Offshore Operations and

Engineering
Offshore Operations and
Engineering

Shashi Shekhar Prasad Singh,

­Jatin ­R. ­Agarwal, and Nag Mani
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-3673-7434-1 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this
publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we
may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.
copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC),
222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that
provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a
photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword.................................................................................................................xvii
Preface.....................................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................xxi
Authors.................................................................................................................. xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Offshore Operation.......................................................1

1.1 Ocean Baseline...........................................................................1
1.2 Ocean Environment.................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Metocean Condition and Study.....................................2
1.2.2 Meteorology..................................................................3
1.2.3 Physical Oceanography.................................................3
1.2.4 Metocean Data..............................................................4
1.3 Offshore Oil and Gas Production...............................................4
1.3.1 Comparison of Onshore versus
Offshore Oil Production................................................ 5
1.3.2 Comparision of Offshore Oil Production on the
Basis of Water Depth..................................................... 6
1.3.3 Rig Count and Utilization Rate..................................... 7
1.4 Offshore Operations................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Notable Offshore Fields across the Globe................... 10
1.4.2 Major Offshore Oil Producing Countries.................... 10
1.4.3 Offshore Facilities (Installations/Platforms/Rigs)...... 11
1.4.4 Types of Offshore Installations/Platforms.................. 11
1.4.5 Type of Offshore Rigs................................................. 11
1.4.6 Challenges with Offshore Facilities............................ 11
1.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Risks.......................... 12
1.5 How Are Offshore Operations Different from Onshore.......... 13
1.5.1 Safety Requirements................................................... 13
1.6 Technology Wave..................................................................... 13
References........................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2 Offshore Structure and Design............................................................ 15

2.1 Structural Designing................................................................ 16
2.1.1 Corrosion Protection................................................... 17
2.1.2 Cathodic Protection..................................................... 17
2.1.2.1 Impressed Current Cathodic
Protection Systems...................................... 18
2.1.2.2 Sacrificial Anodes (Galvanic Action).......... 18
2.1.3 Loads........................................................................... 19
2.1.3.1 Constant Loads............................................ 19

v
vi Contents

2.1.3.2 Variable Loads............................................. 19

2.1.3.3 Environment-Dependent Loads
(Normally Calculated on Historically
100-Year Return Period)..............................20
2.1.3.4 Additional Loads during Installation
and Construction.......................................... 22
2.1.3.5 Unforeseen Load.......................................... 22
2.2 Fixed Platforms........................................................................ 22
2.2.1 Concrete Gravity Structure......................................... 22
2.2.1.1 Design..........................................................25
2.2.1.2 Construction and Installation......................26
2.2.2 Compliant Tower and Guyed Tower............................ 27
2.2.2.1 Design.......................................................... 27
2.2.2.2 Construction and Installation......................28
2.2.3 Jacketed Platform........................................................ 30
2.2.4 Jackup Platform/Rig.................................................... 33
2.2.4.1 Design.......................................................... 33
2.2.4.2 Installation...................................................34
2.3 Floating Platform...................................................................... 35
2.3.1 Mooring and Anchoring.............................................. 35
2.3.1.1 Classification of Mooring Systems.............. 38
2.3.1.2 Catenaries Mooring System........................ 38
2.3.1.3 Single Point Mooring System...................... 39
References...........................................................................................40

Chapter 3 Offshore Drilling and Completion...................................................... 43

3.1 Offshore Drilling...................................................................... 43
3.1.1 Introduction................................................................. 43
3.1.2 Well Planning..............................................................44
3.1.2.1 Geology........................................................ 45
3.1.2.2 Completion Design...................................... 45
3.1.2.3 Trajectory Design........................................ 45
3.1.2.4 Wellbore Stability........................................46
3.1.2.5 Drilling Fluid Design..................................46
3.1.2.6 Casing Design..............................................46
3.1.2.7 Cement Job Designs.....................................46
3.1.2.8 Wellhead/Blowout Prevention (BOP)
Design..........................................................46
3.1.2.9 BHA and Drill String..................................46
3.1.2.10 Bit Design....................................................46
3.1.2.11 Hole Cleaning and Hydraulics.....................46
3.1.2.12 Rig Equipment.............................................46
3.1.3 Rig Selection Criteria.................................................. 47
3.1.3.1 HSE Compatibility....................................... 47
3.1.3.2 Technical Capability.................................... 47
Contents vii

3.1.3.3 Full-Cycle Efficiency................................... 47

3.1.4 Wellbore Stability........................................................ 47
3.1.4.1 Stress Distribution around the Wellbore...... 48
3.1.4.2 Establishing a Minimum Safe
Mud Weight................................................ 49
3.1.4.3 Validating the Geomechanical Model.......... 50
3.1.4.4 Sand Production........................................... 51
3.1.5 Casing Design............................................................. 51
3.1.5.1 Casing Program........................................... 51
3.1.5.2 Loads Encountered While
Designing Casing......................................... 52
3.1.6 Trajectory Design........................................................ 57
3.1.6.1 The Target.................................................... 58
3.1.6.2 Kick-Off Point and Build-Up Rate.............. 58
3.1.6.3 Tangent Section............................................ 59
3.1.6.4 Drop-Off Section......................................... 59
3.1.6.5 Trajectory Measurements............................ 59
3.1.7 Directional Drilling.....................................................64
3.1.7.1 Evolution of Directional Drilling................64
3.1.7.2 Types of Directional Wells..........................64
3.1.7.3 Conventional Drilling versus
Directional Drilling..................................... 65
3.1.7.4 Directional Drilling Tools........................... 65
3.1.7.5 Measurement While Drilling
(MWD) Tool............................................... 65
3.1.7.6 Importance and Uses of Directional
Drilling........................................................66
3.1.7.7 Application of Directional Drilling............. 67
3.1.8 Dual Gradient Drilling................................................ 68
3.1.8.1 Introduction................................................. 68
3.1.8.2 Dual Gradient Drilling – Overview............. 68
3.1.8.3 Single versus Dual Gradient Drilling.......... 68
3.1.8.4 Dual Gradient System.................................. 69
3.1.8.5 Types of Dual Gradient Drilling................. 70
3.1.8.6 Limitations of DGD..................................... 71
3.2 Offshore Well Completion........................................................ 72
3.2.1 Introduction................................................................. 72
3.2.2 Well Completion Concepts in Offshore...................... 73
3.2.2.1 Classification of Completions...................... 73
3.2.3 Horizontal Well Completions......................................80
3.2.3.1 Open Hole Completion................................80
3.2.3.2 Slotted Liner Completion............................80
3.2.3.3 Slotted Liner Completion for
Zonal Isolation............................................. 81
3.2.3.4 Cemented and Perforated Completion......... 82
3.2.4 Intelligent Well Systems.............................................. 83
viii Contents

3.2.5 Multilateral Completions............................................. 83

3.2.5.1 Multilateral Well Classification...................84
3.2.5.2 Level 1 Multilateral Well.............................84
3.2.5.3 Level 2 Multilateral Well............................. 85
3.2.5.4 Level 3 Well Completions............................ 86
3.2.5.5 Level 4 Well Completions............................ 86
3.2.5.6 Level 5 Well Completions............................ 86
3.2.5.7 Level 6 Well Completions............................ 86
3.2.6 Subsea Completion...................................................... 86
3.2.6.1 Types of Subsea Completions...................... 87
3.2.7 Completion Equipment................................................ 89
3.2.7.1 Christmas Tree (Xmas Tree)....................... 89
3.2.7.2 Production Tubing........................................ 89
3.2.7.3 Packers.........................................................90
3.2.7.4 Blast Joint.....................................................92
3.2.7.5 Flow Coupling.............................................92
3.2.7.6 Seating Nipple..............................................92
3.2.7.7 Landing Nipple............................................ 93
3.2.7.8 Expansion Joint............................................ 93
3.2.7.9 Safety Joints................................................. 93
3.2.7.10 Safety Valves............................................... 93
3.2.7.11 Circulating Valves....................................... 95
References...........................................................................................96

Chapter 4 Offshore Oil and Gas Production and Transportation........................99

