenon of inter-caste marriage is increasing.
❖ Untouchability: It is the act of isolating a group from the majority due to social customs that considered
untouchables to be impure and polluted.
Manual Scavenging:
❖ Manual scavenging in India is linked to India’s caste system. It refers to the practice of manually cleaning,
carrying, disposing and handling in any manner of human excreta and sewers.
❖ Manual scavenging is associated with a particular lower caste of the society and it has been officially
abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013.
Causes of Manual Scavenging:
❖ Lack of water born sanitary latrines, in fact according housing sensex-2011, there are around 26
million insanitary latrines.
❖ Lack of complete rehabilitation and employment opportunities.
❖ Lack of adoption of modern technology for cleaning toilets and sewers.
❖ Denial of existence of manual scavenging by under reporting and under recognizing the occurrence of
the practices in India.
Effects of Manual Scavenging:
❖ Reported Health Problems and Deaths: Our society has seen multiple deaths being caused by manual
scavenging every year, the practice can be extremely hazardous and detrimental to health and apart from
causing deaths, it also causes serious health causes.
❖ Social Violence and Violence Associated with Caste Discrimination: Caste Discrimination and job
conditions causes them to be exposed to socially engineered violence. Several times we have seen that
specially in the rural areas deaths are also caused because of the beating and violence that the victim receives
in case he/she is denied to act as manual scavenger.
❖ Social Stigmatization: We noticed a pattern in our society that such work leads to reinstating the notion of
pollution or impurity and which further alienates the person from the mainstream society as there is
perpetuation of separation of contact in all spheres of society.
❖ There are occurring Social conflicts & social division.
Way Forward:
❖ Involvement of different levels of officials and community members for a robust approach: It is
necessary to involve all the major stakeholders from District officials, relation officers, chief medical
officers, district supply officers., etc. This will create accountability across the bureaucratic framework.
❖ Creating awareness (Community initiatives): The district nodal officers, NGOs and health officers should
educate the community on the devastating effect caused by dry latrines. They should also try to educate mass
on health issues, hygiene practices and sanitation. Such awareness campaigns should also include awareness
of penalties and punishments.
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❖ Sensitization among the Police officials can be done, so that strict enforcement of laws such as Prohibition
of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act and Prevention of atrocity act can be
done.
❖ There should be better employment opportunities that shall be provided, so that rehabilitation and
reintegration of manual scavenging victims can be adopted.
❖ Low cost latrine models (Inclusion of technology) and implementation of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to
counter open defecation can be ensured.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 05
Caste System (Part 02)
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Caste System (Part 02)

Changes in Caste system:

❖ Trends of inter-caste marriage have seen a gradual increase as societal norms evolve, and individuals
prioritize love and compatibility over caste considerations.
❖ The declining supremacy of Brahmins, which was challenged through various means such as Buddhism
and Jainism in ancient times, the Bhakti movement during the medieval period, and more recently through
modern education and scientific developments, has led to a more diversified and equitable social
hierarchy.
❖ The delinking of occupation from the caste system has allowed individuals to pursue careers and
professions based on their skills and interests rather than being bound by the constraints of their caste.
❖ Changes in food habits and practices, driven by commensality rules, frequent mixing of people,
increasing urbanization, globalization, and modernization, have resulted in a more inclusive and diverse
culinary landscape.
❖ Cultural changes influenced by globalization, urbanization, and modernization have led to the fusion of
traditional and contemporary elements, creating a rich tapestry of cultural expressions.
❖ Affirmative actions aimed at achieving equality among equals and promoting social justice have helped
level the playing field, reducing the impact of caste-based discrimination.
❖ Attitudinal changes in society, where achievements are valued over ascriptive values like caste, reflect a
more inclusive and meritocratic mindset, fostering greater social cohesion and harmony.
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Factors Affecting Changes in Caste System:

❖ Sanskritization: Sanskritization is a process of change in the mobility concerned with the potential change
in caste group in the caste system. Over here, by changing the customs and rituals and by adopting the way
of life which belongs to the caste group which are at the upper side of the hierarchy. People belonging to the
lower caste groups sought higher positions in the caste hierarchy.

NOTE:
❖ Sanskritization refers to the phenomenon wherein lower castes, tribes, or other social groups adopt the
customs, rituals, ideology, and lifestyle of higher castes. M.N.Srinivas.

❖ Westernization: Due to changes in the sphere of education, food habits and employment opportunities by
virtue of British rule in Indian society westernization is occuring. There was mobility of various caste
groups by virtue of occupational changes that had cut across the caste barrier.
❖ Modernisation: It is a process which primarily relies on scientific outlook, rational attitude which has not
just facilitated mass mobilization but has made the caste system more flexible.
❖ Democratic Decentralization and Dominant Caste: Such castes which have access to land and access to
numerical strength then they are already socially empowered are another one factor.
❖ Politicization of Caste: It has resulted in the active mobilization of marginalized caste groups,
empowering them to assert their rights and demand social and political representation.
❖ Industrialization and Urbanisation: With the growth of Industrial towns and cities migration had spiraled
up and unlike the source regions the destination areas witnessed fewer adherences to caste rules.
❖ Constitution and Modern Legislation: Indian constitution through Articles like 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, 46, 388
and 388B and legislations like prevention of atrocity act has indeed weakened or attempted to weaken
the rigidities of caste system.
Paradoxical Situation:
❖ Paradoxical situation is the weakening as well as strengthening of the caste system.
❖ Trend of changes in Indian Society:
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➢ Increases in Inter caste marriages.

➢ Challenging Brahmincal orthodoxy
➢ New food habits
➢ Changes is occupation
❖ How is the Caste System in Indian Society Weakening?
➢ Change in traditional hierarchical structure
➢ Change in indigenous feudal structure, breakdown of the Jajmani system. The Jajmani system involved
the exchange of goods and services, with each jati contributing its share based on occupational
speciality.
➢ Changes in occupational traditional order
➢ Increases in inter caste marriage
➢ Anonymous urban life
➢ Attitudinal changes
➢ Cultural changes.
➢ Abolitionment of untouchability officially.
❖ Strengthening of Caste System in Indian Society:
➢ Caste based identity politics: The prevalence of caste politics resulted in the enactment of legislation
to protect the rights of disadvantaged and marginalized sections of society.
➢ Caste based affirmative action: The provision of caste-based reservation in education and jobs has
strengthened the caste identities.
➢ Radical response to inter caste marriages and honor killing.
➢ Caste based political parties and organizations.
➢ Caste Panchayats.
➢ Caste is still a factor for social esteem.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 06
Unity of India
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Unity of India
Factors Contributing to Unity of India:
❖ Constitutional Identity: The Constitution ensures that all citizens, regardless of their age, gender, class, caste,
or religion, are entitled to certain fundamental rights.
❖ Religious Co-existence: The people of India are heavily impacted by religious theories and tenets. The
Constitution's protection of freedom
of religion and practice under
Article 25-28, encourages religious
harmony through peaceful ways.
❖ Festivals and Pilgrimage: India is
noted as the land of festivals, and
Indians too enjoy every festival with
much zeal and fervor. Due to the
varied culture and heritage of
India, there are various religious
as well as social festivals that are
confined to specific regions of the
country. Festival celebrations help
in strengthening unity among the
Indians. Festivals like Diwali, Eid,
and Christmas are enjoyed by all
with the same spirit and fervor. As
people from all over the country
celebrate them according to their
own regional customs, they also serve as integrating forces. For example, Kumbh Melas.
❖ Shared Historical Heritage: India had been ruled by many different religions, different culture kingdoms,
still India is seen as Unity in diversity.
❖ Climatic Integration: Indian Monsoon impacts the culture of Indian society. The flora and fauna in the entire
Indian subcontinent, agricultural practices, the life of people, including their festivities revolve around the
monsoon season in India. India has its own distinct fixed natural border. The nation can be broadly split into
the Himalaya, northern plains, Deccan Plateau, Western & Eastern Ghats, Thar Desert, etc.
❖ Symbolic Integration: Indian civilisation and culture have distinctive characteristics. Despite the fact that
some individuals adhere to separate languages and traditions, one may still detect a fundamental unity in the
country's symbols like literature, philosophy, and conventions. For example, a celebration of Republic
Day, National Anthem, Independence Day, etc.
❖ Sports and Cinema: These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding force across
the length and breadth of India. Example: Indian sports teams winning moments in Olympic, Cricket,
Football, etc. Sports and films serve as a unifying factor throughout all of India. For instance, the
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popularity of south movies in Northern India.

Government Initiatives helps in National Integration:
❖ Ek Bharat Shresth Bharat: The Ek Bharat Shresth Bharat program aims to promote cultural integration
by pairing states and union territories to foster a better understanding of each other's culture, traditions,
languages, and cuisines. This initiative helps bridge cultural gaps and promotes unity in diversity.
❖ Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav: Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav, which commemorates 75 years of India's
independence, provides a platform to celebrate the shared history and struggles of the Indian people. It
encourages citizens to learn about and appreciate the historical events that have shaped the nation, fostering
a sense of unity and patriotism.
❖ Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan: Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan, or the Clean India Mission, promotes cleanliness,
hygiene, and sanitation. A clean environment is conducive to improved health and well-being for all citizens.
By working together to keep the country clean, people from different backgrounds can share a common
goal, leading to social integration.
❖ Chandrayaan 3 Launch and Landing: The launch of Chandrayaan 3, India's lunar mission, showcases
the nation's scientific and technological prowess. It fosters a sense of national pride and unity, as people
come together to support and celebrate these achievements. Additionally, advancements in space technology
can have wide-ranging applications, benefitting society as a whole.
Threat to India’s Unity and Integration:

❖ Regionalism: A strong loyalty to one's home region or regional interests overriding national interests is known
as regionalism. It overpowers regional aspirations over national interest. For instance, demand for separate
Vidarbha.
❖ Regional Disparity: Inadequate economic policies, Uneven socioeconomic development, poor economic
policies, and consequent economic disparities can lead to the backwardness of a region, further threatening
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the unity of the nation.

❖ Casteism: Loyalty to one caste of a person, contributes to demoralization of India Society, because it is
ignoring the basic human values. Indian unity will be hampered by casteism.
❖ Menace of Linguism: Different language factors also sometimes pose a great threat to the unity of the nation.
It can be used for political mobilization in India. Regions of India are divided based on the language, so
one side's extreme admiration towards one language might lead to intolerance towards other languages.
There may be development of hatred, it will threaten the essence of India’s unity.
❖ Divisive Politics: Politicians tend to invoke divisive identities, such as caste, religion, etc., in an effort to
win votes. Violence, mistrust, and suspicion among minorities can be brought on by this kind of polarizing
politics.
❖ Ethnonationalism and Ethnic Differentiation: Ethnic conflict is one of the major threats to peace and
security. Ethnic conflicts are often accompanied by gross human rights violations, such as genocide and
crimes against humanity, and by economic decline, state failure, environmental problems, and refugee flows.
Due to issues like employment competitiveness, resource scarcity, and identity threat, ethnic diversity has
frequently resulted in conflicts between various ethnic groups. For example, Manipur ethnic clashes in 2023.
Violent ethnic conflict leads to tremendous human suffering.
❖ Communalism: It is extreme attachment to one’s own group, this leads to such a feeling where superiority of
one's community is greater than the other's community. Inter-religious disputes that not only impede
interactions between two communities by sowing distrust and fear, but they also threaten the nation's
secular fabric. For instance, the Sikh-Hindu dispute in Punjab, the riots over the Ram Mandir and the Babri
Masjid, Khurdish people against Arabs, etc.
❖ Geographical Isolation: India has diverse geography from snow-covered mountains in the north to coastal
plains in the south. Later, regional consciousness and regional identity evolved due to geography. Geography,
when combined with the ideology of aggressive regionalism, acts as a divisive factor. Geographical factors
can create division when they are combined with the mindset of aggressive regionalism.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 07
Marriage
 2

Marriage
Marriage:
❖ Marriage is an important social institution and it can be defined as the establishment of a relationship
between two individuals.
❖ Marriage refers to the establishment of ties between two individuals which is socially approved, sanctioned
by customs and laws and which provides social recognition to physical, psychological, social, cultural,
economic, sexual and emotional ties between two members of the society.
Types of Marriage:
❖ Two primary categories encompass these diverse marital arrangements ie; monogamy and polygamy.

1. Monogamy: It represents a union where an individual has only one spouse at a given time. Within
monogamy, there are two subtypes:
a. Serial Monogamy: This permits remarriage but allows only one spouse at a time. An example is the
Khasi community, where individuals may marry multiple times during their lifetime, but only to one
spouse at a time.
b. Non-Serial Monogamy: In this form, if one spouse passes away, the surviving spouse does not
remarry. For instance, the Birhor tribal community in Chhattisgarh adhere to this practice, reflecting
their unique cultural norms.
2. Polygamy: It is the second major category, where one person may have multiple spouses simultaneously. It
includes two subtypes:
a. Polygyny: It occurs when a man marries multiple women concurrently. The Gond community is an
example of a culture that practices polygyny.
b. Polyandry: In this arrangement, one woman has multiple husbands simultaneously. For example,
Draupadi's marriage to five Pandava brothers (Mahabharata).
Changing Patterns in the Marital System:
 3

❖ Changes in the Traditional Form of Marriage: Traditional forms of marriage have seen a shift from
polygamy to monogamy, where one spouse cannot be married to any other person while living in a marital
institution with his/her spouse.
❖ Changes in Purpose of Marriage: In the past, marriage was often seen as a duty or Dharma, influenced by
cultural and religious norms, however today it is done for companionship.
❖ Change in the Age of Marriage: The regulated legal age of marriage increased indeed but due to modern
education, rise of achievement value and effect of globalization, the age of marriage is consciously
increasing in society.
❖ Separation and Marriage: Today marriage is getting popular as a social contract rather than sacred union.
This has led to an increase in divorce rate. Also there is the impact of globalization and fast phase economic
life along with availability of legal provision for divorce.
❖ Change in Process of Selection of Mates: Marriage is getting popularized for companionship and this has
resulted in a change in the process of selection of mates. Today there is more say of bride and groom in
selection of their spouses in marriage. Platforms for marriage such as matrimonial sites are also facilitating
marital ties.
Live-in Relationship: The essence of a Live-in relationship is a commitment and not a contract. Therefore
establishment of such ties are done for companionship and not contract. Live-in relationships in India got legal
recognition in 2010 through the Supreme Court under Article 21.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 08
Family
 2

Family

NOTE:
❖ Child Marriage: Child marriage involves marrying girls at a young age, often before they reach the legal
adult franchise age of 18.
➢ This practice can contribute to low Maternal Mortality Rates (MMR) and Infant Mortality Rates
(IMR).
➢ Recent Development: Recently, the Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 was
introduced in the Parliament which recommended for the increase in the minimum age of marriage
for women to 21 years.
❖ Marital Rape: Amnesty International ranks India 77th out of 185 countries in terms of addressing marital
rape.
➢ India criminalizes marital rape under IPC 375, recognizing it as a violation of women's rights,
dignity, liberty, and the right to life.

Family:
❖ Family is a group of people united by ties of affinity, consanguinity or adoption constituting a single
household and interaction with each other in their respective social position.
Characteristics of Family:
❖ Basic Social Unit: Family is a universal social unit as it performs many indispensable functions for the
individual and society
❖ Durable Association: Sociologist Nimkoff defined family as a more or less durable association of
husband and wife with or without children or of a man or woman alone, with taking care of children.
❖ Size of Family and type of Family: They may vary according to social and cultural conditions.
❖ Social Environment: It is the primary unit that provides a Social environment.
❖ Family as Social Unit: Social rules and regulations are followed in the family. Family interactions and
interrelationships are governed by social and legal norms.\
❖ Emotional Bond: Family provides strong emotional support to an individual and members are bound
emotionally. They provide love, care and protection to each other and are ready to make sacrifices for the
welfare of family members.
Functions of Family:
❖ Primary Functions:
➢ Reproduction or Procreation: The production and rearing of children is one of the most essential
functions of the family and is also called the maintenance function of the family.
➢ Provision of Home (Shelter): Family provides comfort, protection, space and peace to its members.
➢ Instrument for Cultural Transformation: The family is a center for cultural training, and passing on
cultural inheritance to the next generation.
 3

➢ Unit of Primary Socialization: The family is the first institution to provide socialization, ensuring both
biological and cultural continuity for the human race.
➢ Status Ascribing Function: Family using its high status values in the children's mind also.
➢ Agency of Social Control: The family provides the child with the basic training in social attitudes and
habits such as what is wrong and what is right.
❖ Secondary Functions:
➢ Economic functions: With the economic advancement family has become a consuming unit rather than
producing one. Members are engaged in earning wages to ensure socio-economic well-being.
➢ Educational functions: The family provides a basis for a child's formal learning and the family still
gives basic training in the social attitude and habits important to the adult participation in social life.
➢ Religious functions: The family is a center for religious training of children, and the children learn
from the parents and various religious virtues.
➢ Recreational functions: Family provides the opportunity to parents and children for engaging in
various recreational activities, such as playing indoor games, dancing, singing, etc.
Types of Family:
On the basis of Residence:
❖ Patrilocal Family: A family structure in which, upon marriage, the newlywed couple resides with or near
the groom's family or at the groom's ancestral home. This arrangement is common in patrilineal societies and
often involves the wife moving to the husband's family residence.
❖ Matrilocal Family: A family structure in which, upon marriage, the newlywed couple resides with or near
the bride's family or at the bride's ancestral home. This arrangement is less common than patrilocality and is
typically found in matrilineal societies.
❖ Neolocal Family: Neolocal residence is becoming increasingly popular due to industrialization and
urbanization, allowing young married couples to live in their workplace.
On the Basis of Marriage:
❖ Monogamous Family: A family structure in which an individual is married to only one spouse at a time.
Monogamy is the practice of having a single spouse, and it is the most common form of marriage in many
societies worldwide.
❖ Polygamus Family: A family structure in which an individual is married to multiple spouses
simultaneously.
❖ Compounded Family: When a husband and wife living with children born out of their marriage and
children born out of their previous marriages all living together is known as compounded marriage.
On the Basis of Size and Structure:
❖ Nuclear Family: A nuclear family is a family which consists of husband, wife and their unmarried
childrens. It is an autonomous unit and there is no control of elders as it operates at various levels
independent of elders.
 4

❖ Joint or Extended Family: The joint family includes more than two generations living together. It is an
extension of parent child relationship and the family is based on closed blood ties. It is characterized by
common residence and sharing of wealth, property, reciprocal obligation and sentiments.
On the Basis of Authority:
❖ Patriarchal Family: A family structure in which male members hold the primary authority and decision-
making power within the family unit. In such families, men typically play dominant roles in household
matters and family decisions.
❖ Matriarchal Family: A family structure in which female members hold the primary authority and decision-
making power within the family. In these families, women typically assume dominant roles in household
matters and family decision-making.
❖ Filiocentric Family: A family structure where the authority and focus revolve around the children. In
filiocentric families, the well-being and needs of the children take precedence, and decisions are often made
to prioritize their interests and welfare.
On the Basis of Descent:
❖ Patrilineal Family: A family structure in which descent and inheritance are traced through the father's line.
In patrilineal families, children are considered to belong to their father's lineage, and property and family
names are typically passed down through the male line.
❖ Matrilineal Family: A family structure in which descent and inheritance are traced through the mother's
line. In matrilineal families, children are considered to belong to their mother's lineage, and property and
family names are often passed down through the female line.
❖ Bilineal Family: A family structure that recognizes both the father's and mother's lines of descent. In bilineal
families, descent and inheritance can be traced through either the father's or mother's lineage, and both sides
of the family may play significant roles in family life and inheritance matters.
Changing Pattern of Family:
❖ Size / Structure of Family: The traditional large-sized joint family which was also a socioeconomic unit,
has been replaced by small-sized nuclear families. This trend has been strengthened by urbanization and
industrialisation. In the medieval era, Kartha was the head of the family even though property was jointly
held in the name of the eldest male of the family.
❖ Changes in the Family: Family which was a principal unit of production has been transformed into the
consumption unit. Instead of all members working together in an integrated economic enterprise, a few
male members go out of the home to earn the family’s living. These affected family relations.
❖ Factory Employment: It has freed young adults from direct dependence upon their families. This functional
independence of the youngsters has weakened the authority of the head of the household over those earning
members. In many cities, even women too joined men in working outside the families on a salary basis.
❖ Neo-Local Residence: Neolocal residence is becoming increasingly popular due to industrialization and
urbanization, allowing young married couples to live in their workplace.
 5

❖ Influence of Urbanization: Various sociologists have revealed that city life is more favorable to small
nuclear families than to big joint families. Thus, urban living weakens joint family patterns and
strengthens nuclear family patterns.
❖ Change in The Role of Man and Woman: Women now have equal status as their male counterparts and
are no longer subject to drudgery and slavery. Womens were only doing householding and child rearing and
males were breadwinners, but as of now it changes a lot with the freedom between men and women.
❖ Parenting: There has been a shift in parenting styles, with parents becoming more supportive and
encouraging their children's interests and choices. Parents are becoming more open to discussions about
mental health, sexuality, and personal values with their children.
❖ Changes in the Marriage System: Changes in the age of marriage, freedom in mate-selection and change in
the attitude towards marriage has diminished. Marriage now is not considered a religious affair but only a
social ceremony. Modern marriage does not symbolize the superior authority of the family head over other
members.
❖ Influence of Western Values: Values relating to modern science, rationalism, individualism, equality, free
life, democracy, freedom of women etc. have exerted a tremendous change on the joint family system in
India.
❖ Family and Technology: Technology has also had a significant impact on the family system in India. Social
media and messaging apps have made it easier for families to stay connected, even when they are
geographically distant. However, excessive use of technology can also lead to a breakdown in communication
within families.
❖ Increase Household Dimensions of Family:
➢ Common Roof: An increase in household dimensions of a family often involves more generations or
extended family members living under a common roof, fostering closer bonds and shared responsibilities.
➢ Common Kitchen: The introduction of a common kitchen in a family home promotes unity through
shared mealpreparation, dining, and interaction, strengthening familial connections and creating a sense
of togetherness.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 10
Regionalism
 2

Regionalism

REVISION NOTES: COMMUNALISM

Communalism:
❖ Communalism means a strong attachment to one’s own community.
❖ In extreme cases, it leads to dishonouring and killing people.
❖ Communalism means something related to the community.
❖ Communalism refers to an aggressive chauvinism based on one’s group identity.
❖ It is an attitude that views one’s own group as the only legitimate or worthy group, with other groups seen
as inferior, illegitimate, or opposite to them. Thus, communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked
to superimposition of dominance of one’s own community on other communities and the rest of society.
Communalism According To Bipan Chandra:
❖ According to Bipan Chandra, the belief that a group of people who practise a particular religion share
similar social, political, and economic interests is known as communalism.
❖ He said that, in three phases, communalism grew in India.
➢ Communal Nationalism: Different religious interests plus similar secular interests
➢ Liberal Communalism: Different religious interests plus different secular interests
➢ Extreme Communalism: Different religious interests plus different secular interests plus no possibility
of coexistence
Remedial Measures For Communalism:
❖ Setting up Peace committees
❖ Responsible Journalism: The media should exercise great restraint in spreading such news that harms
communal solidarity in society. Also, social media should be supervised, and fact checks before reporting
must be done.
❖ Use of Authority for Betterment: The government in power should use its authority to suppress
communal riots propagated by extremists.
❖ There should be a designation of special courts empowered with fast-track trials to punish the perpetrators
of communal riots.
❖ The education of people to be free from communal ideas, ideologies, and prejudice
❖ Programmes, events, and steps at different levels, be it at the government level, community level, or society
level at large, for building solidarity shall be done to ensure integration and harmony among various
communities through NGOs, civil society, etc.
❖ Politics of Development: There should be a shift from the politics of identity to the politics of
development and welfare
❖ The upholding of ideals and goals of the constitution and promotion of secular ideals.
 3

REGIONALISM:
❖ Region is the basis of identity. Regionalism is the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose
by the people within a specific geographical region united by its unique language, culture, etc.
❖ Regionalism is an ideology of regional locale which differs from other regions on the basis of art, literature,
custom, culture, dialect, and population and identifies itself with some sense of homogeneity.
❖ Regionalism is also oriented around protecting and promoting one’s regional interest rather than national
interest.
❖ It is also defined as a phenomenon in which people’s political loyalty becomes focused upon a region.
❖ Regionalism is built around an expression of group identity as well as loyalty towards the region.
❖ Therefore, In simple words, regionalism can be understood as people’s love for a particular region in
preference to the country or state.
Regionalism Has Positive As Well As Negative Aspects:
Positive Aspects of Regionalism:
❖ Develops Brotherhood and Understanding: Regionalism in a positive sense, inspires people to develop and
understand brotherhood and unity, which seek to protect the interests of a particular region and promote
the welfare and development of its people.
❖ Regionalism can lead to intergroup solidarity in a particular region. In fact, people belonging to a region may
feel the need to come together to protect their vested interests by setting aside their differences.
➢ Accommodation of such identity is healthy for the maintenance of the social-cultural fabric of Indian
society. Regionalism may induce competition among people of a region and propel them to do better to
improve the status of their region (competitive federalism).
❖ Nation Building: Regionalism can play an important role in nation-building if it accommodates the federal
elements, because regional interest at times may contribute to national interest. In fact, it allows people of a
particular region to feel happy and empowered by the internal self-determination of the community.
Negative Aspects of Regionalism:
❖ Excessive Attachment: Regionalism in a negative sense indicates excessive attachment to one’s own region
which is a significant threat to the unity and integrity of the country.
❖ Loyalty to region over Nation: Regionalism can have an adverse impact on national integration as loyalty
to a particular region remains stronger than loyalty to the nation. Thus, it can be seen as a threat to the
progress and unity of the nation.
❖ It can also lead to secessionist tendencies in the country.
❖ Security Threats: Regionalism can cause security threats. When agitations and protests to satisfy regional
demands occur, the law and order situation can get disturbed and it can be violent.
❖ Leeway to External Factors: Regionalism in India has another negative aspect that it can give leeway to
external factors. To get involved in regional issue by inciting the masses
 4

❖ Hatred for other regions: It breeds contempt amongst local people against people of other regions,
consequently it accentuates divide and agments identity politics on these basis.
❖ Unbalanced Development: Regionalism can at times lead to unbalanced development which can further
threaten the unity of the nation.

