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CASE STUDY REPORT: Applied Mechatronics in Flight Control Systems

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.28913.81761

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 CASE STUDY REPORT:
Applied Mechatronics in Flight Control Systems

Kaajal Kataria
Wanowrie-Pune, Maharashtra (India)
kjlktr22@gmail.com

Keywords: Flight control system; slight control surfaces; flight surfaces; cockpit controls; electronic
interface; flight directions; motion control; hydraulic circuits; hydromechanical flight control;
actuators; control surfaces; irreversible actuator; FBW system; plasma actuator; active flow control;
aileron; elevator; rudder; pitch; roll; yaw; flaps; slats; avionics; glass cockpit; autopilot

Abstract. In this report, we discuss the flight control system – its basic components such as ailerons,
rudders, elevators etc. The working of the autopilot and Flight Director component is also studied.
The evolutionary timeline of the advancements in flight control systems is traced spanning five
generations – from the earliest Ornithopter, to the Wright flyer, to present-day aircrafts, and even the
future scope in terms of active control systems using plasma actuators is discussed.

Introduction
Mechatronics is the culmination of the knowledge of mechanics, electronics, computer science and
automation technologies. These concepts are widely applied in the field of aviation and avionics.
Right from the cockpit to the tail, the aircraft consists of sensors, linkages and operating mechanisms
that help maintain the direction of flight, the position and stability of the aircraft, the safety and
comfort of flying and flight, and many such parameters.
In this paper, we see the evolution of the flight control systems right from the very first attempt at
flying via da Vinci’s Ornithopter, to the present day fly-by-optics systems used in aircrafts. We even
discuss the future trends that have been the focal point of the aviation academia, without including
the mathematical model involved.
1. What are flight controls? Why do we need them?
To control a system means to be able to manoeuvre it in a way that the desired output is attained.
Flight controls, or flight control systems, are essentially self-explanatory in their names. These
systems consist of components and subsystems that help a pilot manoeuvre the aircraft. A flight
control system [1] essentially consists of aerodynamic flight control surfaces, cockpit controls,
linkages that connect flight surfaces to their respective controls, and operating mechanisms to handle
all parameters of flight such as angle of attack, landing speed, thrust vectoring, directions of flight
etc.
Before we look at the needs of an aircraft, it is important to see the flying and handling qualities
of an aircraft.

1.1 Flying and Handling Qualities of an Aircraft

As defined in M.V. Cook’s book Flight Dynamics Principles [2] , “the flying and handling
qualities of an aircraft are those properties which describe the ease and effectiveness with which it
responds to pilot commands in the execution of a flight task, or mission task element (MTE).”
 Fig 1 – Flying and handling qualities of a conventional aircraft

Fig 2 – Flying and handling qualities of an FBW aircraft

1.2 Fly-By-Wire
In the initial years of aircraft development and constructions, mechanical controls were used to
drive the operating mechanisms of flight control. However, with the increase in payload capacity and
size of aircraft, mechanical systems needed a more efficient replacement.
Fly-By-Wire, or FBW, is an electronic interface that replaces these mechanical mechanisms in
order to increase the speed, accuracy, efficiency, safety and ease of use of flight controls.

Fig 3 – Schematic of FBW [3]

2. Brief historic timeline of the development of flight control system
The evolution of flight control systems started more than a century ago, and seems to be a
continuously progressing area in terms of the technological advancements. This historic timeline of
flight control systems can be broadly divided into five generations [4].
2.1 First Generation Flight Control System (1903 – 1945)
The earliest blueprint or concept for a vehicle used for flight can be traced back to Leonardo da
Vinci’s ornithopter. This was a device conceptualized to exactly mimic the flying of birds.

Fig 4 – da Vinci’s Ornithopter [5]

Da Vinci conceptualized a machine which had a system of levers and pulleys that would help a
man convert the flapping motion of his arms into the action of flight. This is where we see the very
first flight control system concept, i.e., use of pulleys and levers for controlling the flight directions
and lift and other basic parameters.
While there were many other attempts after da Vinci too, the actual proper commercial and
research development of aviation as an industry got its first major boost after the Wright brothers’
aircraft. However, the shortcomings of Wright brothers’ designs came in the form of absence of
motion control of the aircraft in the roll axis.
This problem was partially solved by the time of World War 1, which was the second major boost
to development of flight control system for efficient flying.
 Fig 5 – Control System for Wright Flyer (First Generation Control System Schematic) [4]