4.1 Offshore Production Operation................................................99
4.1.1 Major Elements of Offshore Production System....... 100
4.1.1.1 Wells (Subsea/Platform Wells).................. 100
4.1.1.2 Platform Wells/Dry Trees.......................... 100
4.1.1.3 Subsea Wells/Wet Trees............................ 100
4.1.1.4 Offshore Pipelines..................................... 101
4.1.1.5 Processing Platforms................................. 101
4.1.1.6 Export Pipelines/Tankers for
Evacuation of Oil and Gas......................... 102
4.1.2 Maintenance and Supply........................................... 103
4.1.3 Essential Personnel/Workforce................................. 103
4.1.4 Risks.......................................................................... 105
4.1.4.1 Basic Protection Concepts......................... 105
4.1.5 Prevention.................................................................. 105
4.1.6 Shut In....................................................................... 107
4.1.6.1 Fire and Gas Leakage
Protection System.................................. 107
4.1.6.2 Technology Development: HIPS............... 107
4.1.6.3 Surface Facility Protection........................ 107
4.1.6.4 Well Control and Protection...................... 109
Contents ix

4.1.7 SCADA – An Essential Part of Digital

Oil and Gas Field....................................................... 109
4.1.7.1 Process Levels in SCADA......................... 109
4.1.7.2 Instrumentation, Remote Sensing, and
Telemetry of Real-Time Processes............ 111
4.1.8 Automated Gas Lift Optimization in Offshore......... 114
4.2 Processing in Offshore........................................................... 116
4.2.1 Oil Treatment............................................................ 116
4.2.1.1 Important Notes......................................... 118
4.2.1.2 Loading of Tankers.................................... 118
4.2.2 Gas Treatment........................................................... 118
4.2.2.1 Gas Dehydration Follows the Steps Below....119
4.2.3 Produced Water Treatment........................................ 120
4.3 Sea Water Injection................................................................. 121
4.4 Offshore Storage..................................................................... 122
4.5 Transportation of Oil and Gas................................................ 123
4.5.1 Oil Tankers................................................................ 123
4.5.2 Pipelines.................................................................... 124
4.5.3 Floating Production, Storage, and
Offloading (FPSO).................................................... 124
4.5.3.1 Single Buoy Mooring................................. 125
References......................................................................................... 126

Chapter 5 Utilities and Support System............................................................. 127

5.1 Living Accommodation.......................................................... 127
5.1.1 Medical...................................................................... 128
5.1.2 Smoking and Alcohol................................................ 129
5.1.3 Entertainment and Recreation................................... 129
5.2 Power Generation................................................................... 129
5.2.1 Fuel Gas System........................................................ 129
5.2.2 Utility/Diesel Generators.......................................... 130
5.2.3 Gas Turbine Generator.............................................. 130
5.3 Instrument and Utility Air System......................................... 132
5.3.1 Air Compressors........................................................ 132
5.3.2 Instrument Air and Utility Air Systems.................... 132
5.4 Hot Oil System....................................................................... 133
5.4.1 Crude Oil Heater....................................................... 133
5.4.2 Chemical Tank.......................................................... 133
5.4.3 Glycol Reboiler.......................................................... 133
5.4.4 Skimmer Vessel......................................................... 133
5.5 Potable Water System............................................................. 133
5.6 Water Cooling System............................................................ 134
5.6.1 Freshwater Cooling System....................................... 134
5.7 Utility Water System.............................................................. 135
5.8 Drain Header and Sump Caisson........................................... 135
x Contents

5.9 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Equipment.......... 136

5.10 Communication System.......................................................... 136
5.10.1 Satellite...................................................................... 136
5.10.2 Microwave Telecommunication................................ 137
5.10.3 Optical Fibers............................................................ 137
5.10.4 Cellular Services....................................................... 137
5.11 Diesel System......................................................................... 137
5.12 Sewage Treatment System...................................................... 138
5.13 Material Handling.................................................................. 138
5.14 Offshore Logistics.................................................................. 139
5.14.1 Air Logistics.............................................................. 139
5.14.2 Sea Logistics............................................................. 139
References......................................................................................... 142

Chapter 6 Deep Sea Development..................................................................... 145

6.1 Factors Driving Deep Sea Development................................ 145
6.2 Deep Sea Development Options............................................. 145
6.2.1 Recoverable Reserves................................................ 145
6.2.2 Water Depth.............................................................. 147
6.2.3 Challenges in Subsea due to Water Depth................ 147
6.2.4 Production Rate......................................................... 147
6.2.5 Reservoir Structure................................................... 148
6.2.6 Reservoir Production Characteristics........................ 148
6.2.7 Environmental and Geological Conditions............... 148
6.2.8 Existing Infrastructure.............................................. 149
6.3 Subsea Field Development...................................................... 149
6.3.1 Subsea Well Completion........................................... 151
6.3.2 Subsea Christmas Tree.............................................. 151
6.3.2.1 Dry Tree Systems...................................... 151
6.3.2.2 Wet Tree Systems...................................... 153
6.3.3 Subsea Tieback Development.................................... 153
6.3.3.1 Challenges................................................. 153
6.3.3.2 Stand-Alone Development......................... 155
6.3.3.3 Well Groupings.......................................... 155
6.3.3.4 Satellite Well System................................. 155
6.3.3.5 Template Well System............................... 156
6.3.3.6 Clustered Well System............................... 157
6.3.3.7 Production Well Templates........................ 157
6.3.3.8 Daisy Chain............................................... 157
6.3.3.9 Subsea Monitoring, Control, and
Communication System............................. 158
6.3.4 Main Topside Elements............................................. 159
6.3.4.1 MCS........................................................... 159
6.3.4.2 Electrical Power Unit (EPU)..................... 160
6.3.4.3 HPU........................................................... 160
Contents xi

6.3.5 Topside Umbilical Termination Assembly (TUTA).....160

6.4 Subsea Elements..................................................................... 162
6.4.1 SDS Components...................................................... 163
6.4.1.1 Umbilical................................................... 163
6.4.1.2 Subsea Umbilical Termination
Assembly (SUTA) ..................................... 163
6.4.1.3 Umbilical Termination Head (UTH)......... 165
6.4.1.4 Subsea Distribution Assembly................... 165
6.4.1.5 Hydraulic Distribution Manifold/
Module (HDM).......................................... 165
6.4.1.6 Electrical Distribution Manifold/
Module................................................... 167
6.4.1.7 Multiple Quick Connects........................... 167
6.4.1.8 Hydraulic Flying Leads (HFL).................. 168
6.4.1.9 Hydraulic Couplers.................................... 168
6.4.1.10 Electrical Flying Leads.............................. 169
6.4.1.11 Logic Caps................................................. 169
6.4.1.12 Subsea Accumulator Module..................... 169
6.4.1.13 Subsea Control Module............................. 169
6.4.1.14 Transducer/Sensor..................................... 171
6.4.1.15 Subsea Production Control System............ 171
6.4.1.16 Types of Control Systems.......................... 173
6.5 Subsea Power Supply.............................................................. 179
6.6 Flow Assurance...................................................................... 179
6.6.1 Shallow versus Deep Flow Assurance Scenario....... 180
6.6.2 Flow Assurance Challenges...................................... 180
6.6.3 Troublemakers........................................................... 180
6.6.3.1 Gas Hydrates.............................................. 180
6.6.3.2 Paraffin/Wax.............................................. 181
6.6.3.3 Asphaltene................................................. 181
6.6.3.4 Scales......................................................... 181
6.6.3.5 Erosion....................................................... 181
6.6.3.6 Corrosion................................................... 181
6.6.3.7 Slugging..................................................... 182
6.6.3.8 Severe Slugging......................................... 182
6.6.4 Typical Flow Assurance Processes........................... 182
6.6.5 Fluid Characterization and Flow Property
Assessments.............................................................. 182
6.6.6 Steady-State Hydraulic and Thermal
Performance Analyses............................................... 183
6.6.7 System Design and Operability................................. 184
6.6.7.1 System Start-Up......................................... 184
6.6.7.2 System Shutdown....................................... 184
6.6.8 Transient Flow Hydraulic and Thermal
Performance Analyses............................................... 185
6.6.9 Hydrate Prevention Methods..................................... 186
xii Contents

6.6.9.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors........................ 186