Potential Mains Question:

Q. Regionalism can be conditioned by economic, social, political, and cultural disparities. Comment.

Characteristics of Regionalism:
❖ Conditioned by Disparities: Regionalism is conditioned by economic, social, political, and cultural
disparities.
❖ Group Identity: Built around the expression of group identity, loyalty rest around regions related to culture,
and language.
❖ Prioritising of interest of one’s region above of other/nation
❖ Regionalism at times prohibits people from other regions from benefiting from a particular region.
❖ It presupposes the concept of development without taking into consideration the interests of other regions.
Forms of Regionalism:
❖ Secession or Demand for Autonomy: Secessionism is a form of regionalism which involves militant and
fundamentalist groups demanding a separation from India on the basis of ethnicity or any other factor.
➢ Examples: NSCN (IM), Islamic fundamentalist groups in J&K, ULFA in Assam, Khalistan movement.
❖ Supra-State Regionalism: A group of states joins hands to take a common stand on the issue of common
interest vis-à-vis another group of states or against the union. It does not represent a situation in which state
identities are permanently merged with the collective identity.
➢ Example: Protest of Southern Indian States against Hindi language and Terms of Reference (ToR) of
15th Finance Commission.
❖ Inter-State Regionalism: It involves contrasting the identities of one or more states with one another and is
associated with state boundaries. It is issue-specific.
➢ Example: Dispute between Maharashtra and Karnataka on border issues.
❖ Subregionalism, or Intra-State Regionalism: It shows that a section of the state aspires to self-identity and
individual growth. It can also reflect against the state's and the country's overall interests.
➢ Example:. Issues of Naga and other Tribe and Maitei people of the valley of Manipur.
❖ Son of Soil Theory: This theory views all other people who reside in that area as subsequent settlers, occupiers,
and outsiders and connects people to their place of origin by referring to them as "sons of the soil." Sons of
the soil is a fundamental idea that binds people to their place of birth and grants them certain privileges, rights,
duties, and obligations. This idea is most effective in cities where migrants and outsiders alike have access to
opportunities like education.
 5

Example: Delhi, Mumbai, etc. Also, there are job reservations for natives in the private sector. Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Haryana, etc. For instance, in the year 2008, the phrase "Maharashtra for the Maharashtrians"
was used to criticise migrants. Massive protests and demonstrations were organised by Marathi locals against
migrants from UP and Bihar, whom they believed were displacing locals by offering cheap labour.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 11
Secularism
 2

Secularism

Revision Notes:
Regionalism:
❖ The region is the basis of identity. Regionalism is the expression of a common sense of identity and
purpose by the people within a specific geographical region united by language, culture, etc.
❖ Regionalism is an ideology of a regional locale that differs from other regions on the basis of art, literature,
custom, culture, dialect, and population and identifies itself with some degree of homogeneity.
Forms of Regionalism:
❖ Demand for State Autonomy: Secessionism is a form of regionalism that involves militant and
fundamentalist groups demanding separation from India on the basis of ethnicity or any other factor.
❖ Supra-State Regionalism: A Group of states joins hands to take a common stand on the issue of common
interest vis-à-vis another group of states or against the union.
❖ Inter-State Regionalism: It involves contrasting the identities of one or more states with one another and
associated with state boundaries. It is issue-specific. Example: Dispute between Maharashtra and Karnataka
on border issues.
❖ Sub Regionalism or Intra-State Regionalism: It shows that a section of the state aspires to self-identity and
individual growth.
❖ Son of Soil Theory: This theory views all other people who reside in that area as subsequent settlers,
occupiers, and outsiders and connects people to their place of origin by referring to them as "sons of the soil."

Way Forward:
Measures to Contain Regionalism:
❖ Reduce Regional Imbalance: Do away with a regional imbalance of development
❖ Economic Development: Development of economically deprived zones
❖ Acculturation: Acculturation by the cultural interaction between two cultures of Indian society. Acculturation
refers to retaining the original features of one’s own culture. Cultural awareness and cultural sensitivity will
also develop by this.
❖ Education: Improvement in proper education to curb separatism tendency across regions. Education could be
used as a tool to foster unity in society, oneness, nationalism, or cultural and regional sensitivity.
❖ Role of Media: By Appealing through mass media for better understanding between two different cultures.
❖ Campaign and Events: Regular campaigns and events help to build solidarity from different regions. Such as
Ek Bharat Shreshta Bharat, Azadi Ka Amrut Mahotsav, Mera Bharat Mahan, etc.
❖ Decentralization: Decentralization of governance and devolution of power helps to curb the regionalism
aspiration.
❖ Self-Governance: Boosting Local Self-Governance helps to curb the regionalism aspiration.
 3

Secularism:
❖ The term “Secular” means being “separate” from religion or having no religious basis. The meaning of
secularism is that the state does not give shelter to any particular religion.
❖ The legal foundation of French secularism is Voltaire’s Treaties of Tolerance (1763). In 1905, a law was
passed related to the separation of state and religion (Church) to limit religion to the private sphere from the
public, which sowed the seed for Western secularism.
❖ Secularism is not atheism rather has the same faith in all religions and there will be no particular religion of
the state.
❖ Separation of State and Religion: Even though people perform in accordance with their faith and culture,
everyone respects the other's religion and culture. In India, everyone has the freedom to practice their religion
and promote their culture. Indian society now includes religion as a foundational element.
❖ Religion is open to one and all and is given as a personal choice to an individual without any different
treatment to the latter. However, it is important to understand that Indian secularism is different from British
secularism.
❖ Secularisation in the West was related to the arrival of modernity and the rise of science and rationality as an
alternative to religious ways of understanding the world.
❖ Thus secularism develops as a principle that advocates the separation of religion from politics. It tries for
separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions.
The nature and extent of separation may take different forms depending on the specific values that it is meant
to promote.
❖ What we need to understand is that secularism seeks to shape such a society that is divided into either inter-
religious domination or intra-religious domination. It promotes freedom within religion and equality
between religions.
❖ It is to be noted that there are three manifestations of secularism.
1. Differentiation in religious and secular domains: This means that religion will no longer be all-
encompassing and its presence will only be restricted to cultural domains.
2. Privatization of Religion: Since religion is a matter of faith it will be confined to the domestic space.
3. Decline in the Social Significance of Religion: It means that to reduce the presence of religion in public
spaces and hence its social significance will decline.
Classification of Secularism:

❖ Positive Secularism: Positive secularism calls for the mutual and equal recognition of all religions.
 4

❖ Negative Secularism: Negative secularism implies that all religions are not recognized equally and mutually.
➢ Soft secularism: The legal separation of religion and the state is made by soft secularism. It is tolerant of
religion and religious differences and favors political accommodation of the religion while rejecting state
interference that may undermine religious freedom. Seen in the USA. Example: No school prayer, No
Government funds to religious bodies, etc.
➢ Hard secularism: The full separation of religion and the state is a goal of hard secularism. It might also
be interpreted as a broad hatred of established religion. Seen in France. Example: Banning face-covering
niqabs and burqas in France.
Indian Secularism:
❖ There exists a fundamental difference between the Western concept of secularism and the Indian concept.
❖ In the context of India instead of church and State separation being the main area of focus, peaceful
coexistence of all the religions forms the base of secularism.
❖ ‘Sarva Dharma Sambhav’ is a concept that is deeply entrenched in the Indian mindset and it embodies
equality of paths followed by each religion for the destination.
❖ India is recognized with equal treatment and recognition of all religions.
❖ Inidis accommodation of religious values and aspirations.
❖ Indian secularism allows for principled state intervention in all religions..For example, the state is funding the
Kumbh Mela.
Western Secularism and Indian Secularism:

Indian Secularism Western Secularism

Equal protection by the state to all religions Separation of the state from religion (Culturally
exclusive), they have their own sphere of operation.

The idea of interreligious equality and recognition. It interpreted liberty as liberty of the individual and
Equal focus on inter-religious and intra-religious freedom as freedom of the individual and there is little
equality scope for community-based rights.

It promotes state-sponsored reforms in the religious The state maintains distance from internal matters of
sphere on an equal footing religion

Indian secularism allows for principled state In Western secularism at times (on rare occasions) the
intervention in all religions.. state intervenes in religion.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 12
Secularism (Part 2)
 2

Secularism (Part 2)
Secularisation Vs Secularism:
❖ They have different meanings depending on different situations and perspectives.
❖ Secularism is a sphere of knowledge, value, and action in society independent of religious authority.
❖ The word secular is derived from the Latin word'secular', which means 'present age or generation'. The word
secular became closely related to the social process of secularisation.
❖ Secularism implies that in the eyes of the State, all religions are equal and the presence of religious tolerance.
❖ Secularisation indicates a process whereby religious institutions and religious conceptions and
understandings lose relevance in comparison to worldly matters of economy, politics, justice, health,
family, etc. It is the development of empirical and rational procedures and conceptions about the world in
general.
❖ Forceful secularisation leads to conflict and clashes in society because it changes the way of life.
❖ This could lead to cultural revolution, e.g Revolution in Indonesia and Iran
Challenges to Indian Secularism:
❖ Communalism : It hampers the growth of genuine secularism in India.
❖ Forced Conversion: Imposition of authority on others, which leads to competition and conflict between
the different religions.
❖ Limited Interpretation: It leads to different interpretations, as state intervention is allowed and the limit is
not defined. Many times, state intervention does not lead to accommodation of religious values.
❖ Perception of threat in minority groups: When perception turns into a feeling of inter-religious
inequality, it creates prejudiced thinking, which leads to a separate identity in the minds of minority
groups. Sometimes administrative machines also play a negative role in pursuing minority groups.
❖ Politicisation of religion : It creates a rift between the different communities through hate speech like
events
❖ Defective education system: This has encouraged people to think in terms of groups and communities.
This is due to a lack of value based education. There is a need to promote a value system of give and take
relationship irrespective of caste, religion and gender
❖ Religious intolerance: The classical Indian secularism was based on “Sarva Dharma Sambhav," which
means it presupposes tolerance towards different religions. But when religious intolerance increases in
different communities, it creates conflicts, and that becomes a challenge.
❖ Growth of radicalisation in youth: Different organisations like ISIS use social media for the radicalization
of their vested interests. It dents the social fabric of the country.
Way forward:
❖ Robust law and order machinery: It will tackle the fringe elements that are creating social divide
❖ Focus on NGO, civil society: It will increase intracommunity and intercommunity solidarity.
❖ Ethical education: This promotes value based education.
 3

❖ Regulation: regulations on social media to tackle issues like fake news and communal divide
❖ Electoral reforms: to curb on hate speeches
❖ Effective implementation of the right to education: this will increase social understanding and solidarity
and also increase income levels.
❖ Socioeconomic developments across the communities.
Uniform civil code (UCC)
❖ It is a common set of laws governing inter civil matters for all citizens of the country, irrespective of religion.
❖ Equality of justice regardless of faith and practise.
❖ It will improve the quality of life for women.
❖ Personal laws are being exploited by those who hold power. UCC will limit it
❖ Caste panchayat: UCC will curb this kind of practise, which keeps them above the law behind personal law
protections.
❖ Curbs preferential treatments and hence proposes integration.
Challenges In Implementing The UCC:
❖ Homogenization: Diverse religious and cultural traditions may resist change as that becomes overshadowed
by UCC. Personal laws are considered integral to identity by many communities.
❖ It can undermine local community practises and religious faiths.
❖ Drafting a fair UCC will be the biggest challenge in building consensus.
Triple Talaq issue:
❖ Shayara Bano vs Union of India case: SC judgement that declared instant triple talaq as unconstitutional
➢ It ensured gender equality and dignity.
➢ It ensured equality by upholding fundamental rights.
➢ Reduces insecurities among women.
❖ Counter Arguments:
➢ Article 26: freedom of religion; therefore, faith leaders should decide this, not law-making bodies.
➢ It is not the role of courts; it is a matter of faith.
➢ Talaq-e-Bidat (instant triple talaq) is not codified under statutory law, i.e. the Sharia Act of 1937;
therefore, it will not fall under Article 13
Sabarimala Temple Issue:
❖ SC tried to evaluate whether the exclusion of menstruating women from temple entry is an essential
practise or not?
❖ The Supreme Court gave a verdict that women of all age groups should be allowed to the temple, and
there should be no discrimination on the grounds of religion because this will be a violation of Article 17.
❖ In September 2019, the court reconsidered the previous judgement on constitutional morality. And now it
will be decided by a higher bench
 4

Santhara Practice:
❖ Nikhil Soni vs Rajasthan High Court case :
➢ The practise of Santhara was challenged on the basis of two grounds
✓ The right to life does not include right to die
✓ whether Santhara is an essential religious practise or not ?
❖ Later the Supreme Court lifted the ban on santhara.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 13
Poverty
 2

Poverty

Poverty:
❖ Poverty is a state of individual/society/family where people are unable to fulfill their basic necessities of life.
It leads to a state of deprivation and induces a sense of helplessness in the poor population, this leads to social
exclusion.
❖ It is the denial of choice and opportunity for human beings and ultimately is the violence of human dignity.
According to United Nations Poverty is:
❖ Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable
livelihoods. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other
basic services, social discrimination and exclusion, as well as the lack of participation in decision-making.
In 2015, more than 736 million people lived below the international poverty line. Around 10 per cent of the
world population (pre-pandemic) was living in extreme poverty and struggling to fulfil the most basic needs
like health, education, and access to water and sanitation, to name a few. There were 122 women aged 25
to 34 living in poverty for every 100 men of the same age group, and more than 160 million children were
at risk of continuing to live in extreme poverty by 2030.
Types of Poverty:
❖ Absolute Poverty: Absolute poverty is a fixed, universal standard that defines poverty in terms of the
minimum income or living conditions necessary for basic survival. This measure remains constant
regardless of location or time. It offers a clear, objective criterion for assessing the direst forms of poverty,
ensuring consistency in comparisons across regions.
❖ Relative Poverty: Relative poverty, conversely, considers an individual's economic status relative to the
society they live in. It evaluates income and living standards compared to those of others within the same
society. Thus, even if people meet their basic needs, they can still be considered poor if their conditions
are significantly worse than the societal average. Relative poverty highlights income inequality and social
disparities
❖ Primary poverty: Income is insufficient to meet the basic needs..
❖ Secondary poverty: It is situation where money is spend in extravagantly and then unable to fulfill basic
necessities.
❖ Persistent poverty: Persistent poverty refers to a situation where household income is less than 60 % of
median income for 2 out of 3 years and limited access to resources, hindering their ability to break the cycle
of poverty.
❖ Multidimensional poverty: It measures poverty as acute deprivation of essential aspects.
Multidimensional poverty is a concept that goes beyond measuring poverty solely by income. It assesses
deprivation in various aspects of well-being, including living standard, health, education. This approach
provides a more comprehensive understanding of poverty, highlighting multiple dimensions that people may
experience simultaneously.
 3

Types of Poor:
❖ Chronic Poor: Those poor who are usually poor and long-term poor.
❖ Churning Poor: Those poor who regularly move in and then move out from poverty.
❖ Transient Poor: Those poor generally who due to hard luck become poor.
❖ Non-Poor: Those poor who are never poor.
Poverty Trap:

Causes of Poverty:
❖ Cultural or Customary: Practices such as Dowry and early marriages lead to poverty in families. The poor
family saves money to give as dowry in the daughter’s marriage instead of investing that money in the
development of the girl child. Early marriages lead to health problems and early dropout from school, therefore
children will not get skills and education becomes poor.
❖ Inheritance of Property: No inheritance of property to girl children, if his husband is poor then she will
become poor for a lifetime.
❖ Caste System: The subordination of the low caste people by the high caste people caused the poverty of the
former. Due to the rigid caste system, the low-caste people could not participate in the game of economic
progress. For example, a lower caste person will not be allowed to become a businessman or a trader.
❖ Low Entrepreneurship Culture: Low Entrepreneurship Culture leads to less job creation in society because
the young population of India is moving highly towards government exams and government jobs, so at last if
they do not get a job they become poor.
❖ Failure of land reforms: Unequal land ownership leads to poverty and concentration of wealth.
❖ Poor Infrastructure: Communities in rural locations are not able to grow due to a lack of infrastructure, which
includes things like roads, bridges, and wells as well as cables for internet, cell phones, and light.
❖ Poor implementation of policies
 4

Shift in poverty from rural to urban areas can be attributed to various factors:
❖ Migration: Rural-to-urban migration often leads to increased urban poverty, as people move to cities in search
of better opportunities but may face challenges in finding stable employment and affordable housing.
❖ Lack of Skills: Rural migrants may lack the skills required for urban jobs, leading to underemployment or
unemployment, and contributing to their poverty.
❖ Increased Indebtedness: Urban living can be costly, and rural migrants may incur debts for housing,
education, or other necessities, pushing them further into poverty.
❖ Rising Inflation: Urban areas often have higher living costs, including housing, food, and transportation,
which can exacerbate poverty when incomes don't keep pace with inflation.
❖ Increased Consumption Rates: Urban living can lead to higher consumption rates due to the availability of
goods and services, potentially straining budgets and contributing to poverty.
❖ Asymmetric Development: Uneven urban development can result in pockets of extreme poverty within cities,
where marginalized communities lack access to basic services, perpetuating urban poverty disparities.
Problems of Poor People:
❖ Social discrimination and social condemnation of the poor in the society is a common problem they are
facing as of now..
❖ Poor people's fear and helplessness lead to a lack of collective power.
❖ Desires and demands are crushed by stronger sections of society at every level
❖ They pay higher interest on loans.
❖ Social evaluation of the poor on the basis of little foresight and immaturity.
❖ Feeling of inferiority complex hampers the domestic life of the poor.
❖ Poor housing and living conditions such as overcrowding, living in slums, lack of privacy, etc.
❖ Culture of poverty: Poor try to think of the death of aspiration, they try to find happiness in that situation of
poverty and they perpetuate poverty.
❖ Deviant Culture of Retreat situation where the poor develop values and norms considered outside the culture
of the dominant population. Example: Situations of druggist and drunkard of poor.
❖ Climate Change Threat: According to the World Bank, during the next ten years, climate change has the
potential to impoverish more than 100 million people.
Impacts of Poverty on Society:
❖ Violence and Crime
❖ Homelessness
❖ Decline in productivity of labor
❖ Poor economic health
❖ Increase child labour
❖ Increase in terrorism
❖ Increase in Child marriages
❖ Malnutrition
❖ High Infant mortality rate
 5

❖ High maternal mortality rate

❖ Family problems and conflicts
❖ Shame on humanity/human rights
❖ Human dignity is questionable
Solutions to Reduce Poverty in Society:
❖ Population control
❖ Equal distribution of income
❖ Increased employment
❖ Combating regional poverty by developing developmental balance
❖ Strengthen public distribution system
❖ Stability in price level
❖ Increase in skill level by providing skill training
❖ Strengthening health and educational infrastructure
❖ Ensuring better identification of targeted beneficiaries and taking special initiatives for women, SC, ST, and
other vulnerable groups
❖ Ensuring better accessibility and reachability of welfare works to poor

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 14
Population
 2

Population

Note:
Poverty and Sustainable Development Goals:
❖ SDG Goal 1: No Poverty: The primary aim of SDG 1 is to end poverty in all its manifestations, including
extreme poverty, by 2030. This means ensuring that all individuals and communities have access to the
resources, services, and opportunities they need to lead a dignified and fulfilling life.
❖ SDG Goal 2: Zero Hunger: Eradicate hunger, ensure access to nutritious food, and advance sustainable
agricultural practises.

