UNDERSTANDING OF INTERNET

UNIT 1:

INTERNET:

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic

devices. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information,
communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more. You can do all of
this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also called going online.

Advantages of Internet

 Connectivity − As we know we are connected to the internet to stay

connected with our family, friends, colleagues, services, etc.
 Information − We can search and get many search results for our questions
and the information can increase knowledge.
 Online Payment − Using payment modes such as Paytm, GPay, and Bhim
UPI are many payment methods to pay online.
 Digital Marketing − We are making our websites and making business
online.
 Net Banking Services − Banking services such as payment, debit, credit,
changing our details, and scheduling payment are an integral part of secure
payment.
 Productive Collaboration − As we experienced, after the Covid pandemic,
we have worked from home and made things work better than ever before
by connecting through video conferencing and saving mobility.

Disadvantages Of Internet

 Wastage of time − Considering today’s lifestyle, one prominent advantage

of the Internet is addiction. People are getting addicted to the internet,
watching videos and reels without realizing they are wasting so much of
their time.
 Cybercrime − It is increasing rapidly as more information is shared and
getting leaked.
  Accessibility of pornographic content − It is accessible to even children
since there is complex information shared every day and it is hard to figure
out the source of these images and videos. This is a big concern regarding
children and their minds, parental security is necessary on mobile phones
being used by children.
 Identity theft − It is one major concern on a bigger level such as higher
organizations, government, and private sectors.
 Increase in cyber attacks in the banking sector and corporate sector −
Information is getting leaked, shared, and misused for harm, theft, privacy
violation, and harassment.
 Fake Information or Misleading − People nowadays can easily manipulate
any information and reclaim it to be true this could mislead people and
their reliability towards information shared.
Advantages of Internet Disadvantages
of Internet
It provides great Accessibility to information. Sometimes,
the internet
gives
Complexity
and False
Information.
It inculcates easy and faster communication. Unavailability
in bad
weather.
People would gain knowledge and obtain loads of It leads to the
information about services. insecurity of
information
and data loss.
It permits online payments and digital marketing. It has a bigger
Workload and
Complex
Designing.
It is efficient for business & organizational growth. It is very
expensive
when done at
 the
organizational
level.
It leads to mass communication among people to spread It produces
awareness. more threats,
cyber-attacks,
harassment,
and violations.
It facilitates social networks to increase development and Increase hate
collaboration. and fake
information
which can
lead to mental
health issues.
It provides more security in the banking sector and Reliability and
feasible solutions to issues. security are
there, but as
the internet is
public and
worldwide
connected,
there are
chances that
issues(viruses,
threats) can
occur.

Disadvantages Of Internet

 Wastage of time − Considering today’s lifestyle, one prominent advantage

of the Internet is addiction. People are getting addicted to the internet,
watching videos and reels without realizing they are wasting so much of
their time.
 Cybercrime − It is increasing rapidly as more information is shared and
getting leaked.
  Accessibility of pornographic content − It is accessible to even children
since there is complex information shared every day and it is hard to figure
out the source of these images and videos. This is a big concern regarding
children and their minds, parental security is necessary on mobile phones
being used by children.
 Identity theft − It is one major concern on a bigger level such as higher
organizations, government, and private sectors.
 Increase in cyber attacks in the banking sector and corporate sector −
Information is getting leaked, shared, and misused for harm, theft, privacy
violation, and harassment.
 Fake Information or Misleading − People nowadays can easily manipulate
any information and reclaim it to be true this could mislead people and
their reliability towards information shared.
Advantages of Internet Disadvantages
of Internet
It provides great Accessibility to information. Sometimes,
the internet
gives
Complexity
and False
Information.
It inculcates easy and faster communication. Unavailability
in bad
weather.
People would gain knowledge and obtain loads of It leads to the
information about services. insecurity of
information
and data loss.
It permits online payments and digital marketing. It has a bigger
Workload and
Complex
Designing.
It is efficient for business & organizational growth. It is very
expensive
when done at
 the
organizational
level.
It leads to mass communication among people to spread It produces
awareness. more threats,
cyber-attacks,
harassment,
and violations.
It facilitates social networks to increase development and Increase hate
collaboration. and fake
information
which can
lead to mental
health issues.
It provides more security in the banking sector and Reliability and
feasible solutions to issues. security are
there, but as
the internet is
public and
worldwide
connected,
there are
chances that
issues(viruses,
threats) can
occur.
The Growth of the Internet and the Web

:The internet has influenced many areas of our lives. It started as something that
would change the way we use computers, then went on to impact
communication, research, sales, entertainment, and countless other aspects.

With it comes new technology and terminology that has become part of our
everyday language, including email addresses, websites, apps, and downloads.
The internet and the web have changed the world we live in, and in turn, it has
continued to develop and advance.
Many look at the web as an expanding unfinished project. There are plenty of
different directions it could head in, and several stakeholders are interested in
helping to steer or control its path. As a tool for communication and profit, it’s
essential to recognize where the web started and where it could go next.

In this article, we look at the different terminology used for the internet and the
web. We’ll go back to the beginning to understand how things started, as well as
looking at the evolution of the web. This information will provide the ideal
context for anticipating what could come next and how we envisage the internet
will be used in the coming years.

Read on to discover what Web 3.0 is and what that means in the grand scheme of
things, as well as how you can access Web 3.0 today.

The Internet or the Web

Before we go any further, it’s useful to identify two key terms that we’ll use in this
article. Internet and web are often used interchangeably, but we’re making a
distinction here to bring some clarity to the situation.

The internet is a term that describes the network of computers where you can
access information, send emails, and share files. It’s a kind of infrastructure where
the web can work. Computers and routers all around the world are connected,
and that forms what we refer to as the internet.

The web, on the other hand, consists of the pages and content you see when you
use a device. It’s also an infrastructure, but it’s a software or information system
that you can access from the internet. A familiar name for it is the world wide
web, which you’ll recognize from website addresses. That’s often shortened to
the web, and you might use another phrase, online, which means things that you
can do and access on the web using the internet.