6.6.9.2 Low Dosage Inhibitors (LDIs)................... 187
6.6.9.3 Kinetic Inhibitors (KIs)............................. 187
6.6.9.4 Anti-Agglomerates (AAs).......................... 187
6.6.9.5 Low-Pressure Operations.......................... 187
6.6.9.6 Water Removal.......................................... 187
6.6.9.7 Thermal Insulation and Heating................ 187
6.6.10 Hydrate Remediation................................................. 188
6.6.11 Selection of Hydrate Control Method....................... 189
6.6.11.1 Gas System................................................ 189
6.6.11.2 Oil System................................................. 189
6.6.12 Wax Control Guidelines............................................ 189
6.6.13 Wax Management Strategy....................................... 189
6.6.13.1 Thermal Control........................................ 189
6.6.13.2 Chemical Inhibition................................... 189
6.6.13.3 Thermal and Chemical Wax
Dissolution............................................. 190
6.6.13.4 Physical Removal....................................... 190
6.6.14 Asphaltene................................................................. 190
6.6.15 Corrosion................................................................... 191
6.6.16 Internal Corrosion Prevention................................... 191
6.6.16.1 Internal Coating......................................... 191
6.6.16.2 Internal Corrosion Inhibitors..................... 191
6.6.17 External Corrosion Prevention.................................. 192
6.6.17.1 External Coating........................................ 192
6.6.18 Scales......................................................................... 192
6.6.19 Scale Management.................................................... 192
6.6.19.1 Scale Inhibitors.......................................... 192
6.6.20 Erosion....................................................................... 193
6.6.21 Mitigation Methods................................................... 193
6.6.21.1 Reduction in Production Rate.................... 193
6.6.21.2 Design of Pipe System............................... 193
6.6.21.3 Increasing Wall Thickness........................ 193
6.6.21.4 Erosion-Resistant Material........................ 193
6.7 Emerging Deepwater Technologies........................................ 193
6.7.1 Dry Tree Semi-Submersibles.................................... 193
6.7.2 Hybrid Riser System................................................. 195
6.7.3 Free-Standing Flexible Riser System (FSFR)........... 196
6.7.4 Multi-Lines Free Standing Riser............................... 196
6.7.5 Deep Steep Riser....................................................... 197
6.7.6 Expandable Monobore Liner Extension.................... 197
6.7.7 Smart Well Technology............................................. 199
6.7.8 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)...............200
6.7.9 Nomad Systems......................................................... 201
6.7.10 Subsea Multiphase Pumps.........................................202
6.7.11 Subsea Processing.....................................................202
Contents xiii

6.7.12 Seabed Separation..................................................... 203

6.7.13 Subsea Pressure Boosting.........................................204
References.........................................................................................205

Chapter 7 Offshore Field Development.............................................................207

7.1 Introduction............................................................................207
7.2 Offshore Marginal Field Development Exercise....................207
7.2.1 Development Example..............................................207
7.2.1.1 Field Development Scenarios: Options/
Alternatives................................................208
7.2.2 Offshore Giant Field Development Exercise.............209
7.2.2.1 The Salient Data Is....................................209
7.2.2.2 Solution Approach..................................... 210

Chapter 8 Health, Safety, and Environment in Offshore................................... 213

8.1 Basic Definitions..................................................................... 213
8.2 Human Factors....................................................................... 213
8.3 Hazards on Oil and Gas Installations..................................... 215
8.4 Procedural Aspects Related to Safety.................................... 216
8.4.1 System Safety............................................................ 216
8.4.1.1 Process Safety and Hydrocarbon Release.... 216
8.4.2 Process Leaks............................................................ 216
8.4.3 Riser Leaks................................................................ 216
8.4.4 Fire and Gas Detection and Safety System............... 217
8.4.4.1 Fire Protection........................................... 217
8.4.4.2 Fire............................................................. 217
8.4.5 Safety in Logistics Operations Related to
Offshore Installation................................................. 220
8.4.5.1 Vessel Collisions........................................ 221
8.4.5.2 Helicopter Incidents................................... 221
8.4.5.3 Dropped Object.......................................... 221
8.4.6 Evacuation, Escape, and Rescue (EER).................... 222
8.4.6.1 Reasons for EER........................................ 222
8.4.6.2 Evacuation Sequence................................. 223
8.4.6.3 Life-Saving Equipment in EER................. 223
8.5 Navigation Aids...................................................................... 225
8.5.1 Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon
(EPIRB)/Search and Rescue Transponder (SART).... 226
8.5.2 Pyrotechnics.............................................................. 227
8.6 Well Integrity.......................................................................... 228
8.6.1 Well Failure: Example 1............................................ 229
8.6.2 Well Failure: Example 2............................................ 229
8.7 Life Extension and Assessment of Offshore Structures......... 230
8.7.1 Structural Collapse.................................................... 230
8.8 Assessment Process................................................................ 231
xiv Contents

8.8.1 Quality of Data.......................................................... 232

8.8.2 Proof of Structural Integrity with Increased Loads.....232
8.8.3 Capacity and Performance of Damaged
Structures............................................................... 233
8.8.4 Extended Life............................................................ 233
8.9 IMO Resolutions..................................................................... 234
8.9.1 Resolution A. 621(15)................................................ 234
8.9.2 Resolution A. 671(16)................................................ 234
8.10 Offshore Facilities Interference.............................................. 235
8.10.1 Protection of Offshore Facilities/Rigs....................... 235
8.11 Costliest and Deadliest Events in Oil and Gas Industry........ 236
8.11.1 Bohai 2 Oil Rig Disaster, China (1979).................... 236
8.11.2 Alexander L. Kielland, North Sea, Norway (1980).... 236
8.11.3 Ocean Ranger Oil Rig Disaster, Canada (1982)........ 236
8.11.4 Glomar Java Sea Drillship Disaster,
South China Sea (1983)............................................. 237
8.11.5 Enchova Central Platform Disaster, Brazil (1984).... 237
8.11.6 Piper Alpha, North Sea, United Kingdom (1988)..... 238
8.11.7 Seacrest Drillship Disaster, South China Sea,
Thailand (1989)......................................................... 239
8.11.8 Mumbai High North Disaster, Indian Ocean (2005).... 239
8.11.9 Usumacinta Jackup Disaster, Gulf of Mexico
(2007)........................................................................240
8.11.10 Deepwater Horizon, Gulf of Mexico (2010).............240
8.12 Offshore Security Threats......................................................240
8.12.1 Piracy......................................................................... 241
8.12.2 Terrorism................................................................... 241
8.12.3 Insurgency................................................................. 241
8.12.4 Organized Crime....................................................... 242
8.12.5 Civil Protest............................................................... 242
8.12.6 Interstate Hostilities.................................................. 243
8.12.7 Vandalism.................................................................. 243
8.12.8 Internal Sabotage....................................................... 243
8.13 Trainings.................................................................................244
8.14 Summary................................................................................244
References.........................................................................................244

Chapter 9 Legislations and Regulations in Offshore Operations

around the World............................................................................... 247
9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 247
9.2 Europe....................................................................................248
9.3 Norway................................................................................... 252
9.3.1 Applicable Legislation............................................... 252
9.4 Kuwait.................................................................................... 253
9.4.1 Article 1..................................................................... 253
Contents xv