Population:
❖ According to 2011 Census Data, total population of India: 121
crores (or 1.21 billion).
❖ According to UNFPA’s World Population Report, the Indian
population will be 1.4286 billion which will surpass China's
population of 1.4257 billion by the mid-year of 2023.
❖ Indians constitute 17% of the world’s population.
❖ According to Thomas Robert Malthus's theory (Malthusian
Theory), population growth is on the basis of geometrical
progression, and resource addition into the society is based
on the arithmetic progression, so resources would never be
sufficient to sustain population growth.
➢ This theory was refused because the resource
exponentially increases in society through technological
innovation. This increases one’s potential to mobilise
resources.
Demography:
❖ The Demography word is of Greek origin; it comes from the combination of ‘Demos’ (people) and ‘graphene’
(describe).
❖ Demographic studies are about the systematic study of population. It studies the trends associated with the
population and processes related to the population. Also it studies the change in size of the population, pattern
of deaths, migration patterns, age structure of population, sex ratio etc.
 3

Population Distribution:
❖ Population distribution means the manner in which people are
spaced over the earth’s surface.
Population Density:
❖ Population density is defined as the number of people living in
each unit area.
Components of Population Growth:
❖ Demographic Factor: It has two types of demographic increase.
➢ Natural increase: It is the net outcome of fertility and
mortality in a region. In such a situation in a region, if the
fertility level is high, the population of that place tends to
increase and the mortality rate is also decreasing with the best
facilities of hospital and medical facilities.
➢ Artificial Increase: Immigration and emigration has a deep
influence on population distribution. Better opportunities in
distant lands encourage migration (Immigration means people
coming into a society). Emigration means the population going out of society.
Reasons for Immigration and Emigration in a Society:
❖ Components of Nature (Geographical and Environmental Factors): Availability of water, soil fertility,
proximity to water, climatic environment, natural disasters, etc. are the reasons for the migration of populations
from one place to another and increase population growth in the new area.
❖ Political Factors: War and political conflicts take a great toll on human lives, so they are forced to move out
in search of safety. Mortality rates peak, and out-migration dominates. Safer locations experience sizable
population growth because of the inflow of migrants. Political unrest and discrimination are detrimental to
population growth. Clashes between different political parties or people with different religious beliefs have
often resulted in a reduction in population in the affected area.
❖ Economic Factor: It is an indicator of employment opportunities. People in rural areas are largely dependent
on agriculture for their livelihood. If the land fails to support the rural population, or if more opportunities are
available in urban areas with better transportation availability, they may choose to migrate to cities. The
concentration of population in urban areas is an outcome of diverse economic activities and livelihood options
offered by cities.
❖ Socio-Cultural Components: Social social organisation of communities in new areas encourages the
movement of people and settling of communities in newer lands. The area attracts more people due to religious
and cultural significance. Conscious restriction (such as late marriage, no marriage) and cultural restrictions
such as the prohibition of abortion, and son meta preference results in population growth.
 4

Determinants of Population Change:

❖ Fertility Rate: It refers to the number of live
births per 1000 women in the childbearing age
group usually taken to be 15 to 49.
❖ Total Fertility Rate: It refers to the total number
of live births that a woman would have if she lived
through her reproductive age group and had an
average number of babies in each segment of this
age group as determined by the age-specific
fertility rate for that area.
❖ Replacement Level Fertility: It is the total
fertility rate at which the population exactly
replaces itself from one generation to the next
without migration. This rate is roughly 2.1
children per woman for most countries, although
it may modestly vary with mortality rates.
❖ According to the NITI Aayog Report, 2016- Total
Fertility Rate in India is 2.3.
❖ The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5)
report highlights a noteworthy decline in India's
total fertility rate (TFR), dropping from 2.2 in
2015-16 to 2.0 in 2019-21, showcasing
substantial advancements in population control
efforts.
Determinants of High Fertility Rate:
❖ Reproductive behaviour is a socio-cultural
phenomenon and is slow to change
❖ Patriarchal norms (Child marriage and son meta preference) and impacts of green revolution
❖ Less awareness about contraceptives
❖ Taboo in society associated with sterilisation and abortion
❖ High IMR leads to high rate of reproduction
❖ Poor education of women
❖ Poverty
Implications of High Fertility Rate:
❖ High IMR and MMR.
❖ Population explosion.
❖ Conflict and competition increase for resources.
❖ Pressure on the Economy.
 5

❖ Increase Poverty.
❖ Decrease women's productivity.
❖ Time Poverty, It means lack of self time (Lack of skills).
Mortality (Crude Death Rate):
❖ Mortality refers to the state of being subject to death, the condition of being mortal.
Crude Death Rate:
❖ Crude Death Rate is the ratio of total registered deaths occurring in the specified calendar year to the total
mid-year population of that year multiplied by 1000.
Life Expectancy at Birth:
❖ The term average expectancy of life or life expectancy represents the average number of years of life which
a cohort of newborn babies may be expected to live if they are subjected to the risk of death each year.
Infant Mortality Rate:
❖ Infants are defined in demography as all those children in the first year of life who have not yet reached
age one.
❖ In countries like India where health conditions are poor infant deaths account for a substantial number of all
deaths.
❖ The infant mortality rate is therefore often used as an indicator for determining the socio-economic status
of a country and the quality of life in it.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 15
Population (Part 2)
 2

Population (Part 2)
Reason Behind High Infant Mortality Rate:
❖ Socio-Economic Status of Caste Groups:
➢ Discrimination and economic alienation among certain caste groups limit their access to quality
healthcare, leading to higher infant mortality rates among them.
❖ Customs of Early Child Marriages:
➢ Early marriages often result in early pregnancies, increasing health risks for both mother and child and
contributing to infant mortality.
❖ Skewed Healthcare Access in Rural Areas:
➢ Unequal distribution of healthcare resources and limited budget allocation for rural healthcare result in
inadequate medical facilities and services, affecting infant survival.
❖ Government Healthcare Spending:
➢ Politics and budgetary constraints can lead to reduced government spending on healthcare, impacting the
availability and quality of healthcare services for infants.
❖ Lack of Immunization:
➢ Limited access to vaccines and polio doses in certain areas deprives infants of essential immunisation,
leaving them vulnerable to preventable diseases.
❖ Misuse of Technology:
➢ Inadequate or improper use of medical technology can lead to misdiagnoses or ineffective treatments,
adversely affecting infant health.
❖ Malnutrition of Mothers:
➢ When women are primarily seen as child-bearing machines, their own malnutrition can lead to health
complications during pregnancy and childbirth, impacting infant health.
❖ Female Infanticide:
➢ The practise of female infanticide, prevalent in both rural and urban areas, results in the deliberate killing
of female infants, contributing to skewed sex ratios and affecting infant mortality.
Maternal Mortality:
❖ The maternal mortality ratio represents the risk associated
with e ach p regnancy, and maternal death is the death of
a woman while being pregnant or within 42 days of
termination of pregnancy irrespective of the duration and
sight of pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated
by the pregnancy or its management but not from
accidental or incidental causes.
❖ In fact it is measured as a number of maternal deaths as
per 1,00,000 live births.
 3

Additional Information: Current MMR in India

As per the Special Bulletin on MMR released by the Registrar General of India (RGI), the Maternal
Mortality Ratio (MMR) of India has improved further by a spectacular 6 points and now stands at 97/ lakh live
births.
The outstanding progress made in terms of the number of states which have achieved Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG) target, the number has now risen from six to eight leading with Kerala (19), followed by Maharashtra
(33), then Telangana (43) and Andhra Pradesh (45), subsequently Tamil Nadu (54), Jharkhand (56), Gujarat (57)
and lastly Karnataka (69).

Cause of Maternal Mortality:

❖ Poor Infrastructure at Primary Health Care:
➢ Inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure at the primary level result in delayed or insufficient care
during pregnancy and childbirth.
❖ Lack of Availability and Accessibility of Nutrition:
➢ Limited access to nutritious food, especially in rural areas, can lead to maternal malnutrition and related
complications.
❖ Lack of Institutional Deliveries in Indian Society (Mostly in Rural Areas):
➢ Many women in rural areas prefer home deliveries due to traditional beliefs, lack of awareness, or
inadequate access to healthcare facilities, which can lead to unsafe deliveries.
❖ Socio-economic Factors such as Poverty, Child Marriage, Lack of Awareness, etc:
➢ Poverty can restrict access to proper healthcare, while child marriage may lead to early pregnancies,
increasing maternal risks. Lack of awareness about maternal health exacerbates these issues.
❖ Unsafe Surgery and Abortions:
➢ Unsafe surgical procedures, including abortions, can result in severe complications, contributing to
maternal mortality.
❖ Domestic Violence During Pregnancy:
➢ Domestic violence can cause physical harm during pregnancy, leading to complications and endangering
both the mother and the unborn child.
❖ Patriarchal Decisions in Pregnancy-Related Issues:
➢ Patriarchal norms and decision-making can limit a woman's autonomy in making choices related to her
pregnancy and healthcare.
❖ Cultural Restriction in Tribal Population, Poor Immunisation, Alienation of Vaccines:
➢ Cultural norms and limited healthcare access in tribal areas can obstruct proper maternal care, including
immunisation, leading to health complications.
 4

❖ South Asian Enigma (Low Status of Women and Patriarchal Factors):

➢ The paradoxical situation of growth and undernutrition in South Asian countries, including India, is
attributed to the low status accorded to women and patriarchal factors that hinder proper maternal care
and nutrition.

Additional Information: NFHS-5 (2019-2021)

Delivery Care (for births in the 5 years before the survey) India Urban Rural

Institutional births (%) 88.6 93.8% 86.6%

Institutional births in public facility (%) 61.9% 52.6% 65.3%

Anaemia among Women and Children

Children age 6-59 months who are anaemic 67.1% 64.2% 68.3%

Pregnant women age 15-49 years who are anaemic 52.2% 45.7% 54.3%

All women age 15-49 years who are anaemic 57.0% 53.8% 58.5%

Principle reason for Population explosion in India:

Decline in Death Rate:
❖ Control of Epidemics: Successful management of diseases like cholera and improved healthcare access
reduced mortality.
❖ Agricultural Advancements: Increased agricultural productivity ensured food security and lowered death
rates due to famine.
❖ Improved Transportation and Communication: Better connectivity facilitated the distribution of essential
resources and healthcare services.
Increase in Birth Rate:
❖ Early Marriage Customs: Continued practice of early marriage contributed to a higher number of childbirths.
❖ Healthcare Improvements: While maternal mortality rates decreased, the overall pattern of reproduction
remained unchanged.
❖ Limited Contraceptive Awareness: Lack of awareness and access to contraceptives hindered family planning
efforts.
❖ Low Education Among Women: Limited education opportunities for women affected their understanding of
reproductive health.
 5

❖ Cultural Factors: Son Preference: Societal preference for sons influenced family size decisions, driving
population growth.

Additional Information: NFHS-5 (2019-2021)

Current Use of Family Planning Methods (currently India Urban Rural

married women age 15–49 years)

Any method (%) 66.7% 69.3% 65.6%

Any modern method (%) 56.5% 58.5 55.5

Female sterilization (%) 0.3 0.2 0.3

Male sterilization (%) 2.1 2.7 1.8

Impact of unmanageable growth of population:

❖ Lack of Nutritional Food:
➢ Rapid population growth strains food resources, leading to insufficient nutrition for many, particularly in
low-income communities.
❖ Spatial Issues:
➢ Urban sprawl and unplanned growth due to population pressure result in inadequate housing and
infrastructural challenges.
❖ Unemployment Issue:
➢ The job market often cannot absorb the increasing number of job seekers, resulting in high unemployment
rates.
❖ Decline in Standard of Living:
➢ Overcrowding and limited resources per capita contribute to a decline in the overall quality of life.
❖ Slum Formation:
➢ Overpopulation in urban areas leads to the formation of slums, characterized by substandard living
conditions and limited access to basic services.
❖ Sanitation Issue:
➢ Overcrowded areas struggle to provide proper sanitation facilities, leading to health hazards and disease
outbreaks.
❖ Environmental Impact (Compromise with Arable Land):
➢ Population growth often encroaches on arable land, reducing agricultural productivity and impacting the
environment through deforestation and habitat loss.
Notestein’s Theory of population transition:
❖ Stage 1: Pre transition: increase in birth rate, increase in death rate, hence low population growth.
❖ Stage 2: Early transition: increase in birth rate and decrease in death rate, hence population explosion
 6

❖ Stage 3: Late transition: low fertility rate and low death rate, hence deceleration of population growth
❖ Stage 4: Post transition: low birth rate and low death rate, hence population growth negligible.
*NOTE: Because of non committed behavior of northern states with respect to southern states in population
growth, delimitation of constituencies have been freezed till the year of 2026 by 84th amendment act of 2001.
Age Structure of Population:
❖ Demographic dividend occurs when the proportion of working people in the total population is higher than the
dependent population because this indicates that more people have potential to be productive and contribute
to the growth in the economy. Therefore such changes in the age structure in the demographic transition lowers
the dependency ratio thus creating potential for generating growth.
❖ According to the economic survey of 2018-19, at this stage the demographic dividend of India is 62%.
However, the economic survey of 2018-19 also highlighted that in the next two decades, the population in the
age group of 0-14 will reduce by 11% and the 60+ age group will increase by 5%. And the demographic
dividend of 20-59 is expected to reach around 59% by 2041.
❖ However this potential can be converted into actual growth only if the rise in the working age group is
accompanied by increasing levels of education and health. If the population is unemployed and they are unable
to earn at all, the population becomes dependent rather than earners. Therefore merely a change in the age
structure does not guarantee benefit, what it requires is plan development.
Dependency Ratio:
❖ Dependency ratio is a measure of comparing a portion of the population which is composed of dependents.
❖ Dependency Ratio Population includes 0 to 14 years population and more than 60 years age population.
Issues of Elderly Population:
❖ Psychological Issues:
➢ Decreased Influence: Elderly individuals may experience a loss of influence in decision-making
processes as they become dependent on others, leading to feelings of helplessness and frustration.
➢ Breadwinner Dependency: If the elderly were once breadwinners, their financial dependence can impact
their self-esteem and mental well-being.
❖ End of Routine:
➢ Retirement often disrupts the daily routine and working life that individuals have been accustomed to for
years. This sudden change can lead to a sense of purposelessness and restlessness.
❖ Quarrels and Conflicts Increase:
➢ Adjusting to new family dynamics, such as living with grown children, can sometimes result in conflicts
and disagreements within households.
❖ Separation of Social Circle and Isolation:
➢ As friends and peers age or move away, elderly individuals may find themselves isolated, leading to
feelings of loneliness and social isolation.
❖ Financial Issues Increase in the Future:
➢ With rising healthcare costs and potential inadequacies in retirement savings, elderly individuals may face
financial challenges as they age, causing stress and anxiety.
 7

❖ Medical Expenditure:
➢ Elderly individuals often face higher healthcare costs due to age-related health conditions. Limited
financial resources can make it challenging to afford medical treatments and medications, impacting their
overall well-being.
❖ Housing Issues:
➢ Some elderly individuals experience neglect or abandonment by their adult children, leading to housing
problems. They may be forced to live in substandard conditions or even become homeless, exacerbating
their vulnerability.
❖ Health Issues:
➢ The elderly are susceptible to various health issues such as chronic illnesses, mobility problems, and
cognitive decline. Access to appropriate healthcare and support services becomes crucial for maintaining
their health and quality of life.
Suggestion to Improve the Elderly Population:
❖ Strengthen Daycare Centers: Enhance the quality and availability of daycare centres for the elderly. These
centres provide a space for socialisation, mental stimulation, and engagement with peers, improving their
overall mental health and well-being.
❖ Care and Shelter Institutions: Establish care and shelter institutions for elderly individuals who are
unattached, homeless, or dependent. These facilities can offer a safe and supportive environment, addressing
the needs of vulnerable elderly citizens with the help of NGOs, CSO, “Help Age India” initiative.
❖ Counselling Centers: Develop counselling centres specifically designed for elderly individuals with incurable
and chronic illnesses. These centres provide emotional support, coping strategies, and guidance to help them
navigate their health challenges.
❖ Financial Assistance for Informal Sector Workers: Offer financial assistance and retirement benefits to
informal sector workers who retire from their jobs. This ensures economic security for the elderly population,
reducing financial stress.
❖ Strong Pension Scheme: Implement a robust and inclusive pension scheme that provides a reliable source of
income for retirees. Adequate financial support is essential for a dignified life in old age.
❖ Better Medical Healthcare: Improve access to quality healthcare services tailored to the unique needs of the
elderly population. This includes geriatric healthcare, preventive care, and specialized treatments.
❖ Integration of Experienced Elders: Encourage the integration of experienced elderly individuals into start-
up incubators and mentoring programs. Their wealth of knowledge and experience can benefit younger
generations, fostering intergenerational learning and innovation.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 16
Population policy and
Urbanization issues
 2

Population policy and Urbanization issues

Approach Towards Population Policy:

❖ Radha Kamal Mukherjee Committee, 1940: The committee was set up to suggest ways and means to self-
control, increase the age of marriage, and do away with polygamy, etc.
❖ Bhor Committee, 1943: It criticized the self-control approach. Committee recommended deliberate limitation.
❖ In 1952 there was the First Population Policy Committee.
❖ Central Family Planning Board (CFPB,1963): It was promoted in 1956 and recommended a strong
emphasis on sterilisation.
❖ First National Population Policy (1976): The policy included a wide range of programmes, such as raising
the legal age of marriage, coercive means to reduce population, forcing sterilization, unmarried people
sterilized, etc.
❖ National Population Policy, 2000: The policy placed a lot of emphasis on putting family planning resources
at people's doorsteps. Some socio economic indicators/features of this policy are:
➢ Addressing the unmet needs of contraception, health care, infrastructure, and health personnel.
➢ In a reduction in TFR.
➢ In decrease in IMR and MMR.
➢ Universal immunization.
➢ Encouraging delayed marriage that attains 100% registration.
➢ Making available universal access to information, counseling, and services for fertility regulation and
contraception with a huge range of choices.
➢ The long term objective is to stabilize population by 2025.
➢ Spreading awareness about HIV Aids and developing a participatory approach to control its spread.
❖ In pursuance of National Population Policy of 2000 government has taken a number of measures under
family planning programme and as a result population growth rate of India has reduced substantially
which is evident from the following:
➢ The percentage decadal growth rate of the country had declined significantly from 21.5 % (1991-2001)
to 17.7 % (2001-2011).
➢ At the policy implementation or adoption the Total Fertility Rate was 3.2% however the Niti Aayog
Report 2016 highlighted that the TFR had come down to 2.3%.
➢ However, It is important for us to understand that in spite of the perceptible decline in TFR this increases
the commitment that is required to us National Population Policy.
➢ One of the important challenges confronting the policy maker is that the population challenges in north
and south are at different levels.
➢ We need to understand the TFR medium term role and what should be the real commitment is providing
high quality reproductive healthcare. It also has to be noted that while southern states like Kerala and
Andhra Pradesh are successfully privatizing proper implementation of the policy, the vast majority
of the state continues to compromise reproductive health with poor service.
 3

➢ The solution of this poor implementation lies in accountability, the state governments need to identify
loopholes in the policy implementation and improve the reproductive healthcare.
➢ On the other hand, states could be incentivise by the center for better suggestions.
➢ Another step shall be taken that Family planning should be expanded. They should be roping in NGOs,
civil societies, SHGs, and they should be formalizing the relationship of these groups with state
officials as well as Panchayats so that the policy becomes effective at the grassroot level. This will not
just create robust administrative structures but will also enhance transparency, accountability, and
henceforth with greater support at the grassroot level.
➢ Improvement of Family Planning depends on the overcoming lack of education regarding the
reproductive health, Therefore Panchayats should be encourages to create a programme about
educating people about reproductive health and all of this becomes easier with improvement in health
infrastructure be it qualitative and quantitative.
➢ Therefore, increasing the budgetary allocation towards the Health sector is another goal that needs to
be met.

Urbanization:
❖ Urbanization is the process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other
pursuits common to cities, such as trade, manufacturing, industry and management, and corresponding
changes of behavior patterns.
❖ Increase in town size, growth of urban population, and change in occupation is the most significant change in
urbanization.
 4

❖ Urbanization phenomena is associated with development of trade centres and Industries.