History of the Internet:

The Internet began as a research project in the 1960s. There were many pioneers
in research, science, and technology that paved the way. The concept of a
‘galactic network’ of computers was put into practice by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) when they created a prototype that sent the
first message from a computer at UCLA to one in Stanford University in 1969.

In the 1970s, protocols were developed, including Transmission Control Protocol

and Internet Protocol (TCP and IP), which might sound familiar. They were used
by ARPANET in the 80s to extend the network, and so the internet was born.

However, it wasn’t until the 1990s that it took on the form that we have come to
know today. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee described the concept of the Web, a way of
accessing data through websites. Later, search engines and the first websites
appeared. The code for the World Wide Web was published using the internet,
and through input and collaboration, it began to take shape.

Evolution of the Web

From its beginnings as a work of information sharing and collaboration, the web
has gone on to keep those purposes at its heart. As a flexible tool and information
service, it has been shaped by those that use it, while others have harnessed it for
their own needs.

After its conception, the web evolved. People often refer to those different stages
of development as iterations one and two, and version three is anticipated.
However, others view these alternative ways of using it, meaning they can
overlap but also expand.

The web’s evolution has relied on technology but also on how users interact with
it. For it to advance or evolve, we need the capability to make it happen, such as
the protocols required to create the internet. However, we also need the idea, for
example, Tim Berners-Lee conceiving of a way to access data and then making it a
reality.

While Berners-Lee might have first described websites as places to access data, he
later went on to talk about the Semantic Web, which was his dream of how it
could evolve and be used. We have the concept, and the technology is catching
up, which is why many anticipate the emergence of web 3.0 in the near future.
Let’s look at the three iterations of the web to understand where it started, what
we experience now, and how that could transform in the coming years.

Web 1.0:

The first iteration is often referred to as the read-only version. It’s defined by how
people used and still do use the web. Its main function was as a source of
information, and the majority of users would be searching for content and
reading it.

In this iteration, there are authors who create the pages, and there are the users
who ‘surf’ the web and consume the content. Websites in this version are fairly
static spaces, like an encyclopedia, a shop window, or a catalog, where people can
browse and read. The critical distinction is that the majority of users are reading
and not adding to the information.

The HTML pages add the ability to display text and later images and videos, but
there was no way for site visitors to change that data. Many websites still function
in this way, which is why it’s crucial to understand the overlapping nature of the
different iterations.

The initial groundbreaking concept of the web that we still marvel at today is that
it increases your reach. An author of a page can present their content to people
all over the world, shaking off the constraints of having a physical location. This
element is still beneficial, which is why eCommerce sites still function in a read-
only Web 1.0 format. There is some interaction from the user, but the data is set
by the site creator.

Web 2.0:

Our current iteration is Web 2.0 or the read-write version. It moves on from
having the majority of users being people who search for and read information.
Now, more users are becoming creators and adding to the content on the web.
The interactions between people on the web increase, and those creations and
communications influence the landscape.
The read-write iteration means more rapid change. The potential, when
compared to 1.0, is much bigger as each user/creator is leaving their mark on
what the web is and what it could become. Examples of sites that are part of this
version include Imgur and YouTube, which get their content from user
submissions.

With the level of user participation increasing, the amount of content accessible
through the internet expanded considerably. Through databases, social media,
and forms, people starting to come online to be part of a community, to create,
and to share instead of just accessing information.

While a web full of contributors sounds overwhelmingly positive, Web 2.0 came
with challenges too. More interaction meant that people were providing their
information online. These details became commodities. Disparities between large
companies that hosted sites and their content and the people who interacted
with them emerged as transparency decreased.

Access points expanded too. Instead of only search engines and browsers, social
media sites and applications created small spaces that gave us a doorway to the
web, but only to specific content. Introducing the concept of iteration 2.0 started
people wondering where the web would go next.

Web 3.0:

The newest iteration hasn’t fully arrived yet. However, a fuzzy outline and
speculation of what Web 3.0 could be are slowly appearing. Now we return to the
idea of a ‘Semantic Web’ that Berners-Lee had envisioned. In this version, the
machine will talk to the machine enabling daily tasks, mechanisms, or activities to
be handled by devices.

This evolution moves from read-only and read-write to read-write-execute,

meaning that content could be read by software to perform a service or a task.
We’re already on the path with the increase in peer-2-peer (P2P) concepts, such
as blockchain.

Other signs of the new version of the web include virtual reality, open-source
software, and the Internet of Things (IoT). The latter includes devices that aren’t
computers, which interact on a network. They could be smart home products,
sensors, and security systems and allow for automation, monitoring, and remote
control.

One of the biggest hopes for Web 3.0 as it’s formed is that it will bring back
openness and devolve control through a decentralized network. As with
cryptocurrencies like Ethereum, no single entity is in control, but actions must
follow protocols, are recorded, and therefore transparent. 3.0 might look to
address other issues that have come about during the evolution of the web.
These include an excess of advertising, data harvesting, breaches, and censorship.

Evolution or Revolution:

As we’ve previously mentioned, the evolution of the web relies on two aspects:
technology and concept. In theory, then, we are in control of where it goes next.
If the desire and the design and content of the web moves toward openness and
decentralization, the concept just needs the technology to support it.

In this way, you could view the adoption and use of Web 3.0 applications as a
form of revolution, not just evolution. When users became participants in Web
2.0, it created problems, such as data collection. However, it allowed more people
into the system, which means they could also provide solutions to these issues.

This evolution will take time as it involves the infrastructure of the web, which
means it might not feel different, but the effect will be significant. There’s a
chance that Web 3.0 will give us more control and more time in our days. It could
also change existing business models, bringing tokens and unrestricted currencies
into popular use. The impact of these changes has the potential to spread far
beyond the internet and into our daily lives.