9.4.2 Article 2..................................................................... 254

9.4.3 Article 3..................................................................... 254
9.4.4 Article 4..................................................................... 254
9.4.5 Article 5..................................................................... 254
9.4.6 Article 6..................................................................... 254
9.4.7 Article 7..................................................................... 255
9.4.8 Article 8..................................................................... 256
9.4.9 Article 9..................................................................... 256
9.4.10 Article 10................................................................... 256
9.4.11 Article 11................................................................... 256
9.4.12 Article 12................................................................... 257
9.5 Australia................................................................................. 257
9.6 Egypt......................................................................................260
9.6.1 Regulation.................................................................260
9.6.2 Directive on Offshore Safety..................................... 261
9.7 Qatar....................................................................................... 261
9.7.1 Government Policy Objectives.................................. 262
9.7.2 Regulation................................................................. 262
9.7.3 The Regulatory Regime............................................ 262
9.8 Russia...................................................................................... 263
9.8.1 Regulatory Bodies..................................................... 263
9.8.1.1 Oil and Natural Gas................................... 263
9.8.2 Russian Legislation Regulating Foreign
Investments................................................................ 265
9.8.3 Rules for Offshore Companies.................................. 265
9.9 India........................................................................................266
9.9.1 Domestic Production.................................................266
9.9.2 Government Policy Objectives.................................. 267
9.9.3 Regulation................................................................. 267
9.9.4 Legal Framework on Minerals Mining in India....... 267
9.9.5 Offshore Areas Minerals (Development &
Regulation) Act, 2002............................................... 268
9.9.6 Offshore Areas Mineral Concession Rules, 2006..... 268
9.9.7 Other Regulatory Requirements............................... 268
9.10 United States........................................................................... 269
9.10.1 Government Policy Objectives.................................. 269
9.10.2 Regulation................................................................. 269
9.10.3 Lease/License/Concession Term............................... 270
9.11 Canada.................................................................................... 270
9.11.1 Regulation................................................................. 271
9.12 Saudi Arabia........................................................................... 272
References......................................................................................... 273
Index....................................................................................................................... 277
Foreword
In 1980, during my nascent days at the Indian School of Mines, as an undergraduate,
I was trying to understand the nuances of petroleum technology at my alma mat-
ter, ISM Dhanbad. As a student of petroleum engineering, the very mention of the
topic of offshore operations and engineering fascinated me and would trigger my
imagination.
Offshore oil and gas technology was evolving in India during those days and
operations had just begun. I vividly remember the news of oil discovery in Mumbai
high offshore. There were no such books or literature in those days which could
throw light on this subject for students like me. Till date also, there aren’t many
books in India on this topic. The authors of this book have designed the topics in a
very crisp manner and in a fashion which amalgamates industry–academia require-
ment of the present times. This book will go a long way in igniting the minds of
young people seeking deeper knowledge of offshore petroleum industry.
I happened to work in Mumbai offshore as a production engineer at BHN, which
was the jewel of ONGC Mumbai high offshore operations during the nineties. With
my hands-on experience, while working on offshore platforms, I can vouch that the
author has done justice while selecting the topics in this book, and almost all critical
aspects of offshore operations are covered in the best possible manner.
Today, as I go through the pages of this book, it reminds me of my graduation
days and the desire to have a similar kind of book in those days. Offshore Operations
and Engineering has been written primarily for aspiring energy professionals as well
as experienced energy and management professionals who look forward to working
in the offshore environment. The book encompasses topics particularly related to
production and drilling operations related to offshore along with HSE, subsea engi-
neering, ocean engineering, offshore logistics, safety and major legislations, as well
as regulations governing international waters. It is a useful ready reckoner book and
can be used as a curriculum book for undergraduate and postgraduate students in
these subjects.
I expect this book will enrich budding engineers of petroleum industry with the
first insight into offshore technology and operations, and to be of great value to aspir-
ing energy professionals, existing engineers, and management personnel in the oil
and gas sector.

Debasis Basu
Chairman
SPE India Section
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
Gujarat, India

xvii
Preface
The first commercial onshore oil production in 1859 in Pennsylvania revolution-
ized the energy sector of the world and ignited the growth of various global indus-
tries. Today’s world is dependent on hydrocarbons to such a large extent that nearly
80% of the global primary energy needs are fulfilled by the hydrocarbon sector.
Technological advancement coupled with innovations in the hydrocarbon sector
provided the impetus for the industry to take a lead over other alternative energy
resources sector. Thus, more and more onshore oil and gas is being produced.
Oil industry, however, is currently facing the biggest challenge to increase hydro-
carbon production as the gap between production and consumption has been increas-
ing since 1950 and is likely to continue. At the same time, easy oil has already been
produced. We need to move to difficult terrains for continued exploration and pro-
duction. To bridge the gap between consumption and production, industry has taken
a leap by moving from shallow water to deep water, and now aims to move further
to ultradeep water. However, offshore operations are highly challenging compared to
onshore. A typical offshore platform needs to be self-sufficient in regards to energy
and water requirements, housing electrical generation, water desalination, as well as
all the equipment necessary to proceed with drilling and production operations. In
addition to electricity generation, another important aspect is the use of sea water
and its conversion into potable water using water makers.
Owing to the harsh environmental conditions offshore, operations face many
challenges compared to onshore operations. Some of these challenges include cor-
rosive environment, logistics of transporting man and machine along with accom-
modation for manpower due to distance from the shore, upkeep and maintenance
of system and equipment, power generation, evacuation of crude oil (from well and
to shore with related flow assurance issues), etc. Along with operations, paramount
importance should be given to the health and safety of the crew and keeping the sur-
rounding marine environment pollution free.
This book provides a comprehensive understanding of each and every aspect of
offshore operations taking into consideration all the conventional methods of opera-
tions, emerging technologies, legislations, as well as the health, safety, and environ-
ment impact of offshore operations.
The book begins by providing an overview of notable offshore fields across the
globe and the statistics of present oil production. It provides detailed descriptions of
all types of platforms available for offshore operations along with their structural
details. The book presents a comprehensive analysis of the different available fixed
and floating platforms. It also describes mooring and anchoring systems utilized to
provide the station-keeping of floating offshore structures. Furthermore, riser sys-
tems used to recover hydrocarbons are explained. Being one of the key elements of
offshore operations, offshore drilling and completion (planning and designing) have
been elaborated.
After drilling and completion, production, storage, and transportation are the
concluding part of onshore as well as offshore operations. Thus, the book discusses

xix
xx Preface

production equipment, safety systems, automation, storage facilities, and transporta-

tion in detail. New technologies and innovation will be the key to drive toward deep
water where the future of oil and gas lies. Therefore, emerging technologies likely
to support drilling and production in deepwater along with engineering intricacies
of subsea completion has been separately discussed in the book. In addition, legisla-
tions play a major role for every country to protect their environment and ensure the
proper use of the oil and gas treasure. To provide better understanding of legisla-
tions, the book ends with common legislation acts and a comparison of different
legislation acts from various major oil and gas producing nations.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to their families for their invaluable support, without
which this book would not have been possible. We want to thank Pandit Deendayal
Petroleum University, Gandhi Nagar, for providing all the support for publishing
this book.
We appreciate the contributions of upstream undergraduate students (Class of
2018) for discussing topics related to platform operations. Further, we appreciate
Mr. Shivshambhu Kumar and Mr. Vivek Thakkar for proofreading the draft ver-
sions and preparing the list of references. The book would have remained incomplete
without the invaluable feedback of the reviewers, and we are grateful to them for
their input.
We would also like to show our immense gratitude toward the editors and the
publisher (Taylor & Francis) for accepting our book for publication. Finally, we
would like to acknowledge all the authors and contributors of the different articles,
research papers, and online sources we have used in our book.

xxi
Authors
Shashi Shekhar Prasad Singh graduated in
Petroleum Engineering from IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
in 1969, and has served the National Oil Company
of India, ONGC, for nearly four decades at senior
positions in its operations and R&D activities. At
the Institute of Oil and Gas Production technol-
ogy (IOGPT), an R&D wing of ONGC, he was
responsible for the identification and assimilation
of prospective new technologies for offshore and
played a key role in deepwater development ven-
tures in Indian offshore. As the head of the Offshore
Development Group at IOGPT in the late 1990s, he
introduced innovative ideas and cost-cutting tech-
nologies which helped to develop many small and
marginal offshore fields at later dates. He presented a status paper on oil and gas
scenario in Indian deepwater in Deep Tech-97 (an international conference orga-
nized under the aegis of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of
India). It helped to bridge the technology gap and mobilize huge resources required
for deepwater development in India. He has been associated with Pandit Deendayal
Petroleum University since 2008 as an adjunct professor and has been teaching off-
shore operations along with other petroleum engineering courses.

Jatin R. Agarwal earned a PhD under the guid-

ance of Professor Subhash N. Shah, Emeritus
Professor, Oklahoma University and a Shell Total
Chair Professor at PDPU in the area of production
enhancement. Dr. Agarwal also holds a bachelor’s
degree in chemical engineering from VNSGU and
two master’s degrees in petroleum engineering
from PDPU and the University of Tulsa. He has 9
years of research experience in flow assurance and
artificial lift systems. He has published several
papers in different journals and at conferences on
topics related to flow assurance for onshore and
offshore. Currently, he is working as the Manager
of the School of Petroleum Technology at PDPU,
and is involved in both teaching and teaching-related administrative jobs at PDPU.
His teaching profile includes introduction to petroleum engineering, pipeline engi-
neering, offshore operations, and advanced drilling technology at the undergradu-
ate level. Presently, he has established a state-of-the-art Drilling Stimulation and
Cementation Research Center that caters to both offshore and onshore needs in

xxiii
xxiv Authors

India. The research center focuses on designing high-temperature and high-pressure

drilling fluids, cement slurries, and frac fluids for offshore operations. In addition,
the center has expanded its horizon for the study of enhanced oil recovery for both
onshore and offshore fields. Currently, he is involved in consultancy work provided
by ONGC, GSPC, JTI, GNRL, HOEC, OIL, and many other oil and gas companies.
He has successfully delivered a scale-up theory for predicting wax deposition in
offshore operations.