❖ According to the United Nations ‘State of World Population Report’, by 2030, 41% of the Indian
population will reside in urban areas, and according to the ‘World Cities Report of 2016’, India’s urban
population is expected to become 55% of the total population by 2050.
❖ According to the Census of India, 2011, there are three conditions to qualify the definition of ‘town’:
➢ There should be at least 5,000 inhabitants,
➢ There should be a density of not less than 400 people per sq. km
➢ At least 3/4th of the male working population should be engaged in non-farming activities.
Over-Urbanization:
❖ Over-Urbanization is the phenomenon wherein the level of urbanization surpasses the level of
industrialization.
❖ In fact in this phenomena, in an urbanized area, the population growth outgrows its job market and the capacity
of its infrastructure.
❖ In simple terms this phenomenon can also be referred to as urbanization without industrialization.
Suburbanization:
❖ Suburbanization is the phenomenon where people from over-urbanized areas start moving towards fringe areas
around the cities. This results in the gradual transformation of fringe areas into urban areas.
Counter urbanization:
❖ Counter urbanization occurs when large cities reach a point where they stop growing further or actually
begin to decrease in size as the population starts to move to suburban areas or some other cities due to
challenging living conditions.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 17
Urbanization
 2

Urbanization
Urban Agglomeration:
❖ According to Census of India, 2001, an Urban Agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting
a town, and its adjoining outgrowths are two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without
outgrowths of such towns.
❖ An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town, and its total population should not be less
than 20,000.
Outgrowths:
❖ According to the 2001 census, an outgrowth has been defined as a viable unit such as a village or block that
is clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and locations attached to a nearby statutory town outside its
statutory limits. An outgrowth possesses urban features infrastructure and amenities such as Pakka roads,
electricity, drainage system for disposal of waste water, educational institutions, Medical Facilities,
Banks, etc.
Over-Urbanization:
❖ Over-Urbanization is a phenomenon wherein the level of urbanization surpasses the level of
industrialization.
❖ In fact in this phenomenon, in an urbanized area, population growth outgrows the job market and the capacity
of its infrastructure.
❖ The term overurbanization is at times used for increased sophistication of life and influx of urban characters
into the surrounding rural areas due to the expansion of urban activities.
❖ Such kind of overurbanization gradually replaces the rural and traditional trades of a community.
❖ In simple terms, this phenomenon can also be referred to as urbanization without industrialization.
Suburbanization:
❖ Suburbanization is the phenomenon where people from over-urbanized areas start moving towards fringe
areas around the cities. This results in the gradual transformation of fringe areas into urban areas.
❖ Some of the causes of this Suburbanization could be:
➢ High cost of living in over-urbanizing areas.
➢ Development of transport facilities around the horizon of over-urbanizing areas.
➢ New work culture that doesn't necessitates physical presence everyday.
➢ Inclusion of surrounding areas of towns within its municipal limits.
Counter urbanization:
❖ Counterurbanization is a social process whereby people move from urban areas to rural areas, suburbs, or
2nd/3rd tier cities.
❖ Counterurbanization occurs when large cities reach a point where they stop growing further or actually
begin to decrease in size as the population starts to move in suburban areas or some other cities due to
challenging living conditions.
❖ It can take place as a reaction to inner city deprivation and overcrowding.
 3

Social Implications of Urbanization Process:

❖ Family and Kinship:
➢ The bonds of family of living together for generations are absent among these people due to their diverse
origins and backgrounds.
➢ Nowadays, families are goal-oriented and impersonal.
➢ Changes in the family structure, such as shifting from joint family to nuclear and small joint family
systems in India,
➢ Despite generational strains, children's attachment to their families remains strong, as noted by I.P. Desai.
➢ As per A.Ross the emergence of nuclear family in urban areas and break away from traditional joint
families are the result of urbanisation
➢ Relationships with distant kin are weakening.
➢ Increasing importance of kindred relations.
❖ Caste:
➢ The caste system exists in cities as much as it does in villages.
➢ A person in a city derives his status not only from caste but also from other considerations. It will not be
wrong to say that caste identity tends to diminish with urbanization. Urbanites participate in networks that
include people of several castes.
➢ Urban dwellers do not strictly conform to caste norms. There is a change in commensal relations, marital
relations, social relations, as well as in occupational relations.
❖ On Women / Gender:
➢ Third gender and LGBTQIA+ people's solidarity, relative freedom, and recognition of rights are
relatively better in urban areas.
➢ Many positive developments took place in the socio-economic lives of women as a result of increasing
urbanization, women have taken to white-collar jobs and entered different professions.
➢ Lower-class women in urban areas have gained social and economic status through both formal and
informal jobs, leading to greater independence and freedom [Immigrant women are coming to urban
areas by virtue ofmarriage, and also emerge as potential workers (increase employability in informal
sectors)].
➢ Social and economic status of women has increased as they started doing jobs. Thereby, women in urban
areas enjoy relative independence and greater freedom in financial matters.
➢ Urban areas have higher education levels for girls.
➢ The disadvantages, like time poverty, being trapped between city and traditional values, and increasing
suicides, increase the susceptibility to henious crime.
Factors Inducing Urbanization:
❖ Better Public Facilities: Urban areas provide improved education, sanitation, housing, healthcare, recreation,
and living standards, enhancing social life. For Example: The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and
Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) offer world-class education.
 4

❖ Employment opportunities: An urban center's expansion is typically marked by constructing one or more
production facilities. As a result, there is a need for labor. Even while they can speed up production and make
it easier, businesses still need people to run, manage, and maintain their machinery. This is accomplished via
hard work.
❖ Transportation and Commercialization: The distribution of goods and services and commercial transactions
in the modern era has developed modern marketing institutions and exchange methods that have given rise to
the growth of towns and cities.
❖ Migration: Development is the economic component of modernization, a process of societal change. It
suggests a social process that creates a setting with increasing productivity per person. So people migrate from
one place to cities.
❖ Industrialization: The process through which an agrarian civilization becomes an industrial society is known
as industrialization. Urbanization supports the industry by providing a trained and educated labor force, land,
and other resources, while industrialization promotes it by creating jobs.
Issues of Urbanization:
❖ Faulting Urban Planning.
❖ The rising cost of House and Land: Overpopulation puts pressure on limited urban land, leading to high
housing costs.
❖ Creation of large slums: Acute housing shortage leads to the development of substandard and crowded slum
areas.
❖ Overcrowding: Congested housing areas with multiple occupants in a room contribute to health and social
issues.
❖ Environmental degradation: Increasing urbanization leads to improper waste handling, causing health
hazards and environmental degradation.
❖ Unsuccessful Urban Governance: Many governments are not able to control and manage the speed of the
urbanization process.
❖ Urban Public Transit System: Lack of planned traffic management increases air and sound pollution in urban
areas. In major cities like Mumbai, the lack of planned traffic management has led to severe traffic congestion,
resulting in increased air and sound pollution.
❖ Urban crime: Unplanned urbanization results in resource imbalance and lack of basic amenities. For example,
Growing incidents of theft and burglary in the rapidly expanding outskirts of Gurugram, Haryana.
❖ Unemployment: Urbanization often leads to unemployment.
❖ Sewage and Drainage in Indian Cities: The unplanned and haphazard growth of cities is the result of rapid
urbanization and thus, most of these cities are plagued with inefficient sewage facilities.
❖ Obstructed water supply.
❖ In urban areas there is decreased group solidarity, and increased alienation.
Way Forward:
❖ Checking Migration
❖ Economic growth and opportunities in other cities
 5

❖ Village economic model development

❖ Develop village infrastructure
➢ Develop smart villages.
❖ Coordination between departments
❖ More Industrial corridors
❖ Increase public transport like metro, multilayer of flyovers.
❖ Better urban planning
❖ Build inclusive society, capacity building
❖ Strengthen urban local governance (municipalities).
❖ Better job opportunities, and affordable housing.

Additional Information: Rationalisation of FSI, also known as Floor Area Ratio (FAR)
❖ FSI, also known as Floor Area Ratio (FAR), is the extent of buildable area allowed on any given plot.
For instance, if a building project is given an FSI of 1.5, it means that on a 10,000 sq mt plot, the construction
can be up to 15,000 sq m, thus allowing it to go vertical.
❖ The aim is to rationalise FSI. Cities have a choice of going up or spreading out; the only way to decongest
urban sprawls is by letting buildings go higher. Once the panel drafts its report, there will be wider
consultations.
❖ The decision is based on a 2017 NITI Aayog report that said that paucity of land can be “countered by
expanding space vertically through the construction of taller buildings”.
❖ It said that the permitted FSI in Indian cities is low—in the range of 1 to 1.5.
❖ The report also noted that when cities have allowed high-rise buildings in the recent past, it has usually done
so in the peripheral regions rather than in the centre of the city. “The result is a shortage of space in the
central business district, which is then reserved for commercial use only.
❖ With residential units thus pushed exclusively to the periphery, this FSI pattern leads to heavy burden on
the transportation system,” the report states, adding that Delhi is a case in point.
❖ The NITI Aayog report also compares the cases of Mumbai and Shanghai to illustrate how the latter, through
a liberal FSI regime, created more per capita space.
❖ Real estate groups, including the Confederation of Real Estate Developers Association of India (CREDAI),
have been making a case for easing of FSI restriction citing the example of cities such as New York,
Chicago, and Tokyo which exceed the average FSI of Indian cities by 12 to 20 times.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 18
Slums and Migration
 2

Slums and Migration

Slums:
❖ Slum is a contiguous settlement where inhabitants are characterized by having inadequate housing and
basic services.
❖ According to the Cities Alliance Action Plan, Slum is described as a neglected part of the city where the
housing and living conditions are appallingly poor.
❖ According to the 2011 census, slums are residential areas where dwelling areas are unfair for human
habitation by reasons of dilapidation (Housing in the state of decay), overcrowding, faulty
arrangements, and designs of buildings and streets, where there is a lack of lights, ventilation, water
supply or sanitation facilities or any combination of these factors which are detrimental to safely and
health.
❖ It is to be noted that the slum is an inhabitable part of modern urbanization and the urban poor are
active agents serving the non-slum dwellers and contributing to economic growth.

Note:
❖ How to approach the answer:
❖ For example: Q. Give account to the factors driving people to migrate from the countryside to urban areas,
even if it entails living in slums.
❖ Introduction: You need to define Migration (Identify the subject, and subject is migration).
❖ Body: Discuss the factors driving people to migrate from the countryside to urban areas, and you need to
explain Slum (The orientation of topic is factors of migration, then explain the slum).
❖ Conclusion: Conclude with a way forward.

Note:
❖ The living conditions in slums are appallingly poor/detrementatal.
❖ The living conditions of Non Slums dwellers are relatively decent.
❖ Slum people are active agents serving non-slum dwellers and contributing to economic growth in Non
Slums dwellers, but this economic growth’s impact does not trickle down on Slums because of Cheap
labour.
❖ More than 65 million people are in slums, and 13.7 million households are in slums.
❖ Slums are in 65% of Indian cities.

Additional Informatioon: ‘Key Indicators of Urban Slums’ (PIB Report)

NUMBER OF SLUMS
❖ The number of slums has reduced from 51,688 to 33,510 as per 58th and 69th round Survey of
 3

National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) on urban slums in 2002 and 2012 respectively.
❖ A total of 33,510 slums were estimated to be present in the urban areas of India. About 41% of these
were notified and 59% non-notified. (Annex-I).
❖ Maharashtra, with an estimated 7723 slums, accounted for about 23% of all slums in urban India,
followed by Andhra Pradesh, accounting for 13.5%, and West Bengal, which had a share of about
12%.

Reasons for Slum:

❖ Migration: Rural to urban migration of people is very high.
❖ Lack of Planning: Poor housing planning in the cities
❖ Non Profitability: People who work in informal economy do not get much profit, therefore people live in
slum areas
❖ Lack of availability of land: Lack of availability of urban land to build good houses
❖ Regulatory constraints/Hurdles: Regulatory constraints and delay or postponement of tasks in urban
areas to convert the slum into better area
❖ Security Issues: Security issues in the country result in the formation of slums in nearby areas so people
can stay there securely.
❖ Natural Disasters: Natural disasters lead to the rehabilitation of people and lead to the creation of slums
❖ Corruption: Corruption and leakages in rehabilitation and redistribution of lands to underprivileged
persons leading to uneven distribution of land.
Impacts of Slums:
❖ Basic Services: Lack of basic service amenities provided in slums.
❖ Housing: Substandard housing in slums.
❖ Safety Issues.
❖ Crowd: Overcrowding of people and houses in the areas of slums.
❖ Living: Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous conditions are present in slums.
❖ Barriers to development: Slums are barriers to human and social development.
❖ Poverty: They can also lead to the perpetuation of poverty and sometimes inter-generational poverty.
❖ Crime: Slums are the location for crimes.
❖ Gender Discrimination: Gender discrimination and gender violence in slums is common.
❖ Social Exclusion and Social Condemnation: Slum people are more likely to face social exclusion.
Way forward:
❖ Rural developments like Infrastructure development, Economic opportunities beyond agriculture (Like
MSMEs), Education, Health etc.
❖ Looking beyond megacities like Industrial growth and getting opportunities a greater access to affordable
housing.
❖ Improved Industrialization especially in manufacturing sectors.
 4

❖ Redesigning and redevelopment of slums, which can be grading and continuous upgrading of slum areas,
❖ Improve governance and political will.

Additional Information: Slums and its welfare

❖ Land is State subjects. The schemes related to housing including rehabilitation of slum dwellers are
implemented by Sates/ Union Territories (UTs).
➢ However, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs is supplementing the efforts of State/ UT by
providing Central Assistance under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U) for
construction of houses for all eligible families/ beneficiaries including slum dwellers.
❖ Public health and sanitation are State subjects. The primary responsibility of strengthening public health
and sanitation in all urban areas including slums lies with the respective State/UT Governments.
➢ However, the Central Government supplements the efforts of States/UTs through various
programmatic interventions including Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT), Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM), National Health Mission (NHM) for
augmenting and improving the sanitation and public health facilities for urban poor in the country
including slum areas.
Source: PIB Reports

Migration:
❖ Migration is a form of geographical or spatial movement from one geographic unit to another, generally
involving a change in residence and departure from one place leading to arrival at the destination place.
❖ Migration in a social sense refers to the physical transition of an individual or group from one society to
another; this transition usually involves abandoning one social setting and entering another and a different
one.
Different Forms of Migration:
❖ Internal Migration: Internal migration refers to migration from one place to another within a country.
➢ Internal migration is categorized into migration and outmigration. These are used only in connection
with internal migration.
➢ ‘In migration’ refers to migration into a particular area, and ‘Out migration’ refers to movements out
of a particular area.
➢ Therefore, we understand that in-migration is the term used with reference to the area of destination of
the migrants, and out-migration is used with reference to the area of origin and place of departure of
the migrants.
➢ For example, migrants who come from Bihar or Uttar Pradesh to Punjab are considered to be in-
migrants for Punjab and out-migrants for Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
❖ External migration: External migration, or International migration refers to migration from one country to
another.
➢ External migration can be categorized into Immigration and Emigration.
✓ Immigration: It refers to migration into a country from another country.
 5

✓ Emigration: It refers to migration out of the country.

❖ The migration pattern is increasingly reflected in the internal divide in the country.

Additional Information:
❖ As per the Report Migration in India, 2020-21, based on Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
2020-21, released by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), the total
migration rate in India was 28.9% and in rural was 26.5%.
❖ Out of the total migrant persons, around 10.8% persons were migrated due to employment related
reasons. The employment related reasons include in search of employment/better employment, for
employment/ work (to take up employment/ to take up better employment/ business/ proximity to
place of work/ transfer) and loss of job/closure of unit/lack of employment opportunities.
Source: PIB Reports

Factors Causing Migration:

❖ Economic and Demographic Factors: Economic reasons are the main driving forces behind migration.
Low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment, and underemployment are fundamental factors in
developing countries that drive migrants to developed regions with more job opportunities. The fundamental
economic drivers of migration can be further divided into "Push Factors'' and "Pull Factors." For instance:
➢ Push Factor: People from Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, and other Indian states have migrated to Surat,
Mumbai, and Delhi NCR in search of better employment opportunities
➢ Pull Factors: After the liberalization of trade, industries in Bengaluru, Pune, Chennai, etc., lured many
skilled workers to these cities.
❖ Rural-Urban Divide: The urban transition is characterized in large part by rural-urban migration.
Urbanization rates influence rural-urban wage disparities.
❖ Life Style: Migration also correlates with close cultural ties, cultural diversity, high vitality, and individual
attitudes.
❖ Infrastructure Divide: Many infrastructural challenges in rural areas lead to people migrating to urban
areas.
❖ Rise of the Service Sector: Improved communication tools like transportation, social media, OTT, movies,
technology, and urban-focused education, employment opportunities, and the resulting shift in attitudes and
values support migration.
❖ Education: People move to urban areas in search of better academic opportunities. Approximately 1.77
percent of people in the 2011 census moved away for education purposes.
❖ Security Related Issues: Some migrants are compelled to relocate from rural to urban areas because of
security reasons. Example: Labourers from the Naxal-affected regions.
❖ Traditional Structure of Indian Institutions: Migration is also correlated with close cultural ties, cultural
diversity, high vitality, and individual attitudes
 6

❖ Environmental and disaster-induced factors: A natural disaster that might have destroyed their homes and
farms has forced some migrants to relocate from rural to urban areas. Example: Kosi flood in North Bihar,
Cyclones in Odisha and West Bengal, etc.
❖ Hardships of Rural Life: It is not just physical but also social, like caste discrimination and bonded labour.

Additional Information: Migrants And Their Welfare

There exist several social security and welfare schemes for workers including migrant workers. Some of the
prominent schemes are as follows:
❖ Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY) and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
(PMSBY) launched in 2015 provide for life & disability cover due to natural or accidental death.
❖ PradhanMantriShram Yogi Man Dhan Pension Scheme (PM-SYM) launched in 2019 provides for old
age social security in the form of monthly pension.
❖ Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) launched in 2018 provides Rs.5 lakh
health coverage for secondary and tertiary health benefits to those migrant workers who are covered as
eligible beneficiaries as per deprivation and occupation criteria.
❖ PM-SVANidhi Scheme facilitates collateral free working capital loan of upto Rs.10,000/- for one-year
tenure to street vendors.
❖ Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana caters to the housing needs of all eligible beneficiaries.
❖ Under the provisions of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948, both the Central and the State Governments
are appropriate Governments to fix, review and revise the minimum wages of the employees
employed in the Scheduled employments including Migrant labourers under their respective
jurisdictions.
❖ Under the Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act,
1979, an Inter-State migrant workmen shall in no case be paid less than the wages fixed under the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948 (41 of 1948).
❖ In order to safeguard the interests of the migrant workers, the Central Government had enacted the Inter-
state Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1979. This Act
has now been subsumed in the Occupational Safety, Health and the Working Conditions (OSH) Code.
❖ The OSH Code provides for decent working conditions, minimum wages, grievance redressal
mechanisms, protection from abuse and exploitation, enhancement of skills and social security to all
categories of workers including migrant workers.
Source: PIB Reports

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 19
Women Issues
 2

Women Issues
Challenges of Migrant Workers:
❖ Discrepancies in Informal Economy: Workers will face many problems in informal sector jobs such as there
being no social security facilities, risk of getting fired, no pension, long working hours, insanitary working
conditions, low wages, etc.
❖ Victim of Conflicts and Violence: Many conflicts happen in the work sites due to regional discrimination,
which can even lead to conflict and violence and even murders, etc.
❖ Issue of Identification Document: Many migrant workers don't have any identification documents, so it will
also be an issue of national security without knowing exactly who those migrants are.
❖ Lack of Accessibility to Welfare Schemes: Immigration can strain public services and infrastructure, making
it difficult to access welfare
schemes, particularly in areas with
high concentrations of migrants.
❖ Increased Slum Areas: Mass
Migration results in an increase in
slum areas, which lack basic
amenities and hygiene.
❖ Health and Sanitation Issue:
Increase in the number of slums
leads to many Health and Sanitation
Issues in society.
❖ Political Exclusion: Migrant
workers are having difficulty in
exercising their political rights, such as the right to vote.
❖ Education: Less accessibility of education for children of the migrant workers.
❖ Psychological and Emotional Stress: Illegal or irregular migration can lead to exploitation and human rights
abuses, including trafficking and forced labour.

Way Forward:
❖ Targeted approach or policy framework.
❖ Fill the research gap.
❖ Institutional capacity building (Migrant labour cell).
➢ Formation of Inter-district and intra-district coordination committee.
❖ Awareness and sensitization of challenges (Police machinery and population, and regulation).
❖ National level security schemes, especially for informal workers.
❖ Special outreach strategy within public and government policies. For example: One nation one Ration.
❖ Doing away with regional developmental imbalance
❖ Village economy (Agriculture sector) development.
❖ Improve education and physical infrastructure in rural areas.
 3

❖ Enhancing security for the migrant population

❖ Greater will towards political inclusion of migrant population.
❖ Digitalization of underdeveloped regions and provide digital education too.

Note:
❖ In the Evaluation question, you can also add new dimensions now, like post pandemic in Society,
Governance, Disaster Management, Social Justice, and the Indian Economy.
Reverse Migration:
❖ Reverse migration is the movement of people back to their place of origin or a prior residence, often driven
by economic, social, or personal factors.
Causes:
❖ Economic crisis
❖ Ritual tug (Tug means To pull or drag something using force)
❖ Spread the misinformation
Old Middle class are small businessmen and rural landlords, but the new middle class are Rich or you can say,
increasing economic capacity on a basic scale.

Women Issues:
Facts and Figures:
❖ According to the World
Economic Forum’s Global
Gender Gap Index of 2022, India
was ranked 135 out of 146
countries. In 2021, India slipped
28 places and was ranked 140th
among the 156 countries
participating in the index.
❖ When you reflect on India's Gender Gap, according to Oxfam Poverty Report, women are paid 34% less
than men for the same work

Note:
❖ Sex is a natural phenomenon (biological phenomenon), but Gender is a social concept.
❖ Expected role, expected behaviours, and expected cultures create Gender differentiation.
❖ Male culture developed around Masculinity, and Female culture developed around feminine value.
❖ Gender is a form of stratification.
❖ Patriarchal Society: A patriarchal society is a social system where men hold primary power, dominating
roles, and decision-making authority, while women are often subordinated, facing gender-based
discrimination and unequal opportunities.
 4

Additional Information: Gender Gap In Numbers

❖ Female labour-force participation rate has increased to 25.1 per cent in 2020-21 from 18.6 per
cent in 2018-19, according to the Economic Survey 2022-23
❖ According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey’s 2020-21 Annual Report, the labour force
participation rate among Indian women is just 23.15 percent, compared with 57.75 percent for men.
❖ Likewise, the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 2019-21 revealed that only 25.2 percent of
the women had a job, while 74.8 percent of the men surveyed had been employed.
❖ Even in technology roles, women earn 29 percent less than men, with the gap being even wider at
the senior management level, according to a study by the National Association of Software and
Services Companies.
❖ According to government data, women account for less than 10 percent of judges in High Courts.
❖ Men earn 82 percent of the labour income in India, women earn only 18 percent of it, according to
the World Inequality Report 2022.
Source: Frontline, The Hindu

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 20
Women Issues (Part 02)
 2

Women Issues (Part 02)

Women Issues:
Facts and Figures:
❖ According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index of 2022, India was ranked at 135
out of 146 countries. In 2021, India slipped 28 places and was ranked 140th among 156 countries
participating in the index, However, the 2023 Global Gender Gap index report marks improvement in India’s
ranking from 135 to 127, however, it is to be noted that there is still scope of improvement as countries like
Bangladesh are placed at 59.
❖ When you reflect on India's Gender Gap, according to the Oxfam Poverty Report, women are paid 34%
less than men for the same work.
❖ According to the ADP institute, the income of women in India is only 1/5th of that of men.
❖ Oxfam Report 2020 highlights that in the year 2020, women in India collectively lost 59.11 lakh crore in
earnings in India.
❖ According to the International Labour Organization, the female labor force participation rate is falling
steeply in the last two decades, from 30.5% in 2000 to 21.1% in 2019 and 18.6% in 2020. In fact, India
ranks 121 in 131 countries on female labor force participation.
❖ According to National Family Health Survey-5, half of the women and children are anemic in 13 of the
22 states and union territories.
❖ According to the National Family Health Survey-4, the prevalence of anaemia among women from 15 to
49 years is 53% and adolescent girls aged from 15 to 19 is 54%.
❖ Data from the National Commission of Women highlighted that crime against women in the year 2021
increased by 30% in 2021.
❖ The National Crime Report Bureau report of 2020, highlighted that there is a 7.3% increase in crime
against women in comparison to 2018. It also highlighted that on average there were 77 rape cases daily
against women in 2020.
❖ The Economic Survey of 2020, showed that 97.5% of women enterprises are in the micro sector and
National Statistical Offices’s data on women highlighted that women entrepreneurship accounted only for
20% of all MSMEs.
❖ NASSCOM data on women highlights that only 9% of women are startup founders.
❖ In the last 75 years, women’s representation in Lok Sabha has not even increased by 10%.
➢ In the 17th Lok Sabha, Women’s representation has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to
15% in the current Lok Sabha (Highest Representation).
➢ Currently, 15% of Lok Sabha MPs and 13% of Rajya Sabha MPs are women.
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Note:
❖ Status means special position in society, and according to society position, there will be expected behaviour
defined.
❖ Society gave women an affective emotional role, that is why there were various movement women occur.
❖ Women Movements make continuous efforts to enhance the role and status of women in society.
❖ Glass Ceiling: Invisible barrier limiting women and minority progress, hindering their advancement to top
positions in the workplace.
❖ Pink Collerization: Trend of women dominating service and caregiving jobs, often paying less, due to
gender stereotypes and societal expectations.
❖ Women Reservation Bill: Proposes 1/3rd reservation for women in Lok Sabha, SLAs and the
Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
➢ For example women's representation in Rwanda is 61%, in Cuba it is 53%, in Bangladesh it is 21%,
and in Pakistan it is 20%.
➢ Concerns of this bill: This bill comes across as a Post Dated Check.
❖ India is not just supposed to be a Political Democracy, but we are also committed to be a Social
Democracy.