Obsolete Technology

Throughout this article, we’ve been referring to the versions of the web as
iterations. This terminology is common in many industries, but especially in
technology. Think of the 4G moving to 5G and the release of the iPhone X; each
one suggests something bigger and better, or at least a new way of doing things.
 We might be moving into the era of 3.0, but that doesn’t mean that the way we
used to use the web will become obsolete. Each version adds to the functionality
rather than changing it completely. That means some websites will still exist as
places to browse and read; others will have that option plus the ability to interact
and contribute. On top of that, machines could also read that data and execute
tasks, all while we avoid letting our data become a commodity.

When machines can better understand what is written on the web, we’ll have
more efficient search engines, enhanced connectivity with different objects, and
fewer people seeking to control the data. Other benefits could include better
customer support through chatbots and more helpful and targeted advertising.

Accessing Web 3.0

We’re in an exciting phase as we transition to Web 3.0, even though that concept
is not clearly defined yet. By looking at the invention of the internet and the web,
we can see that things have come a long way. Last week, we announced
that Brave browser now allows users to natively browse .crypto websites on
desktop and Android. This is a huge step toward onboarding the masses onto
Web 3.0 and is a testament to how quickly this space is moving.

In the last decade, the growth of devices, websites, and applications has risen to
an almost unmanageable level. While we haven’t hit maximum capacity, the
expansion of the web needs to be matched by our laws, social actions, and way of
life. Web 3.0 could be an opportunity for work to be done to the infrastructure of
the online world and our daily lives to align them more closely.
Who owns the Internet?

There are two answers to the question of who owns the internet:

 No one
 Everyone
No one owns the internet

If thinking of the internet as a single unified entity, no one owns it. While a few
organizations may determine the internet’s structure, they don’t have ownership
over the internet itself. No company or government can claim ownership of it.
 The internet is more of a concept than an actual tangible entity, and it relies on a
physical infrastructure that connects networks to other networks.

The concept is similar to being a room full of people who all speak different
languages. In order to communicate, you’d need to come up with a standard set
of rules and vocabulary so everyone can be on the same page.

The internet is essentially that—a system that allows different computer

networks to communicate with one another using a standardized set of rules. No
one entity owns these rules, they are there to help facilitate and standardize
communication.

The internet is a global collection of inter-networked systems that depend on sets

of rules known as protocols. These protocols allow computers to communicate
across networks. It relies on an expansive infrastructure of routers, Network
Access Points, and computer systems.

It’s one giant system made up of many much smaller systems. While the smaller
systems can be owned, the all-encompassing giant system cannot.

Everyone owns the internet

At the same time, thousands of people and organizations own the internet. These
smaller systems each have an owner, and these owners can control the quality
and level of access one has to the internet. They may not own the entire system,
but they can impact your internet experience.

The physical networks that carry internet traffic between different systems is the
internet backbone. In the beginning days of the internet, ARPANET made up this
backbone. Today, several large corporations provide the routers and cable that
make it up. Some of these corporations include:

 UUNET
 Level 3
 Verizon
 AT&T
 Lumen Technologies
 Sprint
 IBM
These companies are Internet Service Providers (ISPs), which means that anyone
wanting to access the internet must ultimately work with these companies.

There are also smaller ISPs, such as Cable and DSL companies. These companies
are not part of the internet’s backbone, but rather they negotiate with the larger
ISP companies mentioned above for internet access.

Every ISP has its own network. Many companies have Local Area Networks that
link to the internet. Each of these networks is both a part of the internet and its
own separate entity. If you own a device that connects to the internet, that
means your device is part of the enormous inter-network system, making you
part-owner of the internet.

Anatomy of the Internet:

The Internet is a vast collection of computers linked by cable and satellites, not
controlled by any one authority, but all operating under common network
protocols. The term 'Internet' includes both the hardware (satellites, cable,
routing devices and computers) and the software (programs and network
protocols) that enable computers to communicate with each other.

When information is sent across the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP: the networking-language computers use when communicating over the
Internet) first breaks the information up into packets of data. The client computer
sends those packets to the local network, Internet service provider (ISP), or online
service. From here, the packets travel through many levels of networks,
computers, and communications lines until they reach their final destinations.
Many types of hardware help the packets on their way. These are:

Hubs, which link groups of computers together and let them intercommunicate
through multiple ports.
Bridges, which link local area networks (LANs) with each another.
Gateways, which act like bridges, but also convey data between dissimilar
networks.
Repeaters, which amplify the data at intervals so that the signal doesn't weaken.
Routers, which ensure packets of data arrive at their proper destination across
different technologies, media, and frame formats.
Servers, which deliver web pages and other services as requested.
Client computers, which make the initial request for Internet services, and run
applications to handle those services.
Cables and/or satellite communications, which make the hardware connections.

All hardware units need common operating methods, basic instructions called
protocols that specify to all parties how the data will be handled.

Internet Connections

Physical Internet connections are effected with:

1. Twisted wire: two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs for ordinary
telephone communications, and 4 pairs of copper cabling for Internet networks.
Transmission speeds range from 2 Mbps to 100 Mbps. (Transmission speed or
bandwidth is measured in bits per second, where K a thousand, M a million, and G
is a thousand million.)

2. Coaxial cables: copper or aluminum wire wrapped with an insulating and

flexible material: widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and for
local area networks generally. Transmission speeds range from 200 Gbps to over
500 Gbps.

3. Optical fiber cable: one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective
layers: not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speeds may
exceed 1000 Gbps.

Satellite or Wireless connections are made with:

1. Terrestrial microwave transmitters and receivers placed on 'line of sight'

locations on tops of buildings and elevated ground, usually assisted by relay
stations spaced approximately 30 miles apart.

2. Communications satellites using microwave radio as their telecommunications

medium, which is not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. Such earth-orbiting
systems can receive and relay voice, data, and TV signals.
3. Cellular and PCS systems using radio communications technologies, which are
often specific to individual countries. Each area or cell employs a low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one cell to the next.

4. Wireless LANs using both high- and low-frequency technologies to enable

communication between several devices in a limited area (e.g. Wi-Fi, BlueTooth,
WiMax, UWB and ZigBee).