Nag Mani is an alumni of BIT Mesra, Electrical

Engineering Department. Over a career span-
ning 35 years in upstream hydrocarbon sector, he
has worked with Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
(ONGC), Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL) and Gujarat
State Petroleum Corporation (GSPC). At ONGC,
he worked in onshore and offshore divisions like
SHP, which is one of the biggest Offshore platform
of ONGC. He started working with RIL in Subsea
division of the KGD6 Project, the first Deep sea
project in India and a leading field in India. His
responsibilities included execution of different
type of Subsea jobs ranging from Installation of
equipment like Subsea X-Mass tree from MSV to
Inspection, Maintenance and Repair/Replacement
jobs in Subsea. With GSPC, he worked with Offshore Projects like Deen Dayal
field in East Coast of India for Subsea Inspection, Maintenance and Repair Division
with additional responsibility of debottlenecking works for Offshore and Onshore
Operation. Deen Dayal field is a Sour gas field with H2S and Co2 presence in gas.
 1 Introduction to
Offshore Operation

1.1 OCEAN BASELINE
Oceans cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and the land beneath them
can meet the energy requirements of the world for years to come. Beaches extend
from the shore into the ocean on a continental shelf that gradually descends to a
sharp drop called the continental slope. The continental shelf can be as narrow as
20 km or as wide as 400 km. Water on the continental shelf is usually shallow and
rarely more than 150–200 m deep. Continental shelf drops off at the continental
slope, ending in abyssal plains up to 3–5 km below the sea level. While many plains
are flat, others have jagged mountain ridges, deep canyons, and valleys. The tops of
some of these mountain ridges form islands where they extend above the water. Our
borders extend 200 miles into the water from coastlines, encompassing areas larger
than some countries. This large underwater area is called the exclusive economic
zone (EEZ).
Territorial sea baseline is defined by the United Nations (UN) as “the line from
which the seaward limits of a State’s territorial sea and certain other maritime zones
of jurisdiction are measured”. These zones include the breadth of the territorial sea;
the seaward limits of the contiguous zone, the EEZ; and, in some cases, the continen-
tal shelf. The territorial sea baseline varies according to the shape of the coastline
as follows:

• The normal baseline corresponds with the low-water line along the coast,
including the coasts of islands. According to the Convention, a normal base-
line can be drawn around low-tide elevations defined as naturally formed
areas of land surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at
high tide, provided they are wholly or partly within 12 nautical miles of the
coast [1].
• Straight baselines are straight lines joining specified or discrete points on
the low-water line, usually known as straight baseline endpoints. These
may be used in localities where the coastline is deeply indented and cut
into or where there are a fringe of islands along the coast in the immediate
vicinity [1].
• Bay or river closing lines are straight lines drawn between the respective
low-water marks of the natural entrance points of bays or rivers.

Territorial sea, being an integral part of the continental shelf, is an important aspect
to consider.

1
2 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 1.1 Water according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
1982 [2].

Baselines are the starting point from which the territorial sea and other maritime
zones of jurisdiction are measured, for example, contiguous zone, EEZ, and conti-
nental shelf (Figure 1.1).

1.2 OCEAN ENVIRONMENT
The ocean environment greatly influences the structural design, logistics, and opera-
tional safety.

1.2.1 Metocean Condition and Study

Environmental conditions/metocean conditions have a direct bearing on any coastal
or offshore project, as well as the project’s operation and maintenance. The selec-
tion of equipment, system, location, operational strategy, etc. also depends on these
conditions. In addition, environmental conditions influence the financial decision-
making regarding the project and operation.
It is essential to understand the environmental/metocean conditions by studying
all the parameters, including waves, wind, current, seasonal variation, and probabil-
ity of cyclones and storms. These studies may be conducted as per the requirements
of the job (Figure 1.2).
Introduction to Offshore Operation 3

FIGURE 1.2 Data well waverider buoy deployed near the southwestern coast of France to
measure ocean wave statistics, including significant wave height and period, wave direction,
and power spectrum [3].

1.2.2 Meteorology
• Wind analysis including speed, direction, gustiness, seasonal variance, and
spectrum.
• Air temperature profiling including seasonal variance, humidity, and
precipitation.
• Sea water temperature profiling from mean sea level to sea bottom includ-
ing seasonal variance.
• Sea current analysis.
• Adverse weather analysis including typhoons, hurricanes, cyclones, and
tsunamis.

1.2.3 Physical Oceanography
• Sea water level changes including historical, expected, and seasonal tides
and wave and storm surge analysis.
• Seiches.
• Wind waves – wind seas and swells – characterized by significant wave
heights and periods, as well as propagation direction and spectra (Figure 1.3).
• Bathymetry.
• Analysis of salinity, sea water temperature at different depths, and other
parameters.
• Analysis of ice occurrence including extent, thickness, and strength.
4 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 1.3 Classification of the wave phenomena – of the sea and ocean surface –
­according to wave period by Walter Munk [4].

1.2.4 Metocean Data
Metrology and physical oceanography provides the basis for understanding met-
ocean conditions. Metocean data are collected by deploying measuring instruments,
through satellites by remote sensing, and by remodeling of existing models including
latest inputs. Metocean data form the basis of metocean conditions (Figure 1.4).

1.3 OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION

To meet the ever-increasing market demand for oil and gas, offshore prospecting and
production of oil and gas, apart from onshore production, have become ­essential.

FIGURE 1.4 Ice beacon – for tracking ice movement by GPS, as well as other sensors for
measuring more metocean parameters – and Pablo Clemente-Colón of the U.S. National Ice
Center [3,5].
Introduction to Offshore Operation 5

Technological advancements have helped in reaching deepwater sources of oil

and gas.

1.3.1 Comparison of Onshore versus Offshore Oil Production

It is clear from Figures 1.5 and 1.6 that, out of the total oil production, 67% is onshore
production, and only 33% is offshore production, out of which 24% is from shallow
water. Although since 2000 production from deepwater has continuously increased
due to technological advancements, deepwater contributes to only 9% of the total
production. Thus, to bridge the gap between production and consumption, we have
to produce more oil from deep and ultradeep water (Figures 1.5 and 1.6).

FIGURE 1.5 Statistical analysis of onshore and offshore oil and gas.

FIGURE 1.6 Comparison of total oil production from onshore and offshore fields since
1965.
6 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 1.7 Oil forecasts explicitly showing that deepwater oil production will have a
similar weightage as that of shallow water production by 2020 [6].

Natural gas production increased by 1.1% from 2016 to 2017, and is expected to
increase by approximately 4.3% by 2030 (Figure 1.7).

1.3.2 Comparision of Offshore Oil Production

on the Basis of Water Depth [7]

See Figures 1.8–1.10.

FIGURE 1.8 Offshore production by water depth – 27% from deepwater and 73% from shelf.
Introduction to Offshore Operation 7

FIGURE 1.9 Offshore oil production according to water depth for different regions. In Brazil
and United States, production from ultradeep has increased noticeably from 2005 to 2015 [7].

FIGURE 1.10 Federal offshore oil production especially in the Gulf of Mexico [7].

1.3.3 Rig Count and Utilization Rate [8]

See Figures 1.11 and 1.12.

1.4 OFFSHORE OPERATIONS
The first well drilled over water was completed in 1897. However, real offshore oil
exploration began in the late 1930s, and the first platform was installed in the Gulf of
Mexico in 1945. Initially, wells were drilled from wooden jetties or piers. However,
8 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 1.11 Worldwide distribution of oil rigs. Gulf of Mexico has the highest oil rigs,
followed by North Sea, Southeast Asia, Far East Asia, and Persian Gulf.