There is some laws regarding to women:

❖ Special Marriages Act, 1954: The groom must be at least 21 years old; the bride must be at least 18 years
old.
❖ Hindu succession Act: Equal share in ancestral property(after 2005 amendment).
❖ SITA Act, 1956: Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act (SITA) was passed in 1956 for the prohibition of human
trafficking.
❖ Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
➢ Dowry is modern sati by M.N.Srinivas.
❖ Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: It is prohibited for any individual to produce,
facilitate the production of, or participate in the dissemination or display of any advertisement featuring
indecent portrayals of women in any manner.
❖ Domestic Violence Act, 2005: The Domestic Violence Act, 2005, is an Indian law that was enacted to provide
legal protection to individuals, primarily women, who are victims of domestic violence.
❖ Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013: The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act of 2013 was enacted in
response to the heinous incident known as the Nirbhaya case, where a female student was subjected to a gang
rape in December 2012.
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Additional Information: Constitutional Law and Other Statutory Provisions

Right to equality
❖ Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality to all citizens, regardless of their
gender.
Right to education
❖ The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, makes it mandatory for all
children, including girls, between the ages of 6 and 14 to receive education.
Right to work
❖ The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, ensures that men and women receive equal pay for the same work.
❖ Right against sexual harassment
❖ The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act,
2013, provides a framework for addressing complaints of sexual harassment at the workplace.
Right to property
❖ The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, was amended in 2005 to give equal inheritance rights to daughters in
Hindu families.
Right to marriage and divorce
❖ The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, gives women the right to seek divorce on various grounds, including
cruelty and adultery.
Right to health
❖ The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, provides women with paid maternity leave and other benefits during
pregnancy and childbirth.

Issues Related to Women:

❖ Female foeticide and infanticide
❖ Acid throwing, Rape, sexual harassment, honour killing, eve teasing and abuse.
❖ Domestic violence and dowry deaths
❖ Prostitution.
❖ Objectification and Commodification of women.
❖ Cyber crime/abuse (Like high suicide rate-there are two types of suicide like anomic suicide and fatalistic
suicide).
❖ Child Marriage.
❖ Women's status compared to men is lower in society.
❖ Widows and divorced women generally face hardships in society.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 21
Women Issues (Part 03)
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Women Issues (Part 03)

Suggestions to Reduce Women's Issues:
❖ Promoting societal awareness of gender issues and women’s human rights
❖ Ensuring value-based education and Review of curriculum and education material to include gender
education, sex education, and removal of prejudices associated with gender Therefore, it is important that
gender sensitization be practised at the school level.
❖ Removal of all derogatory references to the dignity of all women from all publicly available documents and
legal instruments
❖ There should be the use of different forms of mass media to communicate social messages related to
women’s equality and empowerment. along with it mass media should be used to develop the discussion which
is necessary in society in relation to improving women's positions. Mass media can also be used to celebrate
the women heroes of the Nation and should be used effectively in shaping the mindset of society regarding
women empowerment.
❖ The Panchayat Raj Institutions, Urban local bodies, SHGs, Anganwadis, and Local Self Governments
should be actively involved in the implementation and execution of National Policy for women at the
grassroots level.
❖ Involvement of voluntary organisations, associations, federations, trade unions, NGOs, NPOs, CSOs,
SHGs, Women's organizations as well as institutions dealing with education, training, and research, should
be ensured in the formulation, implementation, monitoring, and review of all policies and programmes
affecting women.
❖ It should ensure that various platforms portray images of girls and women with human dignity.
❖ This policy should specifically strive to remove demining, degrading, and negative conventional
stereotypical images of women and violence against women.
❖ All legislation empowering women should be strictly enforced.
❖ Provide appropriate government intervention through policies for health, education, security, economy, and
opportunity.
Women Empowerment:
Forms of Women Empowerment:
❖ Social Empowerment of Women: This includes the promotion of gender equality. Gender equality implies
a society in which all genders enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres
of life.
❖ Educational Empowerment: It means empowering women with the knowledge, skills, and self-confidence
necessary to participate fully in the development process, it means making women aware of their rights and
developing a confidence to claim economic empowerment.
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❖ Economic and Occupational Empowerment: It implies accessibility of a better quality of material life
through sustainable livelihood owned and managed by women. In fact, there is a need for reducing their
financial dependence on their male counterparts by making them a significant part of human resources.
❖ Legal Women Empowerment: It suggests the provision of an effective legal structure that is supportive of
women's empowerment. It means addressing the gap between what the law describes and what actually
occurs in society.
❖ Political Empowerment: It means the existence of a political system favoring the participation and control
of women in the decision-making process and governance.
Domestic Violence and Women:
❖ According to the NFHS Report, 37% of women face domestic violence.
❖ Brutal force used to suppress and exploit women in Indian society.
❖ Reasons for Domestic Violence:
➢ Women identified lapses in fulfilling responsibilities
➢ Lower level of education.
➢ Traditional gender roles
➢ Control over sexuality
➢ Dissatisfaction with the amount of dowries
➢ Male counterpart unemployment
❖ Impacts of Domestic Violence:
➢ Indirect Cost: Effect on the children’s mind in the house and it affects the future of our society (impacts
on the child’s wellbeing, causes mental trauma, etc.). It can also impact on women like suicide, anxiety,
etc.
➢ Direct Cost: Low income, Less productivity, healthcare cost, and household cost.
Way Forward:
❖ Responses to domestic violence is a need to address the issue of the accessibility of violence as a feature of
gender relations in marital homes. Unless the norms of accessibility were broken, women will continue to
experience physical and psychological violence.
❖ Greater access to economic resources and education are important pre-conditions for women to have greater
options in negotiating conflict within the marriage.
❖ The site of the first response to violence, which includes the number of marital families, neighbours, co-
workers, and social community groups, must be strengthened.
❖ All legislation should be strictly enforced, and police missionaries should be sensitised.
❖ Community responses should be grounded in the human rights framework to ensure every woman's freedom
from violence.
❖ Responsible use of domestic violence law by women
❖ Involvement of voluntary organisations, associations, NGOs, CSOs, SHGs, and women's organisations
like Bell Bajao Abhiyan , Gulabi Gang, etc.
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Covid-19 and Women:

❖ Covid-19 amplifies gender inequality in India.
❖ Feminization of agriculture pattern was reversed and it cause loss of jobs.
❖ The pandemic exacerbated the gender pay gap, with women, particularly women of color, earning less than
men for similar work. This gap widens due to interruptions in women's careers.
❖ Covid-19 increasing feminization of poverty.
❖ Digital Divide: The pandemic highlighted disparities in access to technology. Women in underprivileged
communities might have struggled to participate in online work or education, limiting their job
opportunities.
SHG and Women:
❖ SHGs play a great role in eradicating poverty among women, especially in rural areas.
❖ Impact of SHG on women:
➢ socioeconomic empowerment.
➢ It has helped women gain more control over decision making at households.
➢ It provides financial autonomy.
➢ Increase participation in community driven programmes, be self employed , and enhance saving spirit.
❖ Scope for further improvements to help women:
➢ Proper capacity building, training, and skill development
➢ Properly provide ratings, categorizations, and classifications of SHGs.
➢ Increase women's participation in SHGs and government programmes.
➢ Provide technical help to SHGs.
Women centric Movements:
❖ Anti Dowry Movements for women's rights like Dahej Vidrohi Chetna March
❖ Role of women in ecological movements like Chipko movements, Narmada Bachao Andolan.
❖ Anti Rape movements
Justice Verma Committee Report:
❖ Justice Verma Committee Report was constituted to recommend the amendments to criminal law so as to
provide for quicker trials and enhanced punishments for criminals accused for committing sexual assault
against women. It made recommendations on laws related to rape, sexual harassments, trafficking, child
sexual abuse, medical examination of victims, police reforms, electoral and educational reforms.
❖ Some of the recommendations of the committees are as follows.
➢ It sought comprehensive amendments to criminal law seeking 20 years of imprisonment for gang rape
and life term for rape and murder.
➢ To implement police reforms to provide them with better autonomy for better functioning of the police
force.
➢ An officer who does not report an FIR or delays it in a rape case must be punished.
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➢ It had framed a protocol for medical examination of a rape victims.

➢ The government should tackle the issue of trafficking of children, and it should also maintain data on
the same.
➢ The justice verma committee also recommended that all marriages in India should be registered
mandatorily in the presence of a magistrate who would ensure that no dowry is taken for marriage.
➢ It also recommended to make marital rape a punishable offence.
➢ The committee also recommended that the offence of sexual assault be defined so as to include all forms
of non consensual, non penetrative touching of sexual nature.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 22
Women Issues and Child Issues
Issues.
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Women Issues and Child Issues.

Poverty and Women:
❖ According to Oxfam Report, 2020
➢ Burden of poverty weighs down heavier on girls and women in India.
➢ It advocates equal pay for equal work. But in India, women get 34% less wage than their male
counterparts.
➢ Financially top 20% of Indian families women are having on an average of 9 years of education in
India.
➢ Women are doing an average of 5 years of unpaid care work, but males are doing only 1.5 years of
unpaid care work. This causes time poverty for women.
❖ Feminization of Poverty:
➢ The number of female poor outnumbers the number of male poor.
➢ Reasons:
✓ Socio-Cultural Factors:
▪ Right to Inheritance: In many cultures, women have limited or no rights to inherit property
or assets, leaving them economically vulnerable.
▪ Purdah System: The purdah system, which enforces the seclusion of women, can restrict their
access to economic opportunities and social interactions.
▪ Reproduction: Women's roles in reproduction and caregiving can limit their ability to
participate in the workforce, resulting in economic disparities.
✓ Accessibility Issues:
▪ Economic Opportunity: Women may have limited access to economic opportunities,
including well-paying jobs and entrepreneurship, leading to economic disadvantages.
▪ Concentration on Low-Paying Jobs: Many women are concentrated in low-paying and
informal sectors, which often lack job security and benefits.
▪ Unpaid Care Work: The burden of unpaid caregiving and household chores can limit
women's ability to engage in paid work, further exacerbating poverty.
✓ Social Infrastructure:
▪ Health and Education: Unequal access to healthcare and education can have long-term
economic consequences for women, affecting their employability and overall well-being.
✓ Political Infrastructure:
▪ Policy and Decision Making: Gender-biased policies and the underrepresentation of women
in decision-making positions can perpetuate economic inequalities.
✓ Womens in Society:
▪ Segregated: Women are often segregated into certain industries or roles, limiting their access
to diverse economic opportunities.
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▪ Marginalized: Gender-based discrimination and marginalization can result in lower wages

and fewer opportunities for women, contributing to poverty.
Draft National Policy for Women, 2016:
❖ Health:
➢ The National Policy for Women, 2016, recognizes the importance of addressing women's health issues
comprehensively.
➢ It encompasses not only physical health but also mental, emotional, and social well-being.
➢ The policy aims to improve access to healthcare services, enhance the quality of care, and ensure that
women have control over their reproductive health.
➢ It emphasizes the need for programmes related to maternal and child health, family planning, and
nutrition.
➢ By focusing on women's health, the policy seeks to reduce maternal and infant mortality rates, improve
the general health status of women, and provide better access to healthcare, ultimately ensuring that
women have the opportunity to lead healthy lives.
❖ Education:
➢ The National Policy for Women, 2016, acknowledges that access to quality education is a fundamental
right.
➢ It emphasises the importance of ensuring that girls and women have equal access to educational
opportunities at all levels.
➢ This includes not only basic literacy but also higher education, vocational training, and skill
development.
➢ The policy aims to address issues like female literacy, dropout rates, and retention in schools.
➢ It envisions a society where girls and women have equal access to knowledge, skills, and information,
which is essential for their socio-economic development and active participation in all aspects of life,
including decision-making.
❖ Economic:
➢ Economic empowerment is a key focus of the National Policy for Women.
➢ It aims to provide women with equal economic opportunities and eliminate disparities in income and
employment.
➢ The policy promotes skill development and entrepreneurship among women, enabling them to access
better job opportunities and engage in income-generating activities.
➢ It also emphasizes adherence to the Vishakha Guidelines to prevent sexual harassment at workplaces,
creating a safe environment for working women.
➢ Additionally, the policy highlights the importance of maternity benefits and leave entitlements for
women, ensuring that they can balance their work and family responsibilities.
➢ By addressing economic disparities, the policy seeks to enhance the financial independence and overall
socio-economic status of women.
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❖ Governance and Decision Making:

➢ The National Policy for Women, 2016, recognises the need to empower women to participate actively in
governance at all levels.
➢ This includes their involvement in political leadership, decision-making bodies, and community
organisations.
➢ The policy aims to increase the representation of women in elected offices and leadership positions.
➢ It also emphasizes the importance of ensuring that women have a say in shaping policies and programs
that affect their lives.
➢ By addressing gender disparities in governance and decision-making, the policy envisions a society
where women have an equal voice and can influence the direction of social change, thereby promoting
their overall empowerment.
Violence Against Women:
❖ Life Cycle Approach: A life cycle approach to combating violence against women recognizes that women
may face different forms of violence and vulnerabilities at various stages of their lives, from childhood to old
age.
❖ This approach focuses on tailoring interventions to meet the unique needs of women at different life stages.
➢ Childhood: Protecting girls from child marriage, female genital mutilation, and early forms of violence
➢ Adolescence: Addressing issues related to dating violence, bullying, and sexual harassment in schools
➢ Reproductive Age: Combating gender-based violence in intimate partner relationships, including
physical, emotional, and economic abuse
➢ Motherhood: Addressing violence during pregnancy and ensuring access to maternal healthcare
➢ Elderly Age: Protecting older women from abuse and neglect in caregiving settings.
❖ Gender Parity and Mass Media: Mass media plays a pivotal role in shaping societal perceptions and
attitudes towards violence against women.
➢ Achieving gender parity in media, both in terms of representation and content, is essential to combating
stereotypes and harmful narratives that perpetuate violence.
✓ Representation: encouraging equal representation of women in media, including leadership roles,
to challenge gender bias.
✓ Content: Promoting positive and non-stereotypical portrayals of women in the media to counteract
harmful stereotypes.
✓ Media Literacy: Promoting media literacy and critical thinking to help individuals understand and
challenge biased media content.
❖ Environmental and Climate Change: Environmental and climate change factors can intersect with
violence against women in complex ways.
➢ As natural disasters and climate change-related events become more frequent, women are often
disproportionately affected due to their social and economic vulnerabilities.
➢ This can result in an increased risk of violence and exploitation.
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➢ Displacement: Women may face violence in the aftermath of disasters or when they are internally or
externally displaced.
➢ Resource Scarcity: Competition for limited resources in times of environmental stress can lead to
conflicts, including gender-based violence.
➢ Livelihood Loss: Climate change can disrupt livelihoods, affecting women's economic stability and
potentially increasing their vulnerability to exploitation.

NOTE:
❖ PCPNDT Act, 1994 (Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act):
➢ The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994, is a legal framework
enacted in India to regulate and curb the misuse of technologies that could lead to the selective
abortion of female fetuses, thereby addressing the issue of female feticide.
➢ It was introduced in response to the alarming decline in the sex ratio and the growing practice of
gender-based sex selection, which was contributing to a significant gender imbalance in the country.
➢ Key Provisions:
✓ Banning the use of pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic techniques for determining the sex of
the fetus.
✓ Regulating the sale, distribution, and use of ultrasound machines and other diagnostic equipment.
✓ Imposing penalties and legal action against healthcare professionals and individuals found
involved in sex determination or female feticide.
✓ Encouraging the registration of all diagnostic centers and clinics that offer prenatal services.
❖ DVA, 2005 (Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act):
➢ The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, is a significant legislation in India
designed to provide legal protection and support to women who are victims of domestic violence.
➢ This law recognizes the prevalence of violence against women within domestic settings and seeks to
address their unique needs and vulnerabilities.
➢ Key provision:
✓ Defining various forms of domestic violence, including physical, emotional, economic, and sexual
abuse.
✓ Granting women the right to seek protection and relief orders, such as protection orders, residence
orders, and monetary relief orders, from the court.
✓ Imposing legal obligations on the police and the judiciary to assist and provide remedies to
victims of domestic violence.
✓ Recognizing the right to reside in a shared household, irrespective of ownership, and protecting
women from being dispossessed.
✓ Encouraging the establishment of Protection Officers and Service Providers to assist victims.
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Paradoxical Trends in Women’s Situation in India:

Empowerment
Educational Gains vs. Economic Empowerment
Programs vs.
Gender Gaps vs. Gender Pay Gap
Deep-Seated
Norms

NGO Legal Reforms vs.

Initiatives vs. Gender-Based Violence
Limited Paradoxical Trends in
Reach Women’s Situation in
Political Participation vs.
India
Underrepresentation

Digital
Maternal Mortality
Inclusion vs.
Reduction vs. Gender
Online
Urbanization vs.
Disparities in Healthcare
Harassment
Safety Concerns

Legal Rights vs.

Ineffective
Implementation

❖ India exhibits paradoxical trends in the situation of women, reflecting a complex interplay of progress and
persistent challenges.
➢ Educational Gains vs. Gender Gaps: On one hand, there has been significant progress in women's
education, with increasing enrollment in schools and universities.
✓ However, gender gaps persist, particularly in rural areas, where girls may still face barriers to
accessing quality education.
➢ Economic Empowerment vs. Gender Pay Gap: Women are increasingly participating in the
workforce and making strides in various professions.
✓ Nevertheless, a substantial gender pay gap exists, and women are often concentrated in low-paying
and informal sectors.
➢ Legal Reforms vs. Gender-Based Violence: India has enacted several legal reforms to protect
women's rights, including laws addressing domestic violence, sexual harassment, and dowry-related
crimes.
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✓ Still, gender-based violence remains a pervasive issue, with underreporting and delays in legal
proceedings.
➢ Political Participation vs. Underrepresentation: While women have made inroads in political
participation, with reserved seats in local governments, their representation in national and state
legislatures remains relatively low.
➢ Maternal Mortality Reduction vs. Gender Disparities in Healthcare: India has made progress in
reducing maternal mortality rates, but gender disparities in healthcare persist, impacting women's access
to quality healthcare and leading to issues such as sex-selective abortions.
➢ Legal Rights vs. Ineffective Implementation: India has a strong legal framework to protect women's
rights, yet implementation remains a challenge.
✓ Many women still struggle to access legal remedies and justice due to barriers in the legal system.
➢ Urbanization vs. Safety Concerns: Urbanization has created opportunities for women in the workforce
and access to education.
✓ However, urban areas also witness higher instances of crimes against women, reflecting safety
concerns.
➢ Digital Inclusion vs. Online Harassment: The increasing digital inclusion of women has opened up
economic and educational opportunities.
✓ Nevertheless, it has also exposed them to online harassment and cyberbullying.
➢ NGO Initiatives vs. Limited Reach: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society
initiatives work to empower women and address gender disparities.
✓ However, their reach is often limited, particularly in remote and marginalized areas.
➢ Empowerment Programmes vs. Deep-Seated Norms: Government empowerment programs aim to
uplift women economically and socially.
✓ Yet, deep-seated gender norms and cultural practices continue to restrict women's choices and
opportunities.
❖ These paradoxical trends highlight the complexity of the women's situation in India. While there is progress
in various areas, persistent challenges, deeply rooted societal norms, and gender inequalities necessitate
continued efforts to create a more equitable and inclusive society for women.
Child Issues:
❖ Child Labour:
➢ Children are the future of our country.
➢ According to the International Labour Organization, Child labour can be defined as work that
deprives children of their childhood, deprives their potential, dignity and hinders their mental and
physical development.
➢ It is any work that is physically, mentally, socially, and morally dangerous and harmful to children.
➢ Child labour also refers to any of those jobs whose schedule interferes with a child's ability to attend
regular schooling and experience healthy childhood.
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❖ Impact of Child Labour:

➢ Child labour leads to Negative socialization, that occurs due to child labour of a child which hampers
their cognitive behavioural and emotional well-being.
➢ Child labour deprives the child of their childhood, and it not only denies the right to education but a
child left with little or no time to play.
➢ Working in hazardous conditions threatens the mental and physical health of a child.
➢ This also impacts the socio-economic development of the country and negatively impacts future
demography dividends.
➢ The rising use of child pornography, child sexual abuse and drug addiction are highly related to
child labour and its associated work culture.
➢ Overall it impacts all the dimensions of the welfare of the state in a negative way, something which is
contradictory to constitutional provisions.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 23
Child Issues
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Child Issues
Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986:
❖ It prohibits the employment of children in certain hazardous occupations.
❖ It provides regulations for employment conditions.
❖ The act gave the definition of a child: A child is one who has not attained 14 years of age.
Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 2016:
❖ A child is one who has not attained 14 years of age.
❖ It defines an adolescent as one who is between the ages of 14 years to 18 years of age.
❖ This act prohibited a child from employment in any kind of work.
❖ This act prohibited an adolescent from employment in hazardous occupations.
Suggestive Measures to Prevent Child Labour:
❖ IEC Approach (Inform, Educate and Communicate): IES approach should be adopted to change the
existing mindset of society so that the value of education rather than a money-making activity culminates in a
child.
❖ Proper implementation and enforcement of child-related schemes and Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act, 1016 along with other legal provisions.
❖ Stricter punishment for one who employs or encourages child labour.
❖ There should be an improvement in educational infrastructure.
❖ Ensuring access to educational institutions and improvement in quality and relevance in education.
❖ Awareness raising and mobilization of families and communities against the exploitation of children.
❖ Social protection programmes and cash transfers to improve the economic situation of families and to
reduce the need for children to work.
❖ Coordinated action required between government departments to combat the problem of child labour.
❖ Heroes like Kailash Satyarthi and his initiatives like Bachpan Bachao should be celebrated in society.
❖ The NGO, Academia and Industry partnerships shall be made so that by taking education a child becomes
employable.
Child Abuse:
❖ According to UNICEF, the violence against children could be physical and mental abuse or injury, negligent
treatment, exploitation and sexual abuse.
❖ According to NCRB data of 2015, there are 8800 cases of rape among children in 2015
➢ The biggest culprits (35%) are neighbors.
➢ Over 10% of children were raped by their own family members.
➢ In 94% of cases, children were raped by someone known.
Impacts of Child Abuse:
❖ Child abuse hampers the growth of children
❖ Children face physical, mental, emotional and psychological trauma
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❖ It creates a sense of fear.