Networks are commonly designated as LAN ( local area network) WAN (wide area
network), MAN (metropolitan area network), PAN (personal area network), VPN
( virtual private network), CAN (campus area network) and SAN (storage area
network).

Wireless communication spans the electromagnetic spectrum from 9 kHz to 300

GHz. Satellite signals travel at the speed of light, but the distances involved induce
a time-delay called 'latency'. A 71,000 km separation of transmitter and receiver,
for example, will induce a latency of 473 ms, often noticeable on international
calls.

It is often convenient to recognize four levels of Internet connection:

1. The 'backbones' are the main "trunk" connections of the Internet, carrying data
at high speeds by fiber-optic cables and satellite links across the countries,
continents and oceans of the world. Bandwidth is a measure of data that can be
transferred per unit time, and in the US these backbones have bandwidths of 155
Mbps to 2.5 Gbps. Backbones are owned and operated by Network Service
Providers, major companies like AT&T, Verizon, and AOL. Built into this network is
redundancy, transmission surplus to demand but kept in reserve should there be
traffic peaks, or breaks in the network.

2. Backbones 'step down' to regional and local networks at hubs, once called
Network Access Points or Metropolitan Area Exchanges but now Internet
Exchange Points (IXPs), which are again under the ownership and control of NSPs
(Network Service Providers).
3. High-speed switching computers make the connection to the local networks,
here leased by NSPs to government departments, campus area networks, large
companies and ISPs (Internet Service Providers).

4. ISPs, the most familiar to the public, are retail providers, covering the 'last mile'
to offer Internet access to client computers, i.e. those in homes and small
businesses. ISPs include telecom giants but are generally national or local
companies.

Routers

Routers ensure that all data gets sent to its intended destination by the most
efficient route. They open the IP packets of data to read the destination address,
calculate the best route, either to its final destination, or to another router closer
to that destination, repeating this until the destination is reached. To find the
optimal route, routers employ an internal database called a routing table. There
are two types. A static table specifies unchanging paths for packets to use. A
dynamic table allows a packet to have multiple routes. Sometimes the packets are
sent to a router's input port faster than the port can process them, when they pile
up in an input queue. If packets overflow that queue, then the TCP protocol has
the packets sent again. Routers are a key element of the Internet, and today's
models provide great flexibility, security and control over company networks. The
one network can link all company employees, even those on out-of-office hotel
and conference rooms. Many built-in technologies such as voice, wireless, and
advanced security systems can be optimized by the IT management team, and
proper measures taken against security lapses and malicious code attacks.

Servers

Equally important is the server, a powerful computer (or often groups of

computers) that handle requests for web pages, email data, and an increasing
variety of services. The computers will use the Unix, Windows, Linux, or
Macintosh operating systems, which have the TCP/IP protocols built in, but run
different types of software, depending on the service offered: http servers,
network servers, ftp servers or database servers. Simplest are the http (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol) servers, which comply with requests from website visitors,
sending the data back to the client computer for the browser software to
assemble as familiar web pages. Generally, however, servers will also employ
scripts (Perl, Common Gateway Interface scripts, .NET and others) to engage with
external mini-programs like database lookup or interactive forms processing. A
Yahoo search for information on telecommunications, for example, will appear
like http://search.yahoo.com/bin/search?p=telecommunications, where the 'bin'
indicates where the scripts are located and the 'search?p=telecommunication'
instructs the script to search the associated databases for the term
'telecommunications'.

Repeaters

Repeaters maintain the signal strength and use technologies appropriate to the
transmission medium. Even backbone fiber-optical cables may carry optical
amplifier repeaters in the form of erbium-doped amplifiers spaced several tens of
kilometers apart.

Hubs

Transmission step-downs at Internet Exchange Points are achieved by the use of

hubs, an electronic device with multiple ports. Transmission rates vary
considerably across these hubs: as this Wikipedia listing indicates.

Gateways

Technically, a gateway is a network node designed to interface with another

network that uses a different protocol. Not only must the gateway contain
protocols translators, but also impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault
isolators, and/or signal translators. Mutually acceptable administrative
procedures have also to be agreed between the two networks.

Bridges

A bridge connects numerous local area networks for the purpose of collaboration
and/or exchange of information. All networks have to be using the same network
protocols.

Client Computers
Client computers are those used by the general public, on which they run
applications, or make requests for Internet services.

What is ARPANET?

What is a ARPANET?

ARPANET, or Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, was an early packet-

switching network and the first to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Established in 1969 by the U.S. Department of Defense, ARPANET was the
precursor to the modern internet and played a significant role in developing
today’s networking technologies.

Developed by ARPA, a US government agency, ARPANET was the first successful

attempt at allowing computers to communicate and share information.

Before the ARPANET project, computers were standalone machines that couldn’t

easily connect with one another. The development of ARPANET was a

groundbreaking moment because it was the first time computers could send

messages, share data, and collaborate over long distances.

Knowing about ARPANET’s development is essential because today’s internet

would not exist without it. As the first network to use packet switching, it formed

the foundation for all packet-switching networks.

CREATION OF ARPANET:

Before ARPANET, computers worked in isolation. Communication with other

machines wasn’t possible. These computers were large, expensive, and typically

stored in specialized environments like universities, laboratories, or government

institutions. They had limited connectivity and centralized control, meaning

computer resources were controlled by a single machine. Users would typically

interact with the computer using punch cards.

In the early sixties, Paul Baran — an engineer working for the US think tank Rand

Corporation — developed the concept of decentralized network architecture

using packet switching.

Baran was focused on developing survivable communication networks. He was

tasked with creating a computer network that could continue functioning during a

nuclear attack. That’s how Baran developed the concept of packet switching

(initially known as “hot-potato routing”).

Packet switching technology is a method of communication that involves

transmitting data across a network by breaking it into smaller units called data

packets. These packets contain the transmitted data and additional information

about its source and destination.