2.2 Second Generation Flight Control System (1945 – 1960)

The mechanical system of pulleys and levers was working well for earlier aircrafts. However, with
the advent of larger aircrafts with greater payload capacity, the mechanical system of flight control
was no longer a viable option.
With the coming of World War 2, the need and demand for aircrafts with greater payload capacities
increased by a manifold. It was then that the aircraft development got yet another major boost – the
shift from purely mechanical systems to hydro-mechanical system with hydraulic circuits for flight
control.
 Fig 6 - Control system schematic for early hydro-mechanical flight control system [4]

The hydro-mechanical system input is similar to the mechanical system input – the pilot has to
manually control by pulling a stick or yoke or by pressing a pedal. However, unlike in the mechanical
system, in the hydro-mechanical system, the power to the control surfaces is provided via a hydraulic
circuit.
2.3 Third Generation Flight Control System (1960 – 1970)
While the hydraulic circuits provided a substantially more efficient substitute to entirely manual
and mechanical control, there still were additional issues like the increased weight of the aircraft and
the potential risk of the failure of hydraulic circuits due to increased complications in the construction.
Moreover, with the advent of air travel as a mode of commercial transport for both goods and
passengers, the need for greater efficiency required a much more efficient and effective system than
the hydro-mechanical flight control.
However, there wasn’t an exactly new working medium in place yet. The systems were still hydro-
mechanical, but these were the upgraded circuits with control over larger control surface areas and
something called the irreversible power control circuit in place.
The reason why these hydro-mechanical systems were different and better than the earlier ones is
because of the presence of a component called irreversible actuator. When the manual input powers
the hydraulic circuit, pressure is built up. However, there is a need to first convert this pressure into
usable work in order to have the control surfaces actuated. This is where actuators come into place.
Actuators convert the hydraulic pressure into useful mechanical work which can then be used to
manoeuvre the control surfaces. In the irreversible hydro-mechanical powered circuits, the
irreversible actuators made the entire hydraulic circuit a classic closed loop circuit with a feedback
mechanism in place.
This feedback mechanism was used to gradually cancel the input until the desired value was
reached. The reason why it is called an irreversible actuator is because the aerodynamic hinge
movements do not have any impact on the position of these actuators.
 Fig 7 – Irreversible Flight Control System [6]

2.4 Fourth Generation Flight Control System (1970 – 1944)

This is basically the FBW or Fly-By-Wire control system described in Section 1.2 of this report.

Fig 8 – Fly-By-Wire Architecture [4]

The fly-by-wire system uses electrical wires to manipulate the control surfaces. The pulleys, levers
have been replaced with switches and electrical signals. The flight control computer sends and
receives signals at a very fast rate, with much higher efficiency.

Fig 9 – Fly-By-Wire Components [4]

 2.4.1 Fly-By-Wire as an example of a Mechatronics System
The FBW is nothing but a mechatronics system of closed loop type.
 The basic operation of an FBW system starts with the inputs taken from the pilot via cockpit
controls and via surrounding air via sensors.
 These inputs are then used to actuate the control surfaces using electrical signals. The input
signals are thus both analogue and digital.
 The analogue signals are required to be converted to digital signals to be readable by the
primary flight control computer. This conversion is achieved via ADC or Analogue-to-Digital
Converters.
 The feedback loop in place checks the signals for error at summing point. The errors are
calculated by taking the difference between the desired value and the current value.
The FBW system channels consist of processors, input/output circuits, associated memories,
power supply unit and specific software dedicated to checking for errors and notifying the pilot of
any failure.
2.5 Fifth Generation Flight Control System (1994 – 2050)
It is important to note here that the FBW systems haven’t gone out of service yet. These systems
are still in commercial and military use. However, there sure is an advent in newer, better technologies
that is steadily taking over the fifth generation of aircrafts.
This fifth generation of flight control systems is Fly-By-Light or Fly-By-Optics. It uses fibre cables
instead of electrical wires and light or photon signals instead of electrical signals. These systems are
faster, better, more efficient and more accurate.
2.6 Future Developments – Plasma Control
Plasma actuation, also known as “Active Flow Control”, is a possible solution to the problems
posed by current FBW and Fly-By-Optics systems. What makes these plasma actuators a food for
thought is their capability to accelerate the airflow over the wings and thus eliminating the need for
moving parts in the form of ailerons.
Lesser moving parts has direct impact on cost of production, cost of maintenance, and chances of
errors or damages. Thus, the advent of plasma actuators will make flying more accurate, efficient,
and in the long run, less expensive.