❖ Xenophobic tendencies will develop in the children
❖ Lack of confidence in children will grow
❖ This hinders children's personal development
❖ Behavioral changes start in children
The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences or POCSO Act, 2012:
❖ POCSO was enacted to protect children from crimes such as sexual assault, sexual harassment and child
pornography.
❖ It also deals with a child-friendly system for the trial of these offenses.
❖ The act is a gender-neutral legislation and it defines a child is as any individual below 18 years of age and
provides protection to all children from sexual abuse.
❖ The act categorically defines sexual abuse as
➢ Penetrative sexual assault
➢ Aggravated penetrative sexual assault
➢ Sexual assault
➢ Aggravated sexual assault
➢ Sexual harassment
➢ Using a child for pornographic purposes
➢ Trafficking of children for sexual purposes
❖ The POCSO act provides for a child-friendly mechanism for reporting, recording of evidence, investigation
and speedy trial for offenses.
❖ The act prides on mandatory reporting of sexual abuse
❖ The act provides for special courts which decide on compensation and rehabilitation of children.
❖ The act prescribes stringent punishment for offenders who commit sexual offenses against children.
Suggestions for Child Abuse:

At the Individual Level At the Family Level At the Societal Level

❖ Awareness: Individuals need to ❖ Open Communication: ❖ Awareness Campaigns: Raise

be aware of the signs and Create an environment where public awareness about child
consequences of child abuse. children feel comfortable abuse through media, schools,
➢ Education and awareness discussing their experiences and community organizations.
campaigns can help. and problems. ❖ Legal Framework: Strengthen
and enforce child protection
laws and ensure that they are
effectively implemented.
 4

❖ Report: If you suspect or ❖ Parenting Education: ❖ Child Helplines: Promote and

witness child abuse, report it to Parents and caregivers support child helplines and
the appropriate authorities. should receive education on crisis intervention services for
➢ In India, you can contact effective parenting, positive abused children.
child helplines or the discipline, and child
police to report abuse development.
cases.

❖ Support: Offer support to the ❖ Support Systems: Families ❖ School Programs: Implement
child if you are in a position to may need access to social anti-abuse education in schools,
do so. support services, counseling, teaching children about their
➢ Encourage them to talk and therapy to address issues rights and how to protect
about their experiences and that contribute to abuse. themselves.
feelings. ❖ Breaking the Cycle: ❖ Community Involvement:
❖ Self-education: Individuals Families should work on Encourage communities to be
should educate themselves breaking the cycle of abuse vigilant and supportive,
about child rights, child by seeking help and therapy ensuring that child abuse is not
protection laws, and available when necessary. tolerated or ignored.
resources. ❖ ❖

Child Marriage:
❖ Child marriage is defined as the marriage of a girl or a boy before the regulated minimum age of marriage,
which is 21 for a boy and 18 for a girl.
➢ It is to be noted that even if one of the partners is below the regulated minimum age of marriage, such a
marriage is called child marriage.
❖ Another important aspect of child marriage is that it refers to both formal marriages and informal unions
in which children under the age of 21 and 18 respectively, live with their partner as if married.
❖ India has one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. According to UNICEF, around 27% of girls
in India are married before the age of 18.
Causes of Child Marriages:
❖ Traditional and Cultural Beliefs: In many societies, child marriage is deeply ingrained in tradition and
culture.
➢ It is seen as a social norm and a way to preserve cultural practises.
❖ Gender Inequality: Gender discrimination and the devaluation of girls can lead to child marriage.
➢ Families may marry off their daughters at a young age due to the belief that girls are a burden and should
be under the control of a husband.
❖ Poverty: Families living in poverty may see child marriage as a way to reduce the financial burden of raising
a daughter.
➢ They may receive a dowry or financial support in exchange for marrying off their child.
 5

❖ Lack of Education: Limited access to education, especially for girls, is a significant factor.
➢ When girls are not educated, their marriage is often seen as a primary role in life, rather than pursuing
their own goals and aspirations.
❖ Economic Factors: Economic incentives, such as dowries or bride prices, can drive child marriages.
➢ Families may marry off their daughters in exchange for financial gain.
❖ Social Pressure: Communities may exert pressure on families to adhere to traditional practices, including
child marriage.
➢ Fear of social stigma or exclusion can lead to these marriages.
❖ Religious Beliefs: In some cases, religious beliefs and interpretations are used to justify child marriage.
➢ This is not true for all religious communities but can be a contributing factor in some cases.
❖ Lack of Legal Enforcement: In some regions, child marriage laws are not adequately enforced, or they may
have loopholes that allow for child marriages to take place without legal consequences.
❖ Conflict and Displacement: In areas affected by conflict or natural disasters, child marriage rates may
increase as families face heightened vulnerabilities and seek to protect their children through marriage.
❖ Safety and Protection: Families may perceive child marriage as a way to protect their daughters from the
risks of premarital sexual relationships, sexual harassment, or trafficking.
Impacts of Child Marriage:
❖ Child marriage leads to an intergenerational cycle of poverty.
➢ A child post-marriage may be placed in the situation of taking responsibility for marriage; however, in
order to do so, a child may have to start working, and such a child lacks the skill, knowledge, and job
prospects to lift their family out of poverty, and all of this pushes them into an intergenerational cycle of
poverty.
❖ The chances of more children over the lifespan increase; therefore, the economic burden of the family also
increases.
❖ Girls involved in child marriages are expected to help with domestic courses and undertake household
responsibilities.
❖ In most cases, the girl children are forced to drop out of school.
❖ In the case of marriage of a girl child with an adult male, where an adult male sexually solemnizes the marriage
with the girl child, may lead to physical as well as mental trauma.
❖ Increase maternal mortality risks.
❖ Increase infant mortality risks
❖ Violation of the rights of children
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act- 2006:
❖ It defines child marriage as an act of marriage of a male less than 21 years and a female less than 18 years of
age or any one of them being less than the prescribed age of marriage.
❖ Children forced into marriage have an option for voiding their marriage after two years after reaching
adulthood.
 6

❖ The act provides for maintenance for female contracting parties.

❖ Children born out of child marriage are considered legitimate children.
❖ Responsibility is laid on the district courts to decide upon the parental custody of the child keeping in mind
the children's best interests.
❖ In the case of an adult male solemnizing the marriage with the girl child, that act recommends severe
punishment of imprisonment and fine.
Way Forward:
❖ Legal Reforms and Enforcement:
➢ Strengthen the enforcement of existing laws and regulations that prohibit child marriage, such as the
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.
➢ Ensure that legal provisions are effectively implemented and that penalties for those who facilitate child
marriages are enforced.
❖ Education and Awareness:
➢ Promote access to quality education, especially for girls, and ensure that schools are safe and supportive
environments.
➢ Implement school-based programs that educate children about the negative consequences of child
marriage and the importance of staying in school.
❖ Empowerment of Girls:
➢ Encourage programs that empower girls with knowledge and life skills, enabling them to make informed
decisions about their lives.
➢ Promote economic and vocational opportunities for girls and young women to enhance their
independence.
❖ Community Engagement:
➢ Engage community leaders, religious leaders, and local influencers to advocate against child marriage
and promote positive social norms.
➢ Conduct awareness campaigns at the grassroots level to change perceptions and attitudes toward child
marriage.
❖ Economic Support: Address economic factors that drive child marriage by implementing poverty alleviation
programs, microfinance initiatives, and skill development opportunities for vulnerable families.
❖ Healthcare and Family Planning: Enhance access to healthcare services, including reproductive and
maternal health care, to provide information and services to families regarding family planning and the health
risks associated with early pregnancies.
❖ Support Systems:
➢ Establish support systems, such as crisis helplines and shelters, for children at risk of or fleeing child
marriage.
➢ Develop counselling services for survivors of child marriage to help them reintegrate into society.
 7

❖ Advocacy and Policy Changes:

➢ Advocate for policy changes and legislative reforms that focus on ending child marriage and addressing
its root causes.
➢ Collaborate with government agencies, NGOs, and international organizations to work together on a
national and regional level.
❖ Media and Technology: Use media and technology for awareness campaigns and to reach a wider audience,
especially in remote areas.
❖ International Cooperation: Collaborate with international organizations such as UNICEF and neighbouring
countries to address cross-border child marriage issues, especially in regions where it is prevalent.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 24
Social Empowerment
 2

Social Empowerment
Social empowerment refers to the process of enabling individuals or communities to gain control over their own
lives, make choices, and exercise influence in social, economic, and political contexts. It involves providing people
with the tools, resources, and opportunities they need to improve their well-being and participate fully in society.
Social empowerment is often seen as a means to address various forms of inequality, discrimination, and
marginalization.
Why is social empowerment needed ?
❖ Reduction of Inequality: Example: In many societies, there are significant economic disparities where a small
portion of the population holds most of the wealth. Social empowerment initiatives, such as access to
education and job training programs for disadvantaged communities, can help reduce income
inequality.
❖ Gender Equality: Example: Women often face discrimination and limited opportunities in many parts of the
world. Social empowerment initiatives can help address this by advocating for and implementing policies that
promote gender equality, such as laws against gender-based violence or programs to promote women's
leadership in various fields.
❖ Enhanced Education: Example: In developing countries, there may be limited access to quality education,
particularly for girls and marginalized communities. Social empowerment initiatives can focus on building
schools, providing scholarships, and promoting equal educational opportunities for all, like the "Girl's
Education" campaign in various regions.
❖ Improved Health Outcomes: Example: In areas with limited access to healthcare, people suffer from
preventable diseases and high mortality rates. Social empowerment programs can involve setting up clinics,
offering health education, and improving healthcare infrastructure, leading to better health outcomes.
❖ Human Rights Protection: Example: In areas with a history of human rights abuses, social empowerment
can include the establishment of human rights organizations, awareness campaigns, and legal aid for victims
to seek justice and protection from abuses.
❖ Cultural Preservation: Example: Indigenous communities around the world may face challenges in
preserving their cultural heritage. Social empowerment initiatives can support these communities in preserving
their languages, traditions, and lands.
❖ Access to Information: Example: In the digital age, access to information is critical for personal and societal
development. Social empowerment efforts can include programs to bridge the digital divide, such as
providing internet access in underserved areas or teaching digital literacy skills to those who lack them.
❖ Social Cohesion: Example: In diverse societies, tensions can arise due to cultural, religious, or ethnic
differences. Social empowerment can promote intercultural dialogue, tolerance, and understanding,
fostering social cohesion and peace.
 3

Problems of Scheduled Caste:

❖ Untouchability: The two-tumbler system is a practice of discrimination against Dalits where Dalits are not
allowed to drink in the same tumblers used by members of caste. Tea store owners maintain separate cups for
Dalits and members of caste. The practice is prevalent in parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
❖ Caste-Based Discrimination: Discrimination and social prejudice based on caste identity continue to be a
pervasive issue. Dalits face discrimination in various aspects of life, including access to public spaces, temples,
and social gatherings.
❖ Limited Access to Quality Education: Dalit children often have limited access to quality education.
Discrimination within schools, a lack of resources, and social prejudices can hinder their educational
opportunities and outcomes.
❖ Economic Exploitation: Many Dalits are relegated to low-paying and menial jobs, and they often face
economic exploitation. They are paid lower wages for the same work compared to higher-caste individuals.
❖ Violence and Atrocities: Dalits are vulnerable to various forms of violence, including physical and sexual
assault. Atrocities are committed against them, especially when they assert their rights or challenge the
established social order.
❖ Limited Political Representation: While there are reserved seats in legislative bodies for Scheduled Castes,
their political representation may not always be proportionate to their population. This limited representation
affects their ability to influence policy decisions.
❖ Landlessness: Many Dalit families are landless or have very small landholdings. The lack of access to land
hampers their economic stability and social status.
❖ Health Disparities: Dalits often lack access to adequate healthcare facilities. Poor sanitation and a lack of
awareness about health issues contribute to health disparities within these communities.
❖ Social Exclusion: Dalits are often excluded from social and religious events and face social ostracism. Inter-
caste marriages or social interactions are discouraged and sometimes met with severe consequences.
❖ Lack of Legal Awareness: Many Dalits lack awareness of their legal rights and are not informed about
available legal remedies against discrimination and atrocities.
❖ Economic Disparities: The economic disparity between Dalits and higher-caste individuals is significant.
Dalits often lack access to credit, resources, and job opportunities, which hinders their economic advancement.
Way forward
❖ Education and Awareness: Promote quality education for SC children and create awareness of the importance
of education in breaking the cycle of poverty and discrimination.
❖ Empowerment and Skill Development: Establish skill development programs to enhance the employability
of SC individuals and encourage entrepreneurship.
❖ Land Reform: Implement land reform policies to ensure land ownership and access to agricultural resources
for SC families.
 4

❖ Legal Aid and Support: Provide legal assistance and support for SC individuals to address issues related to
discrimination, land disputes, and atrocities.
❖ Awareness Campaigns: Launch public awareness campaigns to eliminate caste-based discrimination and
untouchability practices, emphasizing social integration and unity.
❖ Strengthening Law Enforcement: Ensure the prompt and effective investigation and prosecution of crimes
and atrocities against SC communities, and promote a culture of accountability within law enforcement
agencies.
❖ Political Representation: Encourage more SC individuals to participate in politics and work toward their
increased representation in legislative bodies and local governance.
❖ Economic Development Programs: Implement economic development programs targeting SC communities,
with a focus on job creation and entrepreneurship.
❖ Access to Healthcare: Improve access to healthcare facilities and ensure that SC individuals receive proper
medical care and health education.
❖ Resettlement and Rehabilitation: Develop programs for the resettlement and rehabilitation of SC individuals
who are victims of displacement and violence.
❖ Promotion of Social Inclusion: Encourage inter-caste marriages and interactions to promote social inclusion
and combat social ostracism.
❖ Access to Credit and Financial Inclusion: Facilitate access to credit and financial services to empower SC
individuals economically.
❖ Monitoring and Evaluation: Implement systems for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies
and programs aimed at addressing SC issues and make necessary adjustments.
❖ Partnerships with Civil Society: Collaborate with civil society organizations, non-governmental
organizations, and community-based groups that work on SC issues to leverage their expertise and resources.
❖ Research and Data Collection: Support research and data collection efforts to better understand the specific
challenges faced by SC communities and to inform evidence-based policy decisions.
❖ Legal Reforms: Work on legal reforms and policies that further protect the rights and interests of SC
communities, including addressing land rights, labor rights, and social discrimination.
Scheduled Tribes in India
The Lokur Committee was a committee appointed by the Government of India in 1965 to recommend criteria for
the identification of Scheduled Tribes (STs). The committee submitted its report in 1967, and its recommendations
were largely accepted by the government.
The Lokur Committee Recommended Five Criteria For The Identification Of STs:
1. Primitive traits: This refers to the presence of distinctive cultural and social practices among the community,
which are different from those of the general population.
2. Distinctive culture: This refers to the presence of a unique language, dialect, religion, customs, and traditions
among the community.
 5

3. Geographical isolation: This refers to the fact that the community lives in remote and inaccessible areas,
which has led to their social and economic isolation.
4. Shyness of contact with the community at large: This refers to the fact that the community is hesitant to
interact with the general population, due to fear of discrimination and exploitation.
5. Backwardness: This refers to the fact that the community is socially and economically backward compared
to the general population.
PVTGs
The term "Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups" (PVTGs) was first used by the Dhebar Commission in 1960.
The commission was appointed by the Government of India to review the progress of tribal development and to
recommend measures to accelerate the pace of development.
The criteria for identifying Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India are as follows:
❖ Pre-agricultural level of technology: PVTGs typically have a pre-agricultural level of technology, meaning
that they use simple tools and methods to produce food and other goods.
❖ Low level of literacy: PVTGs typically have a low level of literacy, with a high proportion of people who
cannot read or write.
❖ Economic backwardness: PVTGs are typically economically backward, with high levels of poverty and
unemployment.
❖ A declining or stagnant population: PVTGs often have a declining or stagnant population, due to factors
such as high infant mortality rates and low fertility rates.
Problems of Tribal Groups
❖ Land Rights and Displacement: Dispossession and displacement from their traditional lands due to
industrialization, infrastructure development, and large-scale projects such as mining and dam construction.
❖ Land Alienation: Loss of land and resources due to land grabs by non-tribal individuals or corporations, often
resulting in landlessness and loss of livelihoods.
❖ Economic Marginalization: Limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, leading
to economic disparities and poverty within tribal communities.
❖ Cultural Erosion: Threats to their cultural heritage, languages, and traditions as they are exposed to external
influences and globalization.
❖ Lack of Access to Basic Services: Limited access to clean water, sanitation, healthcare, and quality education,
which hampers overall development.
❖ Health Disparities: Higher rates of malnutrition, infant mortality, and communicable diseases within tribal
communities due to inadequate healthcare access and poor living conditions.
❖ Social Discrimination and Stereotyping: Facing social discrimination and stereotypes that lead to exclusion
and unequal treatment in society.
❖ Lack of Political Representation: Limited representation in decision-making processes and legislative
bodies, which affects their ability to advocate for their rights.
 6

❖ Environmental Degradation: Environmental degradation, including deforestation, pollution, and loss of

biodiversity, which directly affects tribal communities who often rely on natural resources for their livelihoods.
❖ Limited Legal Awareness: A lack of awareness of legal rights and mechanisms to address issues related to
land, resources, and discrimination.
❖ Lack of Access to Justice: Difficulties in accessing justice and obtaining fair treatment in the legal system
due to social and economic disadvantages.
❖ Traditional Livelihood Challenges: Changes in land use, restrictions on hunting and gathering, and depletion
of resources that affect their traditional livelihoods.
❖ Cultural and Identity Challenges: The loss of traditional knowledge and practices as tribal communities
adapt to changing circumstances.
❖ Limited Infrastructure Development: Inadequate infrastructure in tribal areas, including roads, electricity,
and telecommunications.
Virginius XAXA Committee Recommendation On Tribal
❖ Improve the strength of Gram Sabha for land acquisition
❖ Mining rights should be given to cooperatives
❖ Acquired but unused land should be used for tribal rehabilitation
❖ Avoiding constructing large dams, that is cause of displacement


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 25
Social Empowerment (Part 2)
 2

Social Empowerment (Part 2)

Way Forward for Tribes:
❖ Empower them and enable the Tribes to protect their own interest through capacity building, connect with
community (through protect, preserve their historical participation, culture and achievements).
❖ Improvement in their socio-economic conditions like improving their habitation, health, education, drinking
water, sanitation, increasing sustainable income and building the transport infrastructure within their habitat.
❖ Protecting identity, culture, language, and avoiding the super-imposition of mainstream culture.
❖ Protection of land and Forest Rights, and also protect cottage industries.
❖ Improve the accessibility of digital education.
Forest Rights Act of 2006:
❖ FRA 2006 recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest
dwellers to forest resources on which these communities were dependent for a variety of needs, including
livelihood, habitation, and other socio-cultural needs.
❖ The Gram Sabha has the authority to initiate the process of determining the nature and extent of individual
forest rights or community forest rights.
❖ It strengthens the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring the livelihood and food security of the
forest-dwelling forest tribes and other traditional forest-dwellers.
❖ Rights recognized under the Forest Right Act of 2006 are as follows:
➢ Title Rights: The title rights give the forest-dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest-
dwellers, the right to ownership of land formed by them subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership
is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family and no new land will be granted.
➢ User Rights: Rights of dwellers extended to extracting minor forest produce, grazing areas, etc.
➢ Relief and Development Rights: The forest-dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest-
dwellers enjoy rights to rehabilitate in case of forced displacement along with enjoying the right to have
basic amenities subject to restrictions for forest protection.
➢ Forest management Rights: These include the right to protect, regenerate, conserve, or manage any
community resources which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
❖ However, certain sections of environmentalists raise the concern that the Forest Rights Act bends more in
favour of individual rights, giving lesser scope to community rights.
❖ It also has been noticed that FRA is misused by political parties across the party lines who have interpreted
FRA as a land distribution exercise and have fixed targets for districts.
Schemes For Tribal Development:
❖ PM Van Dhan Yojana (2018): To improve the capacity and skills of tribal gatherers and ensure the
marketability of their raw materials by establishing facilities for primary processing and value addition. It is a
market-linked tribal entrepreneurship development program.
 3

❖ Van Bandhu Kalyan Yojana: Its main idea is the welfare of tribal people. The tribal population creates an
environment for the need-based and outcome-oriented holistic development of the tribal people.
❖ Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan: Provided to states by the MOTA for family-oriented income
generation programs in agriculture, horticulture, sericulture, and other sectors.
❖ National Fellowship and Scholarship: For Higher Education, Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarship
Schemes, etc.
❖ Vocational Training Centres in Tribal Areas: To improve tribal youth's skills in a variety of
traditional/modern professions. According to the Ministry of Road and Transport, the government is striving
to establish Driver Training Centres in tribal communities and the 115 poorest districts across the nation.
❖ Eklavya Model Residential School / Ashram Schools: Offer ST youngsters boarding school education. In
2018 Government announced the setting up of Eklavya Model Residential Schools in every block with more
than 50 percent Scheduled Tribes population and at least 20,000 tribal persons.
❖ Strengthening Education for ST Girls in Low Literacy Districts: The initiative attempts to close the literacy
gap between the general female population and tribal women in the specified districts or blocks.
❖ Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (for SC, ST, OBCs, minorities, and BPL): To provide access and
excellent education to females from disadvantaged groups by establishing upper primary residential schools
Additional Information: Some Other Schemes
❖ Grants under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India: Under this scheme, funds are released to States
to enable them to meet the cost of such schemes of development as may be undertaken by the State for the
purpose of promoting welfare of Scheduled Tribes in that State or raising the level of administration of
Scheduled Areas therein to that of the administration of the rest of the areas of that State.
❖ Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojna (PMAAGY): ‘Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojna
(PMAAGY)’, aims at providing Basic Infrastructure in 36428 villages with significant tribal population
having at least 50% tribal population and 500 STs in convergence with Central STC and State TSP
funds.
❖ National Overseas Scholarship (NOS) to the ST Students for Studies Abroad: Under the Scheme,
financial assistance is provided to 20 ST students every year for pursuing higher studies abroad.
❖ Aid to Voluntary Organizations working for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes: Ministry has been
funding Voluntary Organizations (VOs) including Non-Governmental Voluntary Organizations (NGOs)
working in tribal Hilly, remote and border areas for projects in Education, Health and Livelihood.
❖ Pradhan Mantri Jan Jatiya Vikas Mission (PMJVM): This scheme has been conceptualized with the
merger of two schemes i.e.
❖ (i) ‘Mechanism for Marketing of Minor Forest Produce through Minimum Support Price and
Development of Value Chain for MFP (MSP for MFP)’ and
❖ (ii) ‘Institutional Support for Development and Marketing of Tribal Products’. PMJVM seeks to
achieve livelihood driven tribal development through quality input, technology, credit and better marketing
access etc.
 4

❖ Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs): This scheme adopts a habitat level
development approach to improve the quality of life through intervention in housing, drinking water,
education and health services, livelihood support, and cultural aspects.
Source: PIB
Minority Issues:
❖ Issues of identity and cultural practices.
❖ Problem of integration in society.
❖ Problems of security like communal violence, fear psychosis etc.
❖ Economic loss, loss of lives.
❖ Deprivation due to discrimination (like administrative and governance representation is low, political interests
treat it like vote bank, and the sense of inequality is increasing because of deprivation).
❖ Discrepancies in reservations
❖ Political treatment.
Note:
❖ National Commission for Minorities Act 1992:
➢ In National Commission for Minorities Act 1992 section 2(c) is those communities that are, as such,
notified by the Central Government.
❖ There are some schemes related to minority communities, like:
➢ Naya Savera for students.
➢ Nayi Roshni for women.
➢ USTAD, Nai Manzil etc.
Way Forward:
❖ Strict punishment for those who are breaching communal harmony and committing atrocities on minorities.
❖ Improve social infrastructure, especially modern education, which improves their employability.
❖ Protection of their rights and culture (equally respecting minority culture and preserving it)
❖ The role of civil society is to spread awareness of discrimination against minorities in all spheres.
❖ Efficient implementation of welfare programmes.
❖ Attitudinal changes/Behavioural changes in societies
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 26
Social Empowerment (Part 3)
 2