In Baran’s system, communications were divided into tiny pieces and passed

around using distributed network nodes. The idea was that if one of the nodes
was affected by an explosion, the rest could continue functioning. Baran’s concept

became the key component of ARPANET — the very first packet-switched

network.

The development of ARPANET started in 1966. The project aimed to connect

various research institutions and universities working on defense-related

assignments.

ARPANET was created through a collaboration between researchers, data

scientists, engineers, and organizations funded by the U.S. Department of

Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency. The contract to build ARPANET

was awarded to a technology company, Bolt, Beranek, and Newman (BBN).

The company worked on designing and implementing the necessary hardware

and software components. The initial ARPANET architecture included four nodes:

UCLA, SRI, UCSB, and the University of Utah.

In 1969, a team of graduate students at UCLA attempted to send the first packet-

switched message using ARPANET. The message’s destination was a computer at

the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), marking a significant milestone in computer

networking as the first message between two computers.

The system crashed, resulting in incomplete transmission. However, the moment

is still considered the birth of ARPANET and the first successful attempt at

computer-to-computer communication.
 How did ARPANET work?

ARPANET utilized many technologies, including the TCP/IP protocol, interface

message processors, and packet switching. Here’s how each of ARPANET’s main

components worked.

Packet switching

Packet switching was the key concept that enabled ARPANET’s operation. Here’s

how it worked:

 The data being transmitted between two computers was broken down into

smaller units called packets.

 Each packet contained a portion of the data with information about its

destination.

 The packets were transmitted individually across the network and routed

independently based on the addressing information.

The packet-switching approach helped organizations improve their use of

computing resources with multiple packets sent and received simultaneously.

TCP/IP Protocol
 TCP, which replaced the earlier NCP protocol, was vital in enabling more reliable

communication over ARPANET. The main functions of TCP/IP were:

 Providing reliable data transmission between multiple computers connected to

the network.

 Introducing flow control mechanisms that prevented data overflow and network

congestion.

 Checking for errors to ensure the integrity of the received data and prevent the

transmission of corrupt data packets.

 Providing more flexibility than the previously used NCP protocol, like working with

different types of networks and devices.

These and several other TCP functions allowed computer terminals to

communicate and exchange information on ARPANET.

Interface message processors

Interface message processors (IMPs) were important components of ARPANET,

serving as intermediaries between host computers and the network. Here’s how

they worked:
 IMPs were specialized computers designed to connect the host computers and

the ARPANET network. Each host computer had a dedicated IMP responsible for

transmitting and receiving data packets.

 The interface message processors acted as gateways. They translated data from

the host computers into packets to be transmitted across the network. IMPs also

added the necessary information to data packets and ensured they were correctly

routed to their destinations.

 When a host computer wanted to send data, it would send it to its dedicated IMP.

The IMP would break the data into packets, add appropriate information (e.g.,

headers) and transmit them.

 The receiving interface message processor would strip off the headers and deliver

the data to the host computer.

Overall, the IMPs acted as important intermediaries in the ARPANET

communication process.
Development and expansion of ARPANET

During the early stages of ARPANET, it wasn’t popular. Due to its restricted access

and complexity, only small groups of data scientists, graduates, and researchers

directly involved with the network were using it.

ARPANET created opportunities for the development of other packet-based

networks. However, these networks couldn’t communicate with each other due

to a lack of standardization. Each organization used its own network with varying

standards and protocols, making it difficult to establish a connection.

To address this issue, a group of researchers and engineers at UCLA, known as the

Network Working Group (NWG), created the Network Control Protocol (NCP). The

NCP was the first host-to-host protocol that allowed host computers to

communicate with each other by establishing set rules and procedures for

exchanging data. ARPA also developed several standards and protocols that were

crucial for the early stages of computer networking, including Telnet and File

Transfer Protocol (FTP).

Even with the NCP, ARPANET was not taking off. To spread the word about packet

switching and make the world notice, Lawrence Roberts, one of ARPANET’s

project managers, decided to give a public demonstration of the network and its

potential at the International Conference on Computer Communication (ICCC).

During the early stages of ARPANET, it wasn’t popular. Due to its restricted access

and complexity, only small groups of data scientists, graduates, and researchers

directly involved with the network were using it.

The demonstration went successfully and marked a change in the attitude

towards packet switching. Following the demonstration, ARPANET grew rapidly.

Many government computers and universities joined the network, and ARPANET

became operational in 1975. It was transferred to the Defense Communications

Agency.

With the expansion of ARPANET, it became evident that the NCP had significant

limitations. It was a simple protocol that didn’t meet the evolving needs of

ARPANET.

In 1977, the TCP/IP (the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) was

developed. TCP aimed to create a reliable transport protocol that could handle

data transmission across diverse networks. It improved upon the NCP in many

ways, such as introducing more reliability, error detection capabilities, and flow

control.

The TCP was implemented on various host computers connected to ARPANET,

with its performance and reliability extensively tested. As ARPANET evolved, TCP

proved to be a successful and indispensable protocol.

From ARPANET to today’s internet

ARPANET was the pioneering network that laid the foundation for creating the

internet (or the World Wide Web) as we know it.

ARPANET was decommissioned in 1989, 20 years after it was first used to send a

message between two computers.

ARPANET’s most significant computer technology advancement, public packet

switching, still enables various types of data transmission today — from sending

an instant message to watching a Reel on Instagram.

Many, if not most, devices we use and rely on today are “smart,” which means

they can connect to the global network. This connectivity is possible because of

shared communication protocols. ARPANET was crucial in developing protocols

still used in modern networks today.

As technologies evolved, ARPANET was replaced by the National Science

Foundation Network (NSFNET). That’s when the era of the modern internet

officially began.

However, the developments after ARPANET wouldn’t have been possible without

the foundation it laid for modern networking and communication. Packet

switching, distributed network architecture, TCP/IP, the adoption of file

encryption technologies, and many other ARPANET contributions paved the way

for the internet we rely on today.