FIGURE 1.12 Number of rigs and utilization rate worldwide. Worldwide total supply has
decreased from 740 in 2015 to 660 in 2017 [9].

with technical advancements, these wooden structures were replaced by steel struc-
tures. Till then these structures were fixed and immobile. For ease of movement
and better flexibility, mobile units were introduced in early 1950s. Subsequently, to
accommodate increased payload, water depth, and rough sea conditions, concrete
gravity structures were developed. With a shift toward deepwater exploration, subsea
production systems were developed.
While bottom-supported units were being developed for shallow waters, float-
ing/buoyant vessels were being developed for water depths beyond 500 ft. The first
floating drilling vessel was commissioned in 1953, which was capable of drilling at
depths ranging from 400 to 3,000 ft. The Glomar Challenger was the first versatile
Introduction to Offshore Operation 9

deepwater drillship with dynamic positioning capabilities to hold station at a water

depth of 20,000 ft and drilling depth of 25,000 ft equipped with satellite navigation
facilities (Global Marine Co., USA, commissioned in 1968).
The semi-submersibles were developed by adding buoyant hulls to help drill
while afloat and not sitting at the mud line. These are most suitable for extreme sea
conditions prevalent in the North Sea. In addition to developments in mobile units,
platform technology saw significant development. The first platform was installed
off the coast of Louisiana at a water depth of 20 ft in 1947. The first platform at a
water depth of 100 ft was installed in 1955 and at 200 ft in 1959. During 1970s, the
North Sea was the focal point of offshore activities, and due to heavy load require-
ments, the attention was shifted toward structures. The different types of structures
available include template/jacket, guyed towers, tension leg platform, concrete grav-
ity platform, and tripod tower platform.
The first underwater completion was done in Lake Erie in 1959 by Placid Oil &
Gas Co. in view of boat traffic and icy conditions during winter. The first underwater
completion in open sea was done in 1960 off the coast of Peru by Peruvian Pacific
Oil Company.
In December 1960, Shell Oil Company completed an underwater well (subsea)
in Louisiana after 7 years of experimental design and evaluation. The techniques,
methods, and equipment for completing, producing, and working over wells have
advanced tremendously since the first subsea well was completed in the late 1950.
Complex multiwell systems have been installed on the seabed. Nowadays, in view of
the hydraulic, electronic, and acoustic signal exploratory activities in the deeper con-
tinental shelf, there is a tremendous scope to improve the technology. With techno-
logical advancement, offshore oil and gas industry can explore and exploit deep and
ultradeep locations. Figure 1.13 depicts the current status of the oil and gas industry.

FIGURE 1.13 World map indicating major offshore fields along with their oil and gas
potential [10].
10 Offshore Operations and Engineering

1.4.1 Notable Offshore Fields across the Globe

Some of the notable offshore fields are [11]

• The North Sea

• The Gulf of Mexico (offshore Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama)
• California (in the Los Angeles Basin and Santa Barbara Channel, Ventura
basin)
• The Caspian Sea (notably some major fields offshore Azerbaijan)
• The Campos and Santos Basins off the coast of Brazil
• Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (Atlantic Canada)
• Several fields off West Africa most notably west of Nigeria and Angola
• Offshore fields in Southeast Asia and Sakhalin, Russia
• The Persian Gulf including Safaniya, Manifa, and Marjan belonging to
Saudi Arabia
• India (Mumbai High, K G Basin, East Coast of India, Tapti Field, Gujarat)
• The Taranaki Basin in New Zealand
• The Kara Sea, north of Siberia

1.4.2 Major Offshore Oil Producing Countries

According to the analysis, Saudi Arabia will continue to be the number one offshore
producer with an estimated 4.8 MMb/d, of which 3.9 MMb/d is liquid production. The
Safaniya, Manifa, and Qatif oil fields, as well as Berri, will continue to contribute the
most in terms of production. Norway is estimated to produce just over 4 MMb/d, of
which approximately 50% is gas production, most noticeably from Troll and Ormen
Lange. The gas-dominant countries of Qatar and Iran are expected to produce 3.9 and
3.3 MMb/d of expected total offshore production, respectively. Iran and Saudi Arabia
show the strongest production growth globally compared to 2016 [12] (Figure 1.14).

FIGURE 1.14 Top 10 offshore producing countries in 2017 (MMb/d) [10].

Introduction to Offshore Operation 11

1.4.3 Offshore Facilities (Installations/Platforms/Rigs)

An offshore installation can be an offshore process platform or an offshore drill-
ing rig. Normally, an offshore process platform is a structure as well as a facility to
process and transport petroleum and natural gas produced from a producing well.
Offshore drilling rig is a structure as well as a facility to drill a wellbore below the
seabed to explore and extract petroleum and natural gas present in rock formations
beneath the seabed [12]. Depending on the situation, the offshore platform may have
drilling rigs installed on the same structure. Modular drilling rigs are also installed
on offshore platforms. Otherwise, standalone offshore process platforms and off-
shore drilling rigs are deployed. Offshore facilities may be manned or unmanned,
with corresponding facilities depending on the work requirement. Unmanned
­locations are operated remotely.

1.4.4 Types of Offshore Installations/Platforms

• Fixed platform
• Compliant tower
• Tension leg platform
• Floating production unit (Conventional)
• Truss spar
• MiniDOC spar
• Classic spar
• Cell spar

1.4.5 Type of Offshore Rigs

• Jackup rigs
• Semi-submersible rigs
• Drillships

1.4.6 Challenges with Offshore Facilities

• Remote location and adverse environment make offshore oil and gas opera-
tion much more difficult and challenging than onshore operation. Several
new and innovative technologies are being used to meet the challenges
associated with offshore operations.
• Well depth along with ocean depth adds up to significant hydrostatic head
for fluid circulation in case of drilling operation, as well as for lifting pro-
duction fluid, which in turn requires large amounts of power.
• Transfer of man and material and accommodation of manpower are also
challenges associated with offshore production.
• Safe working/living conditions need to be ensured even during extreme
weather and environmental scenarios. The asset and equipment above and
below the water level need to be kept in safe working conditions, which is a
significant challenge due to limited logistical support.
12 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Oil prices are highly volatile and susceptible to large price drops as
observed recently due to world geopolitics. Compared with onshore energy
projects, offshore oil and gas projects involve heavy investments and are
much more sensitive to price variability. Hence, offshore energy produc-
tion needs to optimize its production and operation costs [13]. This can be
achieved by deploying and utilizing appropriate new technologies and sys-
tems without compromising safety, efficiency, operability, maintainability,
and reliability.
• Accidents are very difficult to deal with in offshore oil and gas industries
due to logistical constraints. Fire accidents are arguably one of the most
dangerous incidents and the most feared by the offshore crew. Ensuring
adequate safety equipment and detection systems is essential for all off-
shore installations.
• Communication is a critical aspect of business operations.

1.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Risks

Extraction of hydrocarbon involves dealing with volatile substances under varying
temperature and pressure conditions, sometimes even under extreme pressure and
temperature. Adverse/hostile environmental conditions may result in unfavorable
events such as accidents and loss of human life. Therefore, the main aim should be
to protect human life and the surrounding environment from contamination by the
extracted fluids. Some of the biggest oil platform accidents include:

1. Piper Alpha (167 fatalities). Cause: Condensate leakage

2. Alexander Kielland (123 fatalities). Cause: Harsh weather/strong winds
3. Enchova Central Platform (42 deaths). Cause: Blowout, fire, and explosion
4. Deepwater Horizon (11 deaths). Cause: Gas kick, leading to fire
5. Mumbai High North (22 deaths). Cause: collision with Multi Support Vessel
(MSV) and subsequent fire after gas leakage [14].

Marine life is also significantly affected by offshore facilities/platforms. Offshore

hydrocarbon operations are sometimes carried out near water sport and commercial
fishing destinations, such as the Gulf of Mexico, which requires additional safety
and security measures to ensure trouble-free operations.
Rigs to Reefs program is currently being actively pursued by authorities in the
United States and Brunei. Decommissioned installations such as platforms or rigs
are either left in place in sea or towed to a new location to become a permanent
artificial reef.
In addition to offshore fires, oil spills and pipeline ruptures or leaks during trans-
portation of liquid hydrocarbon from offshore to onshore facilities by oil tankers or
pipelines or due to problems on platforms or rigs are major environmental risks in
offshore operations.
Water is also produced with hydrocarbons and brought to the surface. This water
is called produced water, which may be highly saline with possible presence of
hydrocarbons.
Introduction to Offshore Operation 13

1.5 HOW ARE OFFSHORE OPERATIONS

DIFFERENT FROM ONSHORE
The basic difference between offshore and onshore installation is the remote and
harsh locations of offshore installations.

1. Offshore installations are mostly self-sufficient in terms of power, water,

and processing facilities. On the other hand, onshore installation need not
be self-sufficient in terms of power and water.
2. Logistical support to offshore installations is limited to air and marine
transportation, which is dependent on weather conditions and may hin-
der continuous approach. On the other hand, logistical support to onshore
installations can be provided anytime without any constraints.
3. On offshore installations there is limited availability for manpower accom-
modation, which is not a concern on onshore installations.
4. Processes and equipment are selected to meet the harsh and corrosive envi-
ronment of offshore operations.

1.5.1 Safety Requirements
Safety adherence and management is a requirement of the petroleum industry. In
offshore sector, safety becomes more demanding due to remote and adverse weather
conditions. Production and processing of oil and gas involves handling volatile sub-
stances at varying temperatures and pressures. Any accident in such a situation can
turn into a disaster, resulting in loss of human life and assets, as well as damage to
the environment. Protection of human life should always be the priority.
Proper training with awareness and alertness are key to avoid and minimize any
such unfortunate accidents. All companies operating offshore have safety manage-
ment systems to cover their entire operation.