Fig 10 – Schematic for plasma actuator system [4]

 The components of a plasma actuation system will include a dielectric, a system of cathode and
anode electrodes and a high-power AC circuit. When electric current is passed through the electrodes,
it will result in formation of a plasma of ionised gas. This discharge of plasmonic gas will result in
what’s called the ionic wind to blow in tangent to the insulating material.
The force generated by this ionic wind will cause the actuation of the control surface.
3. Primary Flight Controls
Although, throughout the historic timeline of flight control systems, there have been drastic
changes in the system operating mechanisms, a set of crucial control components has remained the
same in every system.
The primary flight controls include:
1. Ailerons
2. Elevators
3. Rudders
These set of primary flight controls are used to manoeuvre the direction of flight and movement
of the aircraft about the three axes.

Fig 11 – Primary Flight Control Systems [7]

3.1 Ailerons
Ailerons control the movement of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis. It manoeuvres the aircraft
in the rolling motion, and maintains the lateral stability of the aircraft.
Working of ailerons:
 The ailerons are attached to the trailing edges of the aircraft’s wings. Both ailerons move in
opposite directions in relation to each other.
 When the control stick or control wheel of the right aileron is moved, the right aileron turns
upwards, while the left aileron moves downwards.
 Thus, the lift under the right wing decreases while that under the left wing increases. Due to
this increased lift under the left wing, the aircraft turns towards right side.
 Fig 12 – Airflow around the wing due to movement of ailerons [7]

Aside from aiding in the rolling motion, the movement of ailerons causes another kind of motion
– a more unwanted kind, called the adverse yaw.
Adverse yawing occurs because as the lift increases by the movement of ailerons, so does the drag
that opposes the lift. This increase in drag in an asymmetric fashion can cause the aircraft to move in
a yawing motion about the vertical axis. This then endangers the directional stability of the aircraft.
The rudder helps prevent adverse yaw.

Fig 13 – Aileron Control System of a Commercial Aircraft [8]

 3.2 Elevators
The elevators control the movement of aircraft about the lateral axis, and manoeuvres the aircraft
in pitching motion. It ensures the horizontal and longitudinal stability of the aircraft.
The elevators are placed on the tail of the aircraft. When the elevators go up, there is less lift on
the tail, and so, the tail is pushed down and the nose is pitched up. Similarly, when the elevators go
down, the tail is pushed upwards so the nose is pitched down.

Fig 14 – Elevator control system of a commercial aircraft [8]

3.3 Rudders
Rudders are used to maintain the directional stability of an aircraft and manoeuvre it in the yawing
motion. Rudders are mounted on the back edge of the fin on the empennage of the aircraft.
When the rudder is turned to right, the tail is pushed towards the left side, and thus the nose of the
aircraft is yawed to the right side. Similarly, pushing the left pedal causes the rudder to move left;
this causes the tail to turn towards the right side and thus the aircraft nose is yawed to the left side.
 Fig 15 – Rudder Control System [8]

The overall positioning of the primary controls of an aircraft can be seen in Fig 16 given below:

Fig 16 – Positioning of Primary Controls of an Aircraft

4. Secondary Flight Controls

While primary flight controls are used to control the position of the aircraft in flight, the secondary
controls are used to enhance the abilities of the primary controls. It’ll be safe to say at this point that
without primary controls, the aircraft would not fly at all; without secondary controls, the flight may
not be as comfortable or manoeuvrable, but the aircraft will be able to fly.
Secondary flight controls include flaps, slats, trim systems etc.
4.1 Flaps
Flaps are high-lift devices used in aircrafts to increase both lift and induced drag in the aircraft.
The flaps are attached to the trailing edges of wings and can be used to get a compromise between
high cruising speed and low landing speed.
The flaps can be expanded when needed and retracted when not in use. There are 4 kinds of flaps
available in the aviation industry today : plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.
4.1.1 Camber
 Fig 17 – Camber of Aerofoil

The camber of aerofoil may be defined as the measure of convexity of the curve of an aerofoil
from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Camber maximizes the coefficient of lift of the aircraft and
reduces its stalling speed.
4.1.2 Plain Flaps
Plain flaps are simply attached to the trailing edge of the base section. They operate via hinged
movements and cause momentum differential of the incident airflow by increasing the camber of the
aerofoil.