History of the World Wide Web
British physicist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. Along with
colleagues at Geneva-based CERN -- the European Organization for Nuclear
Research -- Berners-Lee had been working on the concept since 1989. Their goal
was to combine available technologies and data networks to create a user-
friendly system for global communication and information sharing. At the time,
they began work on the first WWW server, which they called httpd. They also
dubbed the first client WWW.

Originally, WWW was a what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) hypertext
browser/editor that ran in the NextStep environment. In 1990, Berners-Lee
demonstrated the first web server and browser at CERN to explain his idea of a
World Wide Web. The web then entered the public eye in 1991 when Berners-
Lee, who also developed hypertext, announced his creation on the
alt.hypertext newsgroup; at the same time, he created the world's first web page
with the address http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html.

This page, which remains operational as of 2022, includes information and links
about the WWW project and web servers. In 1993, CERN made the W3
technology publicly available on a royalty-free basis.

Web browser evolution and the growth of the World Wide Web
Berners-Lee and his team developed a text-based web browser that was released
in early 1992. However, it took the release of the more user-friendly Mosaic
browser in 1993 to kickstart the rapid acceptance and adoption of the WWW.
Mosaic provided a point-and-click graphical interface that people had been using
in personal computers for a few years. This familiarity increased public interest in
WWW and led to its rapid growth all over the world.

Entrepreneur and software engineer Marc Andreessen and others developed

Mosaic in the United States. They also developed the Netscape Navigator browser
that quickly became the dominant browser in 1994, until it was displaced by
Microsoft's Internet Explorer in 1995. IE dominated the web browser space until it
was challenged by browsers like Mozilla Firefox -- released in 2004 -- and Google
Chrome -- released in 2008. In 2015, Microsoft discontinued IE and replaced it
with the Microsoft Edge browser.

The Internet
Explorer browser -- available on Windows from 1995-2015 -- was replaced by
Microsoft Edge on Windows 10.

After inventing the web, Tim Berners-Lee also founded the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), a nonprofit international consortium that aims to standardize
the web through specifications and reference software.

For more on Web 3.0, read the following articles:

10 Web3 courses to try

Web 3.0 security risks: What you need to know

5 ways Web 3.0 will impact digital marketing

How to become a Web 3.0 developer: Required skills and guide

Top 8 Web 3.0 trends and predictions for 2023 and beyond
World Wide Web versus the internet
The web is often confused with the internet even though they're different. While
the two are intricately connected, the web is just one of many applications built
on top of the internet, a vast, global network of multiple smaller networks. The
internet incorporates supporting infrastructure and other technologies that
connect networks, websites and users to each other. In contrast, the web is a
communications model or platform that enables the retrieval or exchange of
information over the internet through HTTP. Through the WWW, users can access
web pages over the internet by following a series of HTTP links. To retrieve and
view these pages, users need to use a browser installed on the computer, such as
Microsoft Edge, Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox.

Both the internet and the web operate within a client-server model. A server is a
program that accepts requests from other computers, known as clients, on the
network to store and transmit documents. Clients request documents from a
server when a user asks for them and then displays them on the user's screen.

The world's first web server went online in 1991 in the U.S. By the end of the year,
there were only 10 web servers around the world. Two years later, there were
500 operational web servers; by 2016, the number of web servers had grown to
more than 100 million.

Since the release of CERN's first web browser, the WWW has evolved into a
massive ecosystem of websites and users. As of 2022, approximately 5 billion
people -- or 63% of the world's population -- use the web, which is believed to
contain approximately 1.88 billion websites.
 Client
devices communicate with servers to access web pages using HTTP.

What will Web 3.0 look like compared to Web 1.0 and 2.0?
The World Wide Web continues to evolve. The first generation of the Web, Web
1.0, which Berners-Lee originally defined in 1989, had no video content and a
page format similar to that of a printed page. Web 1.0 was primarily static and
focused on providing information.

Around the beginning of the 21st century, Web 2.0 ushered in a new era that was
more interactive and dynamic than its predecessor and focused on user
collaboration, universal network connectivity and communications channels. As
smartphones, mobile internet access and social networks spurred the growth of
Web 2.0, applications -- such as Airbnb, TikTok, Twitter and Uber -- which
increased online interactivity and utility, became increasingly popular.

With a lofty goal of creating more intelligent, connected and open websites, Web
3.0 is still in its infancy and has yet to be defined fully. Unlike Web 2.0, which
includes applications and websites that entail user-generated content, Web 3.0 is
expected to be fully decentralized; this places content creation in the hands of the
creators rather than platform owners.
Internet Terminology
A network is defined as data communication system that interconnects computer
systems. A network may be composed of different combination of LANs (Local
area Networks), MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks) or, WANs (Wide Area
Networks). At the simplest a network consists of two computers or devices with a
length of wire between them, facilitating communication.

Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks.

Internet was born as a result of technological advancements that have enabled

virtually all computers to be networked together. Around 1980, the Advanced
Research Project Agency, part of the Department of Defence, setup the first part
of what the world today knows as the Internet.

How Does Internet Work?

The thing that characterizes the Internet is how data transferred from one
computer to another. Here is what happens to a piece of data when it is
transferred over the Internet:

 It is broken up into a whole lot of same-sized pieces called packets.

 A header is added to each packet that explains where it came from, where
it should end up and how it fits in with the rest of the packets.
 Each packet is sent from computer to computer until it finds its way to its
destination. Each computer along the way decides where next to send the
packet. This could depend on things like how busy the other computers are
 when the packet was received. The packets may not all take the same
route.
 At the destination, the packets are examined. If there are any packets
missing or damaged, a message is sent asking for those packets to be
resent. This continues until all the packets have been received intact.
 The packets are reassembled into their original form.

Each computer connected up to the Internet has software

called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol), which is
responsible for receiving, sending and checking packets. TCP/IP is the glue of the
Internet.

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the web) is a collection of electronic
documents (called web pages) that are linked together like a spider web.

These documents are stored on computers called servers located around the
world.

Web Server

A Web Server is a computer that:

 Stores web pages

 Responsible for accepting requests from users and serve them with web
pages.