1.6 TECHNOLOGY WAVE
Oil industry is currently facing the biggest challenge to increase well productivity as
oil consumption is increasing day by day, particularly in the developed countries and
developing countries. Till now, we have produced most of the crude oil from shallow
water. To bridge the gap between consumption and production, we need to explore
deep sea and ultradeep sea, necessitating technological advancements.
It took the petroleum industry 50 years of inching up the offshore learning curve
before they placed the historical creole platform at 30 ft in the Gulf of Mexico water
in the 1947. In the next 50 years, remarkable technologies were developed with the
industry soaring nearly to the top of the curve.
There is an increasing need to reduce the cost for the economical monetization of
offshore marginal fields in India. In recent years, there has been remarkable devel-
opment in the technology for marginal offshore fields. Some of the prospective new
technologies/innovations at various stages of implementation are discussed below.
To meet the ever-growing demand of hydrocarbons, we are left with no alter-
native but to move to offshore operations (shallow to deep and deep to ultradeep).
14 Offshore Operations and Engineering

To achieve this goal many joint research projects (JRP) are currently ongoing to
develop suitable technologies, some of which are listed below:

• Riserless drilling
• Intelligent wells
• Subsea processing
• Dual activity drilling rigs
• Subsea pumping
• Surface blowout preventer

Although exploration and exploitation of oil and gas from offshore fields have always
remained cost and time intensive, it has not stopped companies and countries from
operating in offshore fields – shallow, deep, and deepwater.
Advancement in technologies along with maturing technology, not only in the
field of exploitation but even in exploration, has resulted in making offshore oper-
ations very interesting and lucrative, resulting in better economy for offshore.
New ­frontiers and fields such as Guyana or Deepwater Outeniqua Basin Offshore
South Africa are opening new avenues. Similarly, new finds in matured fields in
UK North Sea, such as Glengorm, have brought back offshore operations in focus.

REFERENCES
1. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations, New York, 1973.
United Nations, Baselines: National Legislation with Illustrative Maps, United Nations,
New York, 1989, Part 2 Territorial Sea and Contiguous.
2. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, United Nations, New York, 1973.
United Nations, Baselines: National Legislation with Illustrative Maps, United Nations,
New York, 1989, Part 1: Introduction.
3. Metocean. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metocean&oldid=​
856824812.
4. W.H. Munk, Origin and generation of waves, Coast. Eng. Proc. 1 (2017), p. 1.
5. NOAA Photo Library. Available at www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/5037012714/.
6. BP, 67th edition Contents is one of the most widely respected, Stat. Rev. World Energy
(2018), pp. 1–56.
7. U.S.E.I. Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2015.
8. I.P. Rigbase, IHS Petrodata RigBase, IHS Markit (2017).
9. Number of offshore rigs worldwide. Available at www.statista.com/statistics/279096/
number-of-offshore-rigs-worldwide-by-operator/.
10. Rystad Energy, UcubeFree Rystad Energy, Rystad Energy (2017).
11. Oil platform. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oil_platform&​
oldid=886522136.
12. Oil platform wikivisually. Available at https://wikivisually.com/wiki/Oil_platform.
13. Most current and crucial challenges confronting the onshore and offshore oil and
gas pipeline industry today? Available at www.quora.com/What-are-the-most-current-
and-crucial-challenges-confronting-the-onshore-and-offshore-oil-and-gas-pipeline-
industry-today.
14. Deepwater Horizon explosion. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_​
Horizon_explosion.
 2 Offshore Structure
and Design
To facilitate drilling or production operations at sea the first and foremost require-
ment is to locate suitable spaces to install the required equipment as well as to
accommodate the operating crew with requisite facilities to ensure round-the-
clock operations. Although certain utilities such as potable water and electricity
are not readily ­available at these sites, they are required for operations, as well
as for the operating crew, their living accommodation, and the associated basic
needs. In fact, operations of this magnitude need an artificial island called offshore
facilities/platforms. Exploration and production companies use fixed structures up
to the threshold of deepwater for drilling and the subsequent production of oil and
gas. Deep and ultradeep locations use buoyant/floating facilities to support topside
and downside connected project load, as well as logistical support required for
marine operations. Therefore, offshore structures conventionally used for oil and
gas drilling and production operations are ­classified as either fixed platforms or
floating platforms (Figure 2.1).
This chapter discusses the different types of structures in the abovementioned
categories along with their designs.
Fixed structures Fixed structures physically sit on the bottom of the sea and are
held in place either by the sheer weight of the structure or by steel piles driven into

FIGURE 2.1 Various offshore platforms [1].

15
16 Offshore Operations and Engineering

the seabed and affixed to the structure. The different types of fixed structures are
discussed below.
Jacketed platforms consist of a jacket and a deck. The jacket is the tall vertical
section built from tubular steel members and affixed to the seabed by driven piles.
The deck placed on the top holds the production equipment and facilities on the top
connecting subsea facilities/equipment including pipeline and risers.
Compliant towers are made of tubular steel members, similar to the fixed plat-
form. These towers are fixed to the bottom with piling and support a deck with
topsides.
Gravity platforms are built from reinforced concrete. With their substantial
weight, as well as the weight of the topsides, these platforms rely on gravity to hold
them in place.
Floating platform systems These include tension-leg platforms (TLPs) and
moored floating systems of different shapes. These platforms need to be held in
place with steel pipe tendons or moored in place with chains on the seabed attached
using wire or polyester rope.
Spar platforms float as a result of deep large-diameter hollow cylinders that are
weighted at the bottom to keep them upright. Wire or synthetic rope-and-chain com-
binations moor the hulls to the seabed.
Tension-leg platforms (TLPs) have floating hulls made of buoyant columns and
pontoons. Steel pipe tendons hold the hulls down below their natural level of flota-
tion, keeping the tendons in tension and hulls in place.
Floating production systems (FPSs) consist of ship-shaped or semi-submersible
hulls with onboard production facilities. Wire or synthetic rope and chain moor them
in place. Strong sea waves and wave current call for special equipment to accom-
modate risers that transport oil and gas from the sea floor wet trees to the production
facilities on the deck.
Ship-shaped floating production, storage, and offloading systems (FPSOs)
are made from converted tankers or newly constructed ships. They are moored
with rope and chain. Similar to FPSs, FPSOs have no drilling capability. They pro-
cess production from subsea wells and store large crude oil volumes for subsequent
transport by shuttle tankers. A variation, floating storage and offloading (FSO) sys-
tem, receives processed oil from nearby platform FPSs and stores it for subsequent
transport by shuttle tankers. (These units are often referred to as floating storage
units [FSU]). An FPS and FSO/FSU are collectively equivalent to an FPSO. Water
depths present no limitation to FPSOs and FSOs. Cylindrical-hull FPSOs have
double-bottom, double-sided hulls with enough ballast to maintain their position
in safe conditions.
Floating drilling production storage and offloading systems (FDPSOs)
are another variation of the FPSO. These can either be ship-shaped or cylindrical
hulls, and accommodate onboard drilling operations [2].

2.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGNING
Offshore structures are continually exposed to harsh environmental conditions,
and are affected by sea water, winds, waves, storms, earthquakes, and tsunamis.
Offshore Structure and Design 17

Thus, various protective measures are required to keep these structures without any
damage and strong. Of these measures, corrosion protection is the most critical.

2.1.1 Corrosion Protection
Corrosion is metal deterioration resulting from an electrochemical or chemical reac-
tion in its surrounding environment.
An active corrosion cell primarily contains the following four components:

1. An anode (electrode from where electrons are emitted resulting in metal

loss).
2. A cathode (electrode where electrons collect).
3. A metallic path (often the structure itself provides the metallic path).
4. An electrolyte is the medium in which the anode and cathode are immersed
(the electrolyte could be any moist surface or immersion in any conducting
fluid, water, or soil) (Figure 2.2).

2.1.2 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is one of the most common corrosion protection techniques
used today. Its concept and application are ingeniously simple, stemming from the
basic theory of corrosion, the active corrosion cell. The presence of all four compo-
nents allows the electrochemical reaction to proceed, resulting in electron flow from
the anode to the cathode and causing corrosion of the anodic material. In cathodic

FIGURE 2.2 Corrosion cell explaining the relations of the four key components of an active
cell [3].
18 Offshore Operations and Engineering

p­ rotection, enough electrons are supplied to the anodic area that it becomes cathodic,
thus slowing down or eliminating anode deterioration altogether. For this, an
­external anodic material is used that supplements electron supply to the area at risk
of corrosion.