Fig 18 – Plain Flap [7]

4.1.3 Split Flaps

Split flaps are separated from the lower surface of the aerofoil and thus are able to generate more
lift than the plain flaps. The lower surface acts like the plain flaps, but the upper surface of the split
flats remain stationary.

Fig 19 – Split Flap [7]

4.1.4 Slotted Flaps

These flaps are attached in a manner such that there is a gap between the base aerofoil and the flap.
This gap helps reenergize the boundary layer of airflow around the flaps, thereby ensuring that the
airflow stays attached to the flap. This helps in lowering the stall speed by a substantial amount.
 Slotted flaps are by far the most common kinds of flaps available on aircrafts these days – small,
large alike.

Fig 20 – Slotted Flap [7]

4.1.5 Fowler Flaps

These are essentially a type of slotted flaps. However, instead of being hinged on the aerofoil,
these flaps move about a track. when expanded, the flaps cause a tremendous increase in the lift.
Pilots must note that this increase in lift might lead to pitching down of the nose of the aircraft, and
thus needs compensation by trim systems.

Fig 21 – Fowler Flaps [7]

4.2 Trim Tabs

Trim tabs are attachments to trailing edges of larger control surfaces in order to maintain the angle
of attack so that the pilot does not have to continuously apply a control force. There are different
types of trim tab systems available –
1. Trim Tab
2. Servo Tab
3. Balance Tab
4. Spring Tab
 Fig 22 – Types of Trim Tab Systems [1]

A lot of trimming of aerodynamic forces can be needed, especially during low-speed flights when
it gets less stable for the aircraft due to the pitching down or pitching up of the aircraft nose. The trim
tabs are attached to larger control surfaces, each with a different function.
4.2.1 Elevator Trim Tab System
Elevator trim tabs are used to maintain the aerodynamic down force on the tail.

Fig 23 – Elevator Trim Tab System [1]

 4.2.2 Rudder and Aileron Trim Tab System
The trim tabs attached on the rudders and ailerons are used to counter the effect of both slip stream
and the shifting of the centre of gravity to one side.
The shifting of CG to either side can occur due to various reasons, such as if the heavier people sit
on one side in the aircraft, or if one fuel tank is more filled than the other.

Fig 24 – Rudder Trim Tab

Fig 25 – Aileron Trim Tab

 4.3 Slats
Slats are what are called the leading-edge devices, i.e., these are attached to the leading edges of
the aerofoils. Slats help increase the lift and reduce the stalling by altering the airflow over the wing.
The leading-edge slats allow the aircraft to fly at a higher angle of attack by accelerating the air
between the slat and wing by the venturi effect. The leading-edge slats allow for steep angle climbs
of up to 30 degrees.

Fig 26 – Slats

5. Glass Cockpit
A glass cockpit is essentially a replacement of the traditional analogue displays with the more
accurate and easier to read digital and electronic display system.

Fig 27 – Traditional Cockpit [8]

 As can be seen in Fig 27, the traditional cockpit has way too many dial gauges in display. This
often led to fatigue and reduced the safety of the flight due to tiring the pilot after a certain period of
time.
Thus, the need for glass cockpits with digital display that shows all the required parameters to the
pilot comfortably, arose.

Fig 28 – Glass Cockpit [8]

6. Avionics – Applied Mechatronics in Aircrafts

With advancements in avionics, the large number of instruments that perform crucial functions
have now been merged into one advanced electronic instrument known as the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) [8].
The PFD shows data such as airspeed, altitude, turn coordination, vertical speed, etc. on a single
display unlike the traditional system of multiple dial gauges.
 Fig 29 – Primary Flight Display [8]

6.1 Autopilot
An autopilot is a tool that engages the aircraft’s hydraulic, mechanical and electronic systems in
order to maintain the stable flight trajectory of the aircraft. It aids in many time intensive functions,
allowing the pilot to focus on the overall status of aircraft and flight.
The autopilot system is used in tandem with another integrated system called the Flight Director
(FD) component. While the autopilot controls the flight trajectory, coordination and stability in level
flights, the FD component gives it the additional capability to control flights in case of changing
altitudes, intercepting a selected course of flight, and tracking navigation sources with crosswinds.
 Fig 30 – Autopilot [8]