Some important web server programs are IIS (Internet Information server),
Apache.

Hyperlink

Hyperlink is an element in an electronic document that links to another place in

the same document or to an entirely different document or other resource.

Hyperlinks usually appear as underlined text and in a different color, but they may
also appear as graphics, such as buttons to click. Hyperlinks may link to another
place in the same page, to a different page, to play an audio or video file, to
download a file, to set up a message to an e-mail address, and to link to other
Internet resources.

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

Hypertext Markup Language is a language that consists of certain key words

called Tags, used for writing the documents on the web.

Web Page

A web page is an electronic document written in a computer language

called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). Web pages can contain text, graphics,
video, animation, and sound, as well as interactive features, such as data entry
forms.

Each page has a unique address known as a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that
identifies its location on the server. Web pages usually contain hyperlinks to other
web pages.

Website

A website is one or more web pages, belonging to a particular company,

university , government or an individual. The first page is called the home page,
which acts like an index, indicating the content on the site.

From the home page, you can click hyperlinks to access other web pages.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

Every page on the web has a unique address, called Uniform Resource Locator,
URL. A URL indicates where the web page is stored on the Internet.

IP (Internet Protocol) Address

Every host (a computer linked to the Internet) on the Internet has a unique host
number. This number is called the Internet Protocol address, or IP address. The IP
address is a unique address, generally written in the format xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx, xxx
represents a 3 digit number that varies between 0 and 255.

DNS (Domain Name System)

Every host (computer linked to Internet) has a unique host number called IP
address. You can connect to any host through IP address only, but it is difficult to
remember the 4-digit number of hosts.

To resolve this, domain-name is the solution. Domain name is a unique name of

the individual host computer on the Internet With this every computer on the
internet now have a both a domain name and IP address. To connect to any host
through domain name requires some mechanism that will convert your domain
name into IP address.

DNS, Domain name System is the standard for resolving names to addresses. It is
used mostly to translate between domain names and IP addresses.

Web Browser

A web browser is the software program, used to access the World Wide Web. A
browser retrieves data from remote web servers and displays a web page.
Through this tool user sends their request to Internet server to access the
information, Server process the request and responds with required information
as a web page to the user.

What is netiquette?

Netiquette is a made-up word from the words net and etiquette. Netiquette thus
describes the rules of conduct for respectful and appropriate communication on
the internet.
Netiquette is often referred to as etiquette for the internet. These are not legally
binding rules, but recommended rules of etiquette. Netiquette is mostly used for
dealing with unknown people on the internet. The rules of netiquette very
depending on the platform and its participants . Generally, it is up to the operator
of a website or communication app to specify the type and scope of netiquette. It
is also their responsibility to monitor compliance with these basic rules and to
penalize violations of them.
Netiquette: General rules of conduct

When communicating on the internet, you should always remember that you are
communicating with people and not simply with computers or smartphones. As
in the real world, rules of etiquette are necessary on the internet. Netiquette is
therefore important to avoid adverse consequences.
Below you will find 20 general recommendations for conduct on the
internet that you should follow when communicating online.
1. Stick to the rules of conduct online that you follow in real life

When communicating online, remember the rules of etiquette that you follow in
your everyday life. Refrain from insulting, provoking, threatening or insulting
others. Respect the opinions of your chat counterparts and express constructive
criticism. Remember that you can be prosecuted for insulting people online.

2. Netiquette: Think of the person

Think of the person behind the computer when you compose your messages. You
are not communicating with a machine, but with real people. Also, consider what
and how you write. Because the internet doesn't forget
anything! A screenshot or a copy of your messages is quickly made and still exists
even if you delete your messages afterward.
3. Present your best side online

Communication on the internet comes with a certain anonymity that does not
exist in real life when you are talking to someone face to face. Often this
anonymity leads to a lower inhibition threshold for many users and they
behave rudely online if, for example, you disagree with them.
Make sure that you show your best side online. Remain friendly and respectful,
even if you disagree. Good netiquette is characterized by respect, politeness and
professionalism.
A tip: You should generally refrain from writing messages or individual words
entirely in capital letters – even if you want to give these sections more
expression. After all, capital letters on the internet mean shouting and are
generally considered impolite.
4. Read first, then ask

Do you have a question about something? Then take the time to carefully read
the answers in the previous discussion posts first. There is a good chance that
someone has already answered your question. If you write an answer similar to
someone else's, it shows the other chat participants that you have paid little
attention to the conversation so far.

Remember that conversations online can happen very quickly. It is therefore

important to gather all the information before responding or asking questions.
5. Netiquette: Pay attention to grammar and punctuation

Take time to read through your answers again. Check them

for grammar, punctuation and correct spelling. It can be very frustrating for the
other person if they have to decipher poorly written sentences in order grasp the
meaning behind them. In addition, faulty grammar distracts from the goal of your
message.
Grammar, spelling and punctuation become especially important when
composing emails or other correspondence that you submit to colleagues or
superiors. If you have a weakness in grammar and spelling, don't be discouraged.
Use spelling aids before you send messages.
Another tip: When composing emails, always remember to use the appropriate
salutation and parting formula as well. These are also part of netiquette.
6. Respect the privacy of others

This rule should be followed not only in everyday use of online communication,
but also at work. Do not simply forward information that has been sent to you
without first obtaining permission from the original sender. When sending private
emails to multiple recipients, use BCC (blind carbon copy) instead of CC (carbon
copy). Many people do not like their names and email addresses being passed on
to people they do not know themselves.
This rule on the internet also applies to uploading and sharing photos or
videos that show other people. Before circulating such private files, be sure to
check with the people concerned before doing so.
Last but not least: Respect the privacy of others and do not sign up for
newsletters, forums or the like with someone else's name or email address.
7. Respect the time and bandwidth of others

We live in a much faster world than our parents or grandparents are used to.
Information can be sent to different people around the world in a matter of
seconds – and without much effort. Nevertheless, the bandwidth, that is to say
the information capacity of wires and channels, is limited. It is similar with
humans. Think of this limited receptivity of information when you send messages
to your friends, colleagues or superiors.