2.1.2.1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection is applied through one of the two principal methods:
impressed current or sacrificial anodes. Impressed current differs from sacrificial
anodes as it creates an electrochemical cell driven by an external power supply.
The basic components required to achieve this circuit are a power source, an elec-
trode, an electrolyte, and the structure requiring cathodic protection. Figure 2.3
illustrates the circuit components. The DC power source supplies the electrode
with a positive current which is then transferred onto the structure ionically and
returns back to the power supply. For power in offshore structures, alternative
sources such as gas engines, renewable energy, or thermoelectric generators need
to be utilized.

2.1.2.2 Sacrificial Anodes (Galvanic Action)

Unlike the impressed current method, the use of sacrificial anodes does not require
an external power supply. Instead, it utilizes the natural tendency of electron flow
from negative to positive potential to drive the current. This phenomenon is also
referred to as galvanic action. As shown in Figure 2.4, electrons are supplied to the
protected structure by the anode via an electrical connection. Anode reactions driven
by the environment produce metal ions that act as positive current flowing toward the
structure to complete the circuit. In practice, the anode is commonly mounted on a
steel core and attached directly to the structure.
In addition to the abovementioned protections, various loads acting on the off-
shore structures are also taken into account.
Corrosion-resistant paint and coats are applied in the splash zone (transition area
of jacket structure at the water entry point) to avoid corrosion.

FIGURE 2.3 Typical components of an impressed current cathodic protection system [3].
Offshore Structure and Design 19

FIGURE 2.4 Typical components of a sacrificial anode [3].

2.1.3 Loads
It is essential to understand the load types that contribute to the design of offshore
structures.

1. Constant loads
2. Variable loads
3. Environment-dependent loads
• Wind and wave-induced loads
• Earthquake loads
• Ice and snow-induced loads
• Temperature-induced loads
• Marine growth
4. Additional loads during installation and construction
5. Unforeseen loads

Wind and wave-induced loading has a significant impact on the design of offshore
structures.

2.1.3.1 Constant Loads
These are also known as dead or permanent loads, and constitute the weight of bare
structures in air, ballast, equipment, and associated structures permanently mounted
on the platform with appropriate adjustment for hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces
on the members below the waterline [4].

2.1.3.2 Variable Loads
These are also known as operating or live loads, and include the weight of non-
permanent equipment or material or manpower. Other contributing factors are forces
generated during drilling, production, helicopter operation, etc. BS 6235 recom-
mends the following live load values:

Crew quarters and passageways: 3.2 KN/m2

Working areas: 8.5 KN/m2
20 Offshore Operations and Engineering

2.1.3.3 Environment-Dependent Loads (Normally Calculated

on Historically 100-Year Return Period)
2.1.3.3.1 Wind and Wave-Induced Load
Wind and wave-induced loads play a significant role in the design of offshore instal-
lations. Wind and waves jointly or individually exert large forces on offshore struc-
tures, threatening their stability. These forces introduce complexity in the design of
the structure. Wind data is normally standardized at a specific height from the mean
sea level for proper consideration.
The following loadings are considered most unfavorable according to some wind
and wave codes.

• One-minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves.

• Three-second gusts.

Waves driven by wind is the most crucial function in designing offshore platforms
as they may approach platforms from more than one direction with irregular shapes
and heights. These forces are determined by considering complex functions. Wave
surface profiling and kinematics are useful in assessing such forces to a significant
extent.

2.1.3.3.1.1  Wave Theories Wave kinematics are described by wave theories.

These theories help calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic
pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the waves. Waves are assumed to
be long-crested, that is, they can be described by a two-dimensional flow-field, and
are characterized by wave height (H), period (T), and water depth (d) (Figure 2.5).
Morison’s equation can be applied when D/L < 0.2, where D is the member diam-
eter and L is the wavelength [4].

FIGURE 2.5 Wave symbols [5].

Offshore Structure and Design 21

Morison’s equation expresses the wave force as the sum of:

• An inertia force proportional to particle acceleration.

• A non-linear drag force proportional to the square of particle velocity.
1
• F ( t ) = FI + FD = ρCmVu + ρC d Au u
2
Where,
F(t) = total inline force on the object
FI = inertial force
FD = drag force

2.1.3.3.2 Earthquake Load
Seismic study of the installation site should be conducted before designing offshore
installations. Correlation of these results with historical data should also be done
to adhere to the agreed design standards for mitigating the effects of earthquakes.
Nowadays, most of the area worldwide is divided in different seismic zones for
earthquake assessment. Seismic studies include investigating seafloor instability,
scouring, etc.
Designing offshore structures capable of withstanding the severest earthquakes
possible in the area is both impractical and uneconomical. Normally, platforms are
designed to withstand and minimize earthquake damage to the extent possible for
moderate earthquakes that can be expected during the lifetime of the structure.

2.1.3.3.3 Ice and Snow-induced Load

Ice and snow-induced loading is a major threat for offshore structures in arctic and
subarctic zones. Moving ice blocks in colder regions poses the threat of a collision
with a structure. Adequate safety measures are incorporated during the design phase
to mitigate both impact load caused by collision and loading caused by snow and ice
formation.

2.1.3.3.4 Temperature-induced Load
Any change in temperature results in thermal stresses in conductive materials.
Temperature profiling of air and sea water from the mean sea level to the seabed is
carried out for mitigating such issues during the design phase. Moreover, the tem-
perature profiling of product and product processing is also important to mitigate
problems that may occur during the operation phase caused by temperature changes
during the design phase.

2.1.3.3.5 Marine Growth
Different marine organisms, consisting of hard and soft growths, may accumulate
on jacket and members in the splash zone as well as on the submerged portion to
varying submergence depths. The quantity and quality of growth depends on envi-
ronmental conditions. Normally, such growths occur within few months of instal-
lation. Marine growth increases the diameter or the exposed area of the affected
section, thereby increasing the overall loading and drag force caused by waves on the
structure. Drag force is the maximum in areas with hard growths. Normally, marine
22 Offshore Operations and Engineering

growth is the maximum near the splash zone/mean water level. Although certain
allowance is provided for such growth during design, if the accumulation exceeds
the allowed margin, marine growth is removed using different method by mechani-
cal cleaning by water jets, blasting, brushing with the help of either diver or diver less
method. Nowadays, growth-preventing coatings or wave/current-assisted devices are
mounted at appropriate locations to mitigate this problem. Predominantly, barnacles,
hydroids, bryozoa, hard coral, and mussels are hard marine growths found near and
around the splash zone (transition point of the structure from air to water). Thickness
of the growth may be up to 200 mm with coverage up to 100%. Normally, such hard
growths are found in the upper reach of submergence up to around 40–50 m, how-
ever, it depends on the marine environment.
Predominantly, sponges, seaweed, and soft coral are soft marine growths.
Typically, these are found on platform jacket structure, risers, caissons, J-tubes, and
supporting clamps.

2.1.3.4 Additional Loads during Installation and Construction

Different operations are performed during installation and construction, including
cutting, welding, machining, transportation, erection lifting, launching, and upend-
ing. Structural components experience temporary loading at different points during
these operations. Care needs to be taken during the design phase to mitigate any
adverse impact caused by such temporary loading. Figure 2.6 provides an illustration
of the installation of an offshore structure at sea.

2.1.3.5 Unforeseen Load
Unforeseen loads cannot be forecasted, possibly occurring on account of exceptional
events, including collision with floating structures, fire and/or explosion, and dropped
objects. Normally, mitigation/remedial measures are incorporated at the time of
design, construction, and installation, and sometimes even after commissioning.

2.2 FIXED PLATFORMS
Fixed platform is a stationary offshore structure extending upward from the mean
sea level and connected to the seabed by piling, concrete column, or other suitable
means. There are different types of fixed platforms:

1. Concrete gravity structure

2. Guyed tower or compliant tower
3. Jacketed platform
4. Jackup platform

2.2.1 Concrete Gravity Structure

Offshore concrete structures have been successfully used for approximately 30 years,
and are mostly used in the petroleum industry as drilling, extraction, or storage units
for crude oil or natural gas. These large structures house machinery and equipment
needed to drill and/or extract oil and gas.
Offshore Structure and Design 23

FIGURE 2.6 Lifts under various conditions [6].

Depending on the circumstances, platforms may be