Social Empowerment (Part 3)

LGBTQ Issues:
❖ In 2018, the Supreme Court in the Navtej Singh Johar Vs The Union of India case repealed Section 377 (in
conflict with right to life and right to privacy with every citizen in India), which basically declared
homosexuality as a criminal offense.
❖ Naz Foundation Govt. v. NCT of Delhi (2009): In this judgment, Delhi high court ruled that criminalizing
consensual homosexual sex between adults is a violation of fundamental rights.
❖ Third gender category: In 2014, the Supreme Court of India in National Legal Services Authority v. Union
of India ruled that transgender people should be treated as the third category of gender.
Issues of LGBTQ:
❖ No legal recognition of same-sex marriage
❖ Deprived of some of the rights that are available to opposite-sex couples deprived from same sex couples.
❖ In rural areas, they are linked to mental illness and are subjected to violence.
❖ Disowning by family causes separation from family.
❖ Alienation from society because people socially maintain distance from them.
❖ Alienation, discrimination, and violence against them in society lead them to suicide.
❖ Poor health and educational situation/indicators.
❖ Social conditioning.
Initiatives Taken for the Welfare of the LGBTQ Community in India:
❖ National Portal for Transgender Persons (2020): It has been launched to help the transgender person to
apply for a digital certificate and identity card from anywhere in the country.
❖ Garima Greh (2020): It is an initiative of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment to provide shelter
homes with basic amenities like food, clothing, etc. for destitute and abandoned transgender persons.
❖ Sweekruti Scheme (2017): It is an umbrella scheme launched by Odisha Government. It aims to ensure equal
opportunities, equity, social justice & empowerment of transgender persons in the state. It has a whole range
of services that are necessary for the rehabilitation of transgender. It helps to include the transgender
community in mainstream society.
❖ The SAATHIYA scheme is also associated with same sex.
Note:
NALSA Case:
❖ In this historic ruling, transgender individuals were officially acknowledged as the 'third gender,' affirming
their entitlement to the same fundamental rights protected by the Constitution of India.
Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020:
❖ The rules seek to recognize the identity of transgender people and prohibit discrimination in the forms of
education, employment, health care, holding and disposing of property, holding public or private offices, and
access to use of public services and benefits.
 3

❖ The rule provided a definition of persons with intersex variation and transgender persons, including trans men
and trans women.
❖ Rules prohibited the discrimination of transgender persons at educational establishments, employment,
and occupational opportunities, health care services, and access to public facilities and benefits.
❖ The rule provided for the right to self-perceive gender identity and castes and the obligation of the District
Magistrate to issue a certificate of identity without any medical examination.
❖ The rules provide for the revision of identity after sex interchange.
❖ Every establishment is mandated to formulate an equal opportunity policy for transgender persons
according to the specific information prescribed under the law.
❖ Every establishment is mandated to designate a person as a complaint officer to handle complaints from
transgender persons.
❖ Every State government is mandated to set up a transgender protection cell under District Magistrate and
DGP to monitor offenses against transgender persons.
Way Forward:
❖ Legal recognition of LGBTQIA as a community (codification of IPC, CRPC, and personal laws).
❖ Welfare policies: The government should aspire to bring more policies and initiatives which promote the
welfare, inclusion, and socio-economic development of the LGBT community. Dedicated efforts should be
made for gender-neutral welfare policies to avoid the exclusion of sexual minorities.
❖ Reservation in public employment provided by Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu governments is a step in
the right direction. However, enough measures shall be taken to ensure that actual needy avail this benefit.
❖ Empowerment: It is necessary to have an open and readily available platform for them to feel acknowledged
and at ease while discussing their emotions.
❖ Inclusive Environment: Efforts should be made to eliminate discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
The LGBTQ community should be given more representation in the social and public arenas including public
services.
❖ Create Startup environment for LGBTQ communities.
❖ We need to celebrate those who come from Culture and history areas.
❖ Sensitization and Education: There is a need to promote sensitivity among people regarding the LGBTQ
community. Also, public awareness should be promoted regarding the rights of this community.
❖ Recognition of same-sex marriage: All Indian personal laws appear to envisage marriage as only a
heterosexual union. So, there is a need to give recognition to homosexual marriages and generate acceptance
towards the same.
Note:
❖ According to the CJI judgement, Queerness is also a natural phenomena, and our constitution does
recognise freedom for getting into union.
❖ As per Article 15, we cannot discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation (Right to enter union, it
should not be restricted based on sexual orientation).
❖ Supreme Court said that issues of same sex marriage is beyond scope of court and are the responsibility
of Parliament of India.
 4

❖ The Supreme Court said that Protection of homosexuality should not be ignored by the
state/government, and marriage is not a static institution.
Differently Abled Persons in India/Divyangs in India:
❖ A person suffering from any restrictions or lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner or range of
motion that is considered normal for human beings generally occurs due to some kind of impairment or
disability.
❖ An impairment is referred to as a problem in body function or structure; this causes activity limitation.
Activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action.
❖ Participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations.
Problems of Differently Abled:
❖ Healthcare and Rehabilitation Services: Access to quality healthcare and rehabilitation services is a
challenge for persons with disabilities. The limited availability of specialized healthcare professionals,
assistive devices, therapies, and rehabilitation centers hampers their overall well-being and functional
independence.
❖ Limited Access to Education: Despite efforts to promote inclusive education, many persons with disabilities
still face barriers to accessing quality education. Lack of accessible infrastructure, trained teachers, and
inclusive curriculum prevents them from receiving a proper education.
❖ Accessibility: Many public places, buildings, transportation systems, and information and communication
technologies are not designed to be accessible for persons with disabilities. Lack of ramps, elevators, accessible
restrooms, and tactile signage hinders their mobility and participation in various activities.
❖ Discrimination and Stigma: Persons with disabilities often face discrimination and social stigma, leading to
exclusion and marginalisation. Negative attitudes and stereotypes limit their opportunities for education,
employment, and social integration.
❖ Employment Opportunities: Persons with disabilities face significant challenges in finding employment.
Discrimination, lack of accessibility in workplaces, and limited awareness among employers about their
capabilities often result in their exclusion from the workforce.
❖ Inadequate Data and Statistics: There is a lack of availability of regress and comparable statistics and data.
❖ Poor Implementation of Policy: Despite the existence of legislation and policies, implementation gaps and
inadequate enforcement of disability rights laws hinder the full realisation of the rights of persons with
disabilities. Lack of awareness about their rights and limited access to legal remedies further exacerbate the
challenges they face.
❖ Social exclusion is also issue for Differently Abled persons.
❖ Inadequate statistics and datas.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016:
❖ This act replaces persons with disabilities- Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full
Participation Act of 1995.
❖ The act defines persons with disabilities as persons with long-term physical, mental, intellectual, and
sensory impairments that cause a barrier to interactions and hinder a person's full and effective participation
in society equally with others.
 5

❖ The type of disability has increased from 7 to 21.

❖ The act increases the quantum of reservations for persons with disabilities from 3% to 4% in government
jobs and 3% to 5% in higher education institutions.
❖ Every child with benchmark disabilities between the ages of 6 and 18 shall have the right to free education.
❖ In the act, stress has been given to including accessibility in public buildings in a prescribed time frame along
with the Accessible India campaign.
❖ The chief commissioner of persons with disabilities and state commissioner will act as a regulatory body
and grievance redressal agency and will work for monitoring and effective implementation of the act.
❖ A separate state and national fund will be created to provide financial support to persons with disabilities.
❖ Special courts will be designated in each district to handle the cases concerning the violation of rights of
persons with disabilities.
Suggestions for the Betterment of Persons With Disabilities:
❖ Strengthen preventive health care as well as curative health care (accidents), and also spread awareness.
❖ Better Integration in the Society: We have to raise awareness about disability issues, challenge stereotypes,
counter stigma, and types of disabilities (causes and symptoms), and work towards creating a more inclusive
society.
❖ Employment Opportunities: Create more employment opportunities and skills for persons with
disabilities by implementing affirmative action policies, promoting inclusive hiring practices, and providing
skill development and vocational training programs tailored to their needs.
❖ Research: Government contributes to research and documentation on various aspects of disability,
including prevalence, challenges, best practices, and policy gaps. This research helps inform interventions,
advocacy efforts, and policy development in the field of disabilities.
❖ Education: Ensure inclusive education for persons with disabilities by providing access to the needs of
special children, eliminating prejudices and biases, special training for teachers, and appropriate learning
materials (curriculum). Promote inclusive policies that encourage the integration of students with disabilities
into mainstream schools.
❖ Improving Accessibility: Enhance accessibility in public spaces, road safety, transportation, information
and communication technologies, and other essential services to ensure persons with disabilities can fully
participate in society. This includes providing ramps, accessible restrooms, braille signage, and assistive
technologies.
❖ More Budgetary Allocation: Develop and implement comprehensive social welfare programs that address
the specific needs of persons with disabilities, including financial assistance, social security schemes, and
schemes for independent living and community integration with more budgetary allocations.
❖ Better measurement: Disability needs to be understood better by society.
❖ Better Implementation of Already Existing Schemes: There is a need to implement effectively and
efficiently government schemes related to persons with disabilities.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 27
Health and Education
 2

Health and Education

Education:
❖ Education is the process of transmitting and acquiring knowledge, skills, and character traits to induce
cognitive, rational, scientific, moral, and ethical thinking to enhance lifestyle and life chances and have a better
reflection on one’s social and physical universe.
❖ In 2015, India adopted the sustainable development goals therefore Indian society is committed to ensuring
inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030.
Role of Education:
❖ Fundamental Growth and Development of Society: Education is a powerful tool for empowering
individuals and promoting personal and societal development. It equips individuals with the knowledge, skills,
and critical thinking abilities necessary to make informed decisions, pursue meaningful careers, and contribute
to the progress of society.
❖ Agent for Social Change: Education is a great leveler, which provides avenues for social mobility.
❖ Sustainable Route to Reduce Poverty: Education is a key factor in combating poverty. It equips individuals
with knowledge, skills, and capabilities to secure better employment and income-generating opportunities,
enabling them to improve their living conditions and break the cycle of poverty.
❖ Increase India’s Competitiveness in Global Economy: Education is essential for economic growth and
competitiveness. A well-educated workforce drives innovation, productivity, and entrepreneurship. It enables
individuals to acquire the necessary skills for employment, contribute to economic activities, and
participate in India's growing knowledge-based economy.
❖ SDG 4 ensures inclusive and equitable quality education, and promotes lifelong learning opportunities.
❖ Social Democracy (Social Justice): Education is instrumental in promoting social equality and equity. It
helps bridge the gap between different socio-economic groups by providing equal opportunities for all
individuals, regardless of their background or circumstances. Education acts as a leveling force, empowering
marginalized communities and promoting social mobility.
❖ Eradicating Illiteracy: India has a significant illiteracy rate, and education plays a crucial role in addressing
this challenge. By promoting literacy and providing education to all, India can uplift marginalized
communities, reduce poverty, and create a more inclusive society.
Education in India:
❖ India's literacy rate (As per the 2011 Census): It is 74.04%, with male literacy at 82.14% and female literacy
at 65.46%.
❖ India is the largest ground for illiterate people in the world.
❖ During the period from 2001 to 2011, there was a notable increase of 6 percentage points in the male literacy
rate, while the female literacy rate saw a significant increase of nearly 12 percentage points.
➢ Bihar, in particular, made remarkable progress in female literacy, with the rate increasing from 33% in
2001 to 53% in 2011.
➢ Kerala has the highest literacy rate, followed by Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
 3

❖ The 75th round of the National Sample Survey conducted by the National Statistical Office gathered the
following data regarding education for persons aged 3 to 35 years in India.
➢ The literacy rate for persons 7 and above was 77%.
➢ Nearly 10.6% of the persons aged 15 years and above in India have completed a level of education of
graduation and above.
➢ Engagement in domestic activities by females and engagement in economic activities by males was
cited as the main reason for currently not attending education.
➢ While lack of interest in education was cited as the reason for never enrolling in educational
institutions by both males and females.
Pre School Education:
❖ It is also known as free primary education.
❖ It is very important for the development of young children before they enter formal schooling.
❖ The right to education act promised free education from 6-14, however In 2013, the government of India
approved National early childhood care and education policy which also includes National curriculum
frameworks and quality standards for early childhood care education. Consequently, the Ministry of Women
and Child Development has also included pre-school non formal education in the ICDS scheme, as a result
by 2014 349.82 lakh children between the age group of 3-6 years were benefiting from the preschool
component of the ICDS scheme.
❖ The main purpose of pre-primary education is to prepare children physically, emotionally, and mentally for
formal schooling and to prevent poor performance and early dropout.
❖ Pre-primary education is also supported by Sarva Siksha Abhiyan.
❖ On the other hand, it also helps older children, particularly girls in India, to benefit from the pre-school as they
will find free time for their own education since it will be the pre primary school which will take the
responsibility of nurturing and caring for their young siblings.
Early childhood care and education (ECCE):
❖ It goes beyond simply preparing children for primary school and instead seeks to develop a child's social,
emotional, cognitive, and physical needs in a comprehensive manner, establishing a strong and broad
foundation for lifelong learning and well-being.
ASER Report, 2019:
❖ The ASER Report highlighted:
➢ More than 90% of young children in the age group of 4 to 8 are enrolled in some type of educational
institution.
➢ The variation in the age distribution is widest in standard one and decreases in each subsequent grade.
➢ Role of a mother's education is also important for pre primary education.
➢ The report found that private schools are performing better than government schools in the context
of early childhood care and education.
➢ The report highlighted that among the pre primary section children with mother’s who completed 8 or
fewer years of schooling are more likely to be attending or government pre primary classes, whereas their
mothers who have beyond the elementary age are more likely to be enrolled in kindergartens.
 4

School Education In India:

❖ According to the National Education Policy, 1986 our school system is divided into primary (1-5), upper
primary (6-8), secondary (9-10), and higher secondary (11-12).
❖ Formal schooling in India includes 12 years of education, where the present status highlights that the
enrollment ratio for the elementary level is close to 100% and for secondary education also gross
enrollment ratio has increased.
❖ However, despite the increase, accessibility enrollment in government primary schools declined by 2.31
crores in absolute numbers from 2007-08 to 2016-17.
❖ Enrollment in private primary schools increased by 1.45 crores over the same period owing to the
perception of better quality of education.
❖ The gross enrollment ratio from 6th to 8th grade was 90% while in 8th and 10th it was 79.3%, whereas in
11th and 12th it was only 56.5% respectively. Therefore the data indicates that a significant proportion of
enrollment students drop out after grade 5th and especially after grade 8th.
❖ According to the 75th Round of Household Survey conducted by NSO, the dropout among the secondary
and higher secondary stages increased by 3.2 %.
❖ According to the Human Development Report of 2016 published by UNDP, between 1919 to 2018, the
mean years of schooling increased by only 4.7% in India.
❖ The report also highlights that our educational system is general in education nature and development of
technical and vocational education is quite unsatisfactory.
❖ The report also highlights that the people teacher ratio is 4.7% increase.
❖ The people teacher ratio at the National level of elementary education was 24:1 and for the secondary it was
27:16. However another concern that lies is that a large proportion of students who have enrolled in elementary
school have not attended the foundational literacy and numeracy.
❖ The ACER report of 2019 highlighted that national attendance in primary and upper primary schools is
71.4% and 73.2% respectively with considerable differences across the states.
❖ Mental pressure on students especially in secondary education has been increasing and National Crime
Record Bureau 2015 data shows that student suicides have increased from 6600 in 2012 to 9000 in 2015,
many of these suicides are because of stress related to exams and careers. Thus there is also a need to reduce
the mental stress on students.
Factors behind Unsatisfactory Quality of Education:
❖ Inadequate funding in the sector of education.
❖ Inadequate focus on many challenges while monitoring learning outcomes.
❖ There is only one body regulating and governing school education (Department of School Education).
❖ Very limited vocational education facilities.
❖ Information and technology are at very slow progress in India.
❖ The School system is not developed properly in Indian languages.
❖ Poor quality of teachers and also overburdened teachers.
 5

Way Forward:
❖ There should be increased improvement in government funding (atleast 3 % of GDP).
❖ There should be improved governance systems, especially monitoring and accountability.
❖ There should be a focus on learning outcomes by giving more focus on skills, and vocational skills and
improving employability.
❖ There should be flexibility in the education system in terms of selection of subjects.
➢ There should be vernacular language.
➢ There should also be vocational training.
❖ There should be more teachers recruited to handle the pressure on less number of teachers.
❖ Education should be integrated into industry requirements.
❖ There should be a review of the school curriculum.
❖ There should be decreased mental stress on students.
❖ Effective implementation of New Education Policy.

Additional Information: All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2020-2021.

The Ministry of Education has been conducting the All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) since 2011,
covering all higher educational institutions located in Indian Territory and imparting higher education in the
country.
Following are the key highlights of the survey:
Student Enrollment
❖ The total enrollment in higher education has increased to around 72 lakh (21%).
❖ The percentage of female enrolment to total enrolment has increased from 45% in 2014-15 to around 49%
in 2020-21.
❖ Female GER has overtaken Male GER since 2017-18. Gender Parity Index (GPI), the ratio of female
GER to male GER, has increased from 1 in 2017-18 to 1.05 in 2020-21.
❖ Among Disciplines at undergraduate level, enrollment is highest in Arts (33.5%), followed by Science
(15.5%), Commerce (13.9%) and Engineering & Technology (11.9%).
❖ Of the total enrolment, 55.5 Lakh students are enrolled in Science Stream, with female students (29.5 Lakh)
out numbering male students (26 Lakh).
❖ Availability of different infrastructural facilities in HEIs in 2020-21:
➢ Libraries (97%)
➢ Laboratories (88)
➢ Computer centres (91%, 86% in 2019-20)
➢ Skill Development Centre (61%, 58% in 2019-20)
➢ Connectivity to National Knowledge Network (56%, from 34% in 2019-20)
Source: PIB

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture - 28
Health and Education (Part-02)
 2

Health and Education (Part-02)

Higher Education:
❖ Higher education is the responsibility of both state and central government.
Status of Higher Education:
❖ All Indian Survey for Higher Education in 2018-19 talked about enrollment in higher education.
➢ The Gross Enrollment Ratio in higher education in India has been steadily increasing over the years.
➢ As of 2018-2019, the GER stood at around 26.3%, indicating the percentage of the eligible population
enrolled in higher education.
➢ But it is behind the world average (around 33%).
❖ Number of Universities and Colleges: In India, the higher education landscape comprises 993 higher
education institutions.
❖ According to the AISHE report (2018-19) found that improving the gender gap (narrowing down).
➢ Male student enrollment is around 51.36% and female student enrollment is around 48.64%.
➢ Social backwardness is still a concern in India. SC student enrollment is 14.89% and St student
enrollment is 5.53%.
➢ Regional disparities in higher education are also still present in India by calculating the number of
colleges available per lakh eligible population.
✓ Bihar has only 7 colleges and Telangana has 59 colleges.
✓ In India, the average for higher education institutions is 28.
❖ Most of the universities and colleges are in urban and metropolitan areas.
➢ It also shows the rural-urban divide and pupil-teacher ratio is 29 only.
❖ Quality of education is a big concern in India.
➢ Only two Indian institutions were featured in Top-200).
➢ Only 2.5% of colleges offered Ph.D. programs in India.
➢ Only 34.9% of colleges offer PG programs.
❖ Ensuring graduates' employability remains a priority.
➢ Efforts are being made to align the curriculum with industry needs, enhance skill development, and
promote entrepreneurship among students.
❖ India's research output has been increasing significantly. According to the National Science and
Technology Management Information System (NSTMIS), India holds the third position globally in terms
of scientific publications, following the United States and China.
➢ The country has made significant progress in research and development, with its gross expenditure on
R&D tripling between 2008 and 2018.
➢ In 2008, the expenditure was Rs 39,437 crores, which surged to Rs 1,13,825 crores by 2018.
 3

Issues With Higher Education:

Over-Centralization of Higher Education

Shortage of Qualified Faculty Over-Bureaucratization of Higher

Education

Issues
Outdated Curriculum With Lack of Transparency and
Higher Accountability
Education

Accreditation challenges Lack of Professionalism Among Staff

Funding for Research and

Innovation

❖ Over-Centralization of Higher Education: Over-centralization can stifle innovation and limit the
autonomy of individual institutions.
➢ Decentralizing decision-making and granting more independence to universities can promote diversity
and competition.
❖ Over-Bureaucratization of Higher Education: Excessive bureaucracy can lead to delays and inefficiency
in academic processes.
➢ Streamlining administrative procedures and reducing unnecessary red tape can improve the overall
functioning of higher education institutions.
❖ Lack of Transparency: Transparency is essential to ensure that academic and administrative processes are
fair and accountable.
➢ Implementing clear and transparent policies and procedures can help address this issue.
❖ Lack of Accountability: Holding universities accountable for the quality of education and research is
crucial.
➢ Establishing performance metrics and evaluation mechanisms can help ensure that institutions meet
their responsibilities.
❖ Lack of Professionalism Among Staff: Professionalism is vital for creating a conducive learning
environment.
➢ Providing training and incentives for teachers and administrative staff can promote professionalism.
❖ Outdated Curriculum: To bridge the gap between education and market requirements, higher education
institutions need to regularly update their curricula and align them with industry needs and emerging trends.
 4

❖ Accreditation challenges: Developing a robust accreditation system is essential to maintain educational

standards.
➢ Strengthening accreditation mechanisms and ensuring their effectiveness is a priority.
❖ Participation of foreign universities: Encouraging the involvement of foreign universities can bring in
diverse perspectives and improve the quality of education.
➢ Developing a framework for collaboration is necessary.
❖ Funding for research and innovation: The establishment of a dedicated funding body can provide financial
support for research and innovation projects.
➢ Adequate funding can drive academic excellence.
❖ Disconnect Between Teaching and Research: Promoting synergy between teaching and research can
enhance the overall quality of education.
➢ Encouraging faculty to engage in research can help bridge this gap.
❖ Shortage of Qualified Faculty: Addressing this issue requires investing in faculty development, offering
competitive salaries, and creating a conducive academic environment to attract and retain talented educators.
❖ Lack of an Integrated Approach: Developing a holistic approach to higher education that addresses
various issues collectively is crucial.
➢ Coordination among government bodies, institutions, and stakeholders is essential.
❖ Accessibility for Marginalized Groups: Ensuring equal access to higher education for disabled and
backward-class individuals is a fundamental requirement.
➢ Implementing affirmative action policies and providing support services can promote inclusivity.
Way Forward:
❖ Governance and Regulatory Related Reforms: Streamlining governance mechanisms, reducing
bureaucratic hurdles, and creating a supportive regulatory environment are needed to ensure the efficient and
autonomous functioning of higher education institutions.
➢ Encourage stakeholder participation and seek feedback from academia, industry, and students in policy
formulation.
❖ Curriculum Design: Continuously review, redesign curriculum, and update policies related to higher
education.
➢ There should be recruited domain experts and prepare a basic minimum standard of education.
➢ Beyond this provide autonomy to institutions to innovate.
➢ The curriculum should be updated according to the needs of the industry.
❖ Reforming Accreditation Framework: All higher educational institutions must be compulsorily and
regularly accredited.
➢ Universities should display their accreditation and grades.
❖ World-Class Universities: We should focus on world-class universities.
❖ Performance-linked Grants: Link grants to universities with their performance, including indicators such
as research output, employability of graduates, and quality of teaching.
 5