Do you get to the point quickly enough in your emails? Are your arguments
formulated correctly and clearly recognizable? No one wants to waste time
unnecessarily on an email whose core message is only at the end of the email.
That consumes time and effort, and is simply annoying. Also, consider who really
needs to be on the list of recipients. After all, respect for other people's time and
bandwidth is also part of netiquette.
8. Forgive the mistakes of others

Everyone who goes online to forums and networks was once a beginner. As in any
other field, you can make mistakes as a beginner. In online communication, these
can be a lack of etiquette or manners.

Often these are spelling mistakes, superfluous questions or answers that are too
long. With this in mind, it's important to forgive your counterparts' mistakes. If
they are only minor mistakes, it is best not to react to them at all. In the event of
a major error, for example a wrong quote, messages written only in capital letters
or missing grammar and punctuation, then it is best to point it out to the person
in a private message.
A tip: Sarcasm in written form is not always recognizable to everyone on the
internet. It is therefore better to remain objective. If you still want to express
sarcasm among friends or close colleagues, use emojis such as smileys or GIFs.
Carefully chosen, emojis can reinforce your message.
9. Netiquette: Don't abuse your power

On the internet, as in real life, some people have more power than others.
Moderators in a forum, experts in companies or system administrators. If you
have more power than others, you do not have the right to exploit this power.
Don't spy on colleagues or chat participants just because you have the technical
means to do so. For example, system administrators should never read private
emails or find out about the salary structure in the company.
10. Help keep flame wars under control
Flame wars are messages that contain aggressive personal criticism or attacks on
a person. In group chats, heated discussions often degenerate into so-
called flame wars. If you get into such a discussion, you should stay out of it.
Always remember that you should treat others as you would like to be
treated. Profanity is not part of netiquette.
Also remember that insults and threats on the internet can have legal
consequences for you. For this reason, do not be tempted to make such
comments, even in heated discussions. Instead, demonstrate exemplary conduct
on the internet.
11. Know where you are in cyberspace
Netiquette is interpreted differently in different places on the internet. For
example, it is perfectly normal to spread gossip in a TV discussion group.
However, if you do this in a serious discussion group, you will quickly make
yourself unpopular. It is therefore important that you know where you are on the
internet.
This also means that if you are in a new area that is unfamiliar to you, you need
to look around and learn the ropes. Get an idea of how other people in this area
of cyberspace communicate with each other and adapt to them.
12. Hate speech and netiquette

So-called hate speech on the internet is an increasing problem, especially in social

media. It is often found in offensive comments under photos or posts. However,
time and again there are coordinated actions by specific actors who join forces for
the sole purpose of spreading hate comments. Not infrequently, social or religious
fringe groups, foreigners or black people become victims of such actions.

Applications of Internet
1. Communication
2. Web Browsing
3. Online Shopping
4. Real-Time Update
5. Social Media
6. Job Search
7. Education
8. Travel
9. Stock Market Update
10. Video Conferencing

1. Communication
Communication refers to exchanging ideas and thoughts between or among
people to create understanding. The communication process involves the
elements of source, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, and feedback. In
organizations, both formal and informal communications simultaneously take
place. Formal communications refer to official communications in orders, notes,
circulars, agenda, minutes, etc. Apart from formal communications, informal
grapevine communications also exist. Informal communications are usually in the
form of rumors, whispers, etc. They are unofficial, unrecorded, and spread very
fast.
2. Web Browsing
Web Browsing is one of the applications of the internet. A web browser is a
program that helps the user to interact with all the data in the WWW (World
Wide Web). There are many web browsers present in today's world. Some of
them are as follows:
 Google Chrome

 Firefox

 Safari

 Internet Explorer

 Opera

 Microsoft Edge

 Netscape
3. Online Shopping
The era of the internet took shopping into a new market concept, where many
virtual shops are available 24x7. The shops provide all the necessary details of a
product on their website, so the user can choose as per their needs.
4. Real-Time Update
The internet makes things easier. One can quickly get an update on the things
happening in real-time in any part of the world. For example, sports, politics,
business, finance, etc. The internet is very useful in many decisions based on real-
time updates.
5. Social Media
The youth of this generation spend the maximum of their free time on social
media, all thanks to the internet. Social media is a place where the user can
communicate with anyone, like friends, family, classmates, etc. User can promote
their businesses on social media as well. You can also post your thoughts, pictures
and videos with your friends on social media.
6. Job Search
The internet has brought a revolution in the field of Jobs. The candidate can
search for their dream job, apply and get it very easily. Even companies nowadays
post their need on the internet and hire candidates as per their skills based on the
job role.
There are many platforms which are primarily doing this. Some of them are listed
below.
 LinkedIn

 Monster.com

 Naukari.com

 Indeed

 Glassdoor

 Upwork
7. Education
The Internet has a vital role in the education field. It became an effective tool in
both teaching and learning. Teachers can upload their notes or learning videos on
the websites with the help of the internet. It made the learning process more
diverse and joyful.
8. Travel
Users can easily search for their favourite tourist places worldwide and plan their
trips. One can book holiday trips, cabs, hotels, flight tickets, clubs, etc., with the
help of the Internet. Some websites that provide these facilities are as follows:
 goibibo.com

 makemytrip.com

 olacabs.com

You can read related articles such as Congestion Control in Computer Networks
here.
9. Stock Market Update

A stock market update refers to the latest information and news related to the
financial markets, particularly the stock market. The stock market is where
individuals buy and sell publicly traded company shares. Stock market updates
include vital data and statistics, like the current prices of major stocks, individual
stock prices, trading volumes, market capitalization, and price movements.
10. Video Conferencing

Video conferencing means using computers to provide a video link between two
or more people. It allows users in different locations to hold face-to-face
meetings. You can also see them instead of just talking to someone on the
telephone. Video conferencing is a widely accepted mode of communication
among businesses, houses, and other organizations.