Working of Autopilot functions:

Once autopilot has been engaged, it works in 2 broad stages:
1. It determines the control movements required to follow the profile of flight entered by the pilot.
 To make these determinations of control movements required to follow the flight profile, the
autopilot takes data from the ADC for airspeed and altitude, engages the magnetic head reference and
takes assistance of the navigation systems.
2. It actuates the control surfaces and moves other required controls to follow the flight profile.
 The autopilot consists of servos, which are the electromechanical devices that carry out the
actuation of the required control surfaces.
Working of a Flight Director:
 The flight director receives input from the ADC and flight data computer. From the ADC, it
receives inputs of airspeed, temperature, altitude data, heading data from magnetic sources
and navigation data.
 The Flight Data Computer all the data received and processed, i.e., airspeed, temperature etc.
into a command signal, which is then sent to the corresponding control actuator, which in turn
actuates the corresponding control surface.
 Fig 31 – Flight Director [8]

7. Future Scope of Flight Control Systems

While flight control systems are ever evolving with advancements in all streams of research and
engineering, one major trend is the inclination towards active control systems as opposed to the
conventional passive control systems.
7.1 Active and Passive Control
Active Control is the kind of system that requires external power source for operation. Active
control in aircraft would essentially mean needing externally supplied power to manoeuvre the control
surfaces of the aircraft.
Passive Control is the exact opposite of active control in that it does not need an external source
of power. Passive control systems make use of structural motion to dissipate the seismic energy, or
isolates vibrations so that the response of structure can be controlled.
Due to the absence of external power requirements, passive controls have been long favoured for
avionic applications. However, the trend toward active control is gaining rightful momentum, as it
will lead to improvements in the flight control by countering the aerodynamic effects that come with
the structural motion of the aircraft. Moreover, by eliminating the need for moving parts, active
control will not only make the system more accurate, it will reduce the risk of damage that comes
with mechanical parts.
7.2 Using Plasma Actuators for Active Flow Control
The following reasons are what make plasma aerodynamic actuators [9] so attractive for active
control of flight:
They are characterized by low weight.
They are compatible with the exiting aerodynamic surfaces.
Due to absence of moving parts, they have high dynamic responses.
They are easy to manufacture.
 They generate negligible aerodynamic interferences when they are switched off.
7.2.1 Basic Principle Governing Plasma Actuation
Plasma actuation is predicated on the principle of electrohydrodynamic interaction generated by
the so-called ionic wind. The plasma actuation apparatus consists of two electrodes – a cathode and
an anode.
When high volt AC is passed through the electrodes, high electric fields are generated at the
tangent to the control surface, which produces an ionized boundary layer. The ionized air particles
are then accelerated using the externally applied voltage in order to generate force F, which is given
by the following equation:
F = (ni – ne)E
where,
ni is the ion density
ne is the electron density
E is the electric field of acceleration.

8. Conclusion
In this report, we discussed the basic components and working of a generalized flight control
system; the historic timeline of flight control systems, from the purely mechanical Wright Flyer to
the recent avionics in Fly-By-Wire and Fly-By-Optics was described. The future scope in the form
of active control systems using plasma actuators was briefly mentioned.

References
[1] Basic Aircraft Control System
URL: https://www.slideshare.net/nyinyikyaw/basic-aircraft-control-system-7376945
[2] M.V. Cook, Flight Dynamics Principles
[3] URL: http://airguardian.net/projects/fly-by-wire-project/
[4] THE EVOLUTION OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS: TECHNOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT, SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND OPERATION; Haider Al-Lami, Ameer
Aslam, Tanya Quigley, Jack Lewis, Richard Mercer and Prashant
Shukla; University of the West of England, Bristol
[5] URL: https://www.britannica.com/technology/ornithopter
[6] URL: https://prezi.com/ra7owemi5org/hydraulic-flight-
control/?frame=f6ea308230797bd09342404fc5a1ee9100b3a6c6
[7] Advanced Avionics Handbook (Chapter 6: Flight Controls); US Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration
URL:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/08_phak_ch6.p
df
[8] Advanced Avionics Handbook; US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation
Administration
URL:
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/advanced_avionics_handbo
ok/media/faa-h-8083-6.pdf
[9] Active Flow Control by Using Plasma Actuators; Gabriele Neretti
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62720

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