➢ This will incentivize universities to focus on achieving excellence and improving outcomes.
❖ Development of Teacher Resources: Addressing the shortage of qualified faculty, providing professional
development opportunities, and attracting and retaining talented educators are crucial for quality teaching
and research.
❖ Technology Integration: Embracing technology in teaching and learning, enhancing digital infrastructure,
and promoting e-learning resources are essential for keeping pace with the evolving educational landscape
and improving access to education.
❖ Expansion of Online Education: Broaden the scope of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and Open
and Distance Learning (ODL) to provide access to quality education beyond geographical boundaries.
➢ This will enhance flexibility, affordability, and inclusivity in higher education.
New Education Policy, 2020:
❖ The National Education Policy
2020, replacing the 34-year-old
National Policy on Education,
embraces the principles of
Access, Equity, Quality,
Affordability, and
Account
Accountability.
ability Equity
Found
❖ The policy emphasizes holistic,
ation
flexible, multidisciplinary
education that caters to the Pillars
Affordability
unique abilities of every student, Quality
both in schools and colleges, in
order to meet the demands of the
21st century.
❖ Key Highlights of New Education Policy:
➢ Universal Access: The National Education Policy 2020 focuses on ensuring universal access to school
education from preschool to secondary level.
✓ It aims to bring back approximately 2 crore out-of-school children into the mainstream.
➢ New Curricular and Pedagogical Structure: The policy proposes a shift from the 10+2 structure to a
5+3+3+4 curricular structure, covering ages 3-18.
✓ This includes bringing the crucial age group of 3-6 years under the school curriculum and
providing 12 years of schooling with three years of pre-schooling.
➢ Reforms in Curricula and Pedagogy: The policy emphasizes holistic development, critical thinking,
and experiential learning.
✓ It promotes flexibility and choice of subjects, integration of arts and sciences, introduction of
contemporary subjects, and vocational education starting from grade 6, including internships.
 6

➢ Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Recognizing the importance of foundational literacy and
numeracy, the policy calls for the establishment of a National Mission on Foundational Literacy and
Numeracy to ensure that every child acquires these essential skills.
➢ Multilingualism and Language Power: The policy emphasizes the use of the mother tongue or local
language as the medium of instruction until at least grade 5, with Sanskrit and other classical languages
offered as options.
✓ It aims to preserve and promote linguistic diversity.
➢ Entrance Exam: It creates a National Testing Agency for university entrance examinations.
➢ Equitable and Inclusive Education: NEP 2020 aims to ensure that no child is deprived of
opportunities due to their background.
✓ Special attention is given to socially and economically disadvantaged groups, including gender,
socio-cultural identities, and disabilities.
➢ Standard-setting and Accreditation: NEP 2020 envisions separate systems for policy-making,
regulation, operations, and academic matters.
✓ States/UTs will establish independent State School Standards Authorities, and a School Quality
Assessment and Accreditation Framework will be developed.
➢ Holistic Multidisciplinary Education: The policy promotes a broad-based, multidisciplinary approach
to undergraduate education.
✓ It encourages flexible curricula, creative combinations of subjects, and the integration of vocational
education.
✓ The system allows for multiple entry and exit points with appropriate certifications, such as a
certificate after one year, an advanced diploma after two years, a bachelor's degree after three
years, and a bachelor's with research after four years.

Additional Information: Facts and Data related to Education

Data/Facts ❖ Economic Survey 2021-22: Expenditure on the education sector

increased by nearly 20 percent in 2020-21 (presently, 3.1 % of GDP).
❖ ASER 2021:A clear shift from private to government schools — from
64.3% in 2018 to 65.8% in 2020, to 70.3% in 2021.
❖ Almost a third of all children in Classes I and II did not have a
smartphone available at home. ASER 2019 Report: gap between learning
outcomes of children with mothers who were educated upto Standard
12th or higher was 40% more than children of uneducated mothers.
AISHE 2018-19: SC & ST enrollment is 14.89% and 5.53% respectively.
❖ Economic Survey 2018: School going children in India will decline by
18.4% between 2021- 2041. E-learning and Digital Literacy: At least or
 7

31% (463 million) of school children worldwide cannot be reached by

remote learning programs. 15% of rural India has the internet, 42% of
urban India has the internet.
❖ UNESCO data: India has one of the lowest public expenditure rates on
education per student, especially compared to other Asian countries like
China.

SDG Goals ❖ SDG 4 (Quality Education)

Constitutional Provisions ❖ Article 21A; Article 28; Article 29; Article 30; Article 41; Article 45;
Article 46; Article 51 (k) (added after 86th Constitutional Amendment
Act, 2002); Art. 350-A; 86th Amendment Act of 2002.

Legal Provisions ❖ Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009

❖ 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act

Landmark Judgement ❖ Unnikrishnan JP vs State of Andhra Pradesh & Others: SC held that
Education is a Fundamental right flowing from Article 21

Committee and ❖ Ramamurti Committee (1990)

Commissions ❖ Tapas Majumdar Committee (1999)
❖ TSR Subramanian Committee (2016)
❖ Kasturirangan Committee (2017)

NGO's In Education ❖ Pratham: Publishes the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER).
Sector ❖ The Akshaya Patra Foundation (TAPF): addresses malnutrition and
supports the right to education of disadvantaged children
❖ Bachpan Bachao Andolan: by the Nobel laureate Kailash Satyarthi

Source: PW Only IAS Facts and Data Booklet For Mains 2023

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIETY

Lecture – 29
Health
 2

Health
Health:
❖ As per the World Health Organisation (WHO), health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being.
❖ Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SG3) talks about good health and well-being.
Status of Healthcare in India:
❖ In the year 2019, the general government expenditure on health was 1.6% of the Gross Development Product
(GDP), and the out-of-pocket expenditure as a percentage of current healthcare expenditure remains high i.e.
above 50%.
❖ Around 14% of the rural population has health coverage and around 19% of the urban population is
covered under health insurance.
❖ Of the total expenditure on health, only 6.7% is going to preventive health care, whereas money spent on
curative healthcare is around 51% of the total expenditure, the remaining money is spent on pharmaceuticals
and other medical goods and patient transportation.
❖ India accounts for 34% of global tuberculosis and 26% of premature mortality due to diarrhea.
❖ The range of health losses across India is extremely wide.
❖ According to the Human Development Report of 2019 released by the United Nations Development
Programme between 1990 and 2018 life expectancy at birth increased by 11.6% years in India.
❖ As per the estimates, child mortality estimation under 5 has declined from 234 in 1990 to 126 in 2019.
❖ The infant mortality rate has declined from 228 in 1999 to 89 in 2019.
❖ The neonatal mortality rate has declined from 222 in 1990 to 57 in 2019.
❖ The study found that undernutrition is the prime risk factor in over 40% of under-5 child deaths. One of
the causes of this is stunting.
➢ The World Bank has estimated that if India reduces stunting then it can increase its GDP by 11%.
➢ It is to be noted that 1/3rd of all children in India are stunted and every fifth child is wasted.
Status Related to Immunization:
❖ About 97% of children across the country receive at least one vaccination, however, two out of five children
do not complete their immunization program.
❖ Manipur at 75%, Andhra Pradesh at 73.6% are good-performing states, whereas Nagaland at 12%,
Puducherry at approximately 34%, and Tripura at 39% are low-performing states in case of full
immunization.
❖ In terms of maternal health in rural areas, about 90% of childbirths are institutional and around 96% of
childbirths in urban areas are institutional.
❖ Among women aged from 15 to 49 years, about 97% of women took 0prenatal care and about 88% of the
women took postnatal care.
❖ In the context of the maternal mortality rate, it has come down to 122 maternal deaths per lack of live births
by 2017.
 3

Challenges Faced by India's Health Sector:

❖ Low Level of Public Expenditure on Health: India's spending on healthcare is 1.35 % of the GDP (2019-
20) and is among the lowest in the world. Developed countries spend somewhere between 10-18 percent of
their GDP. WHO stated that only 30 countries have a percentage of GDP expenditure that is lesser than India.
❖ High Out-of-pocket expenditure: Share of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in total health expenditure
was 47.1% in 2019-20, however the same has declined from 62.6% in 2014-15 to 47.1% in 2019-20. The
OOPE is significantly higher than the OOPE in Europe and USA.
❖ Reliance on the Private Sector is High: The private medical sector remains the primary source of health care
for 70% of households in urban areas and 63% of households in rural areas (NFHS-3). 95% of total private
expenditure on health care is out-of-pocket expenditure.
❖ Lack of Health Infrastructure: The country had 0.5 hospital beds for 1,000 citizens and eight doctors per
10,000 people. 74% of hospital beds and doctors are available in urban areas only. WHO stated that even low-
income countries should have one hospital bed for 1,000 citizens
❖ Crunch of Human Capital: India has one allopathic doctor for every 1,613 people and 1.7 nurses per 1,000
people. Furthermore, most of them are concentrated in urban areas. Other doctors are in private hospitals. Rural
areas have a shortage of 81% of specialist doctors in hospitals.
❖ Lack of Quality Healthcare: Low-quality care is prevalent due to misdiagnosis, under-trained health
professionals, and the prescription of incorrect medicines.
❖ A Culture of Low Awareness Towards Healthcare: Rural Population Neglects Hospitalization.
❖ Low Health Insurance Coverage: More than 80% of the population lacks substantial healthcare. Most people
are out of the ambit of health insurance and hence their out-of-pocket expenditure increases significantly for
the treatment of any disease
❖ Primary Healthcare: There are Only 11% of sub-centers, 13% of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and 16%
of Community Health Centres (CHCs) in rural India meet the Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) for the
rural population of 64.61%.
Way Forward:
❖ Adequate investment in public health should be ensured and we should at least increase expenditure on
health to 3%.
❖ Efficient prioritization of spending with greater emphasis should be given to preventive health rather than
curative healthcare.
❖ We should develop a strong culture towards respecting health thus making nutritional awareness and
practice of Yoga a regular activity in all schools through certified instructors.
❖ Increase taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy processed foods.
❖ Colocate AYUSH services in at least 50% of the primary health centers and 70% of the community health
centers along with 100% of district hospitals by 2022 and 2023.
❖ Sufficient focus on converging with programs addressing key social determinants of health i.e. safe drinking
water, sanitation, and nutrition.
❖ Implement mission mode action in districts with a high burden of malnutrition under POSHAN Abhiyan.
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❖ Consider mandatory fortification of staples produced in the organized sectors and provide incentives to the
industry to do so.
❖ Create a National Nutritional Surveillance System to track food quality and consumption patterns for all
age groups in different regions.
❖ The state should take effective measures to strengthen primary health care in India and it should
successfully mobilize corporate social responsibility to ensure sufficient coverage of affordable primary care
so that it will lower the burden on secondary and tertiary care.
❖ The state should also take measures to strengthen the healthcare system in the public sector and there would
be an urgent need for dedicated public healthcare support with sufficient support from human resources
therefore critical need to fill the vacancies should be addressed and there should be formulation of model policy
on human resource for health.
❖ Improving governance and ensuring efficient management for publicly owned healthcare.
❖ We should work towards the development of a fully functional health information system which should
include universal registration of births, deaths, and causes of death,
Government Schemes Related to the Health Sector:
AYUSHMAN BHARAT (2018):
❖ Ayushman Bharat (AB) is a scheme to deliver a comprehensive range of services spanning preventive,
promotive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative care instead of only a selective approach to health care.
❖ It has two components that are complementary to each other.
➢ Health and Welfare Centers (HWCs): 1,50,000 HWCs will be created to deliver comprehensive health
care that is universal and free for everyone.
➢ Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana: It provides national health protection coverage of Rs. 5 lakhs per
year to over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families seeking secondary and tertiary care.
Integrated Mission Indradanush 2.0:
❖ It is an immunization program.
❖ The government launched this to ensure immunizations to unreachable pregnant women and children of India.
❖ Its objective is to immunize 100% of children (Below 2 years) against at least seven diseases such as -
diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles, and hepatitis B. Japanese Encephalitis and
Pregnant women for selected diseases were also added.
National Health Policy:
❖ The aim of this policy is to attain the highest possible level of health and well-being for all at all ages, through
a preventive and promotional healthcare orientation in all developmental policies, and universal access to good
quality healthcare services.
❖ Key Targets:
➢ Health expenditure should increase as a percentage of GDP from the existing 1.15 % to 2.5 % by 2025.
➢ Life Expectancy should increase at birth from 67.5 to 70.
➢ Total Fertility Rate (TFR) should reduce TFR to 2.1.
 5

➢ Under Five Mortality should reduce Under Five Mortality to 23 by 2025.

➢ Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) should reduce MMR from current levels to 100 by 2020.
➢ The neo-natal Mortality Rate should be reduced to 16.
➢ Stillbirth Rate should be reduced to “single digit” by 2025.
➢ Achieve a target of 90:90:90, for HIV/AIDS-infected people to know their HIV status. 90% of HIV
patients receive sustained Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). 90% of all people receiving ART will have viral
suppression.
National Health Mission (NHM) (2012):
❖ NHM focuses on improving maternal and child health outcomes by providing essential healthcare services,
immunization, nutrition support, and promoting institutional deliveries.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Society

Lecture - 30
Globalization
 2

Globalization
Globalization:
❖ Globalization can be defined as the rapid integration of economies and cultures of different societies
occurring through greater foreign trade and foreign investment.
❖ It encompasses technological progress, economic interdependence, supply chain complexity, and
environmental concerns.
❖ Globalization has both benefits and challenges, including impacts on labor markets, inequalities, and the need
for global governance.
❖ It has reshaped the world's economic and cultural landscape, raising questions about cultural preservation,
economic disparities, and environmental sustainability.
Factors Aiding Globalization in India:

Technology

LPG reform
Rise of
Organizatio

Factors
Aiding Faster
Globalization Transformation

Rise of MNCs

Funds
Cultural spread

❖ Technological advancements: Advances in technology have made it easier and cheaper to communicate and
transfer information across borders. This has enabled businesses to operate globally and has facilitated the
outsourcing of jobs to countries like India, where labor costs are lower. For example, India's Information and
Technology (IT) sector has become a hub for outsourcing services.
❖ Liberalization of trade policies: India's economic liberalization policies in the early 1990s opened up its
economy to international trade and investment. This led to increased competition, better access to global
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markets, and the entry of foreign companies into the Indian market. For example, the entry of global players
like Walmart, Amazon, and McDonald's in the Indian market.
❖ Faster Transportation: The growth of infrastructure, including improved transportation and communication
networks, has made it easier for businesses to operate globally and for people to travel across borders. For
example, the expansion of India's road network and the development of high-speed internet connectivity.
❖ Multi Global Agencies Regulate Trade: The establishment of global institutions such as the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has facilitated global economic cooperation
and integration.
❖ Expansion of financial markets: Global financial markets have become more integrated, allowing capital to
flow more freely across borders. This has led to increased foreign investment in India and the growth of Indian
companies in the global market. For example, the rise of Indian companies like Tata Motors and Infosys in the
global market.
❖ Raise of multinational corporations (MNCs): MNCs have played a significant role in the globalization
process by expanding their operations globally and setting up subsidiaries in different countries. This has led
to the transfer of technology, expertise, and capital across borders. For example, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo have
established a significant presence in the Indian market.
Impacts of Globalization:
❖ Homogenization Culture: It refers to the process by which cultural differences between nations and regions
gradually disappear and are replaced by a uniform and standardized global culture, largely driven by the forces
of globalization..
➢ Reasons for Homogenization Culture:
✓ Food: The growth of global consumer culture, which emphasizes material possessions and instant
gratification, has led to the adoption of similar values and behaviors across different cultures.
✓ Borrowing Pattern: The increasing interconnectedness of societies through international trade,
travel, and communication has led to the spread of cultural influences across borders.
✓ Entertainment: The rise of global mass media, including television, movies, and the internet, has
facilitated the spread of cultural products and values.
❖ Glocalization of Culture: It is a global trend in order to get accepted in local culture and shapes itself
according demand and desires of local culture.
➢ Example: McAloo tikki, McPanner Tikki, Traditional Indian wedding, etc.
➢ Entertainment: Over The Top (OTT) Platform.
➢ Consumption pattern: Local Culture.
❖ Revival of Culture: It refers to the process of revitalizing cultural traditions, practices, and values that have
been marginalized, suppressed, or lost over time.
➢ This process involves rediscovering and revitalizing cultural expressions, art, crafts, literature, language,
music, dance, and other aspects of culture
➢ These were once prevalent but have declined or disappeared due to various factors such as colonization,
globalization, modernization, and urbanization.
➢ Example: Yoga, Religious revivalism, AYUSH Ministry for Medicine Science.
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Impacts of Globalization on Women:

❖ Positive Impacts:
➢ Economic empowerment: Globalization has enabled women to become more economically empowered
in many countries. For example, microfinance initiatives such as the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and
the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in India have helped women to start their own
businesses and become financially self-sufficient. Women can also become breadwinners
➢ Increased access to education: Globalization has enabled women in many countries to gain greater
access to education and training. For example, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 5
(SDGs 5) included a to achieve gender parity in education by 2015, which has helped to increase the
enrolment of girls in schools in many countries.
➢ Employment opportunities: The growth of new industries and the expansion of the service sector have
created new employment opportunities for women in many countries. For example, the IT and business
process outsourcing industries have emerged as major employers in urban areas, providing opportunities
for women to work in formal sector jobs.
➢ Social and cultural changes: Globalization has facilitated greater social and cultural changes,
challenging traditional gender roles and promoting greater acceptance and understanding of women's
rights and issues. For example, the growth of the #MeToo movement has helped to raise awareness about
sexual harassment and assault, promoting greater gender equality and empowering women to speak out
against discrimination and abuse.
➢ Increased living standards because women have access to better technology and equipment to work
❖ Negative Impacts:
➢ Crime, Human Trafficking, and violence: Globalization has also been associated with increased levels
of sexual harassment and violence against women in India. For example, the rise of call center jobs in
India has led to instances of harassment and assault against women who work in this industry. And also
International women trafficking is also increasing nowadays.
➢ Impact on traditional roles: Globalization has also led to changes in traditional gender roles, which can
be challenging for women in India. For example, as more women enter the formal sector workforce, there
can be increased pressure on them to balance their professional and domestic responsibilities, which can
be difficult in a society where women are still expected to be the primary caregivers for their families.
➢ Exploitation in the informal sector: Many women in India work in the informal sector, which has grown
rapidly in recent years due to globalization. However, these jobs often lack basic protections and rights,
leaving women vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. For example, in the garment industry, women are
often employed in low-paying and unsafe jobs, with long hours and no job security.
Impacts of Globalization on Family:
❖ Nuclearization of Family:
➢ Globalization has contributed to the nuclearization of families, especially in urban areas.
➢ As people move to cities for better economic opportunities, the traditional extended family structure,
where multiple generations live together in the same household, becomes less common.
 5

❖ Weakening of Bonds and Physical Distance:

➢ Globalization has made it easier for individuals and families to move across borders in search of
employment, education, or other opportunities.
➢ While this has many benefits, such as improved living standards and exposure to diverse cultures, it can
also lead to physical distance between family members.
❖ Selection Mates: Changing in selection mates to marriage through Shaadi.com, etc.
❖ Displacement and Migration: Globalization has led to an increase in international migration, which can result
in the separation of family members and breakdown of family relationships. Migrants may also face social
isolation and discrimination in their new environments.
❖ Changing Roles: Globalization has led to changes in gender roles, which can create tension and conflict within
families that adhere to traditional gender norms.
❖ Breakdown of traditional family structures: Globalization has led to the spread of individualistic values,
which can undermine the traditional family structures that rely on interdependence and collective decision-
making.
❖ Family disintegration: In extreme cases, globalization can lead to the disintegration of families. Economic
pressures, migration, and cultural conflicts can all contribute to the breakdown of family relationships and lead
to family disintegration.
❖ Disruption of intergenerational relationships: Globalization has disrupted intergenerational relationships,
with many young people no longer living with or close to their grandparents.
❖ Individualism in Family:
➢ With increased exposure to diverse cultures, ideas, and lifestyles, individuals may develop a stronger
sense of personal identity and autonomy.
➢ This can lead to a greater emphasis on individual goals, choices, and decision-making within the family
unit.
Impacts of Globalization on Caste System:
❖ Change in Commensality Practices:
➢ Globalization has led to changes in traditional commensality practices, which are rules governing who
can eat with whom within the caste system.
➢ Exposure to different cultures, international cuisines, and eating habits has gradually reduced the strict
adherence to commensality norms.
➢ People are more open to dining with individuals from different castes or even outside their own
community, reflecting a shift towards a more inclusive and cosmopolitan approach.
❖ Delinking of Occupation from Caste:
➢ Historically, caste and occupation were closely linked, with individuals expected to follow the occupation
associated with their caste.
➢ Globalization and urbanization have created new economic opportunities and jobs that are not tied to
one's caste. As a result, individuals from various caste backgrounds can pursue a wider range of
professions and careers, challenging the traditional occupation-caste linkage.
 6

❖ New Business Opportunities:

➢ Globalization has brought about new business opportunities in areas such as information technology,
finance, and entrepreneurship.
➢ These opportunities are often less influenced by caste considerations, allowing individuals to access and
participate in sectors that were previously restricted by caste-related barriers.
➢ This can lead to greater social mobility and economic empowerment for marginalized caste groups.
❖ Increasing Egalitarianism and Liberal Values:
➢ Globalization often promotes values of equality, human rights, and individual freedoms.
➢ Exposure to these values through media, education, and international interactions has encouraged more
people to challenge and question the inequalities and discrimination associated with the caste system.
➢ It has led to a growing awareness of the importance of egalitarianism and liberal values within society.
❖ Increasing Class Consciousness:
➢ Globalization has also contributed to an increase in class consciousness. While caste and class are distinct
social categories, they can intersect in various ways.
➢ The growing awareness of economic disparities, along with increased access to education and
information, has led to a greater focus on social and economic class as a basis for social identity and
mobilization.
➢ This can cut across traditional caste lines and lead to new forms of collective action for social and
economic rights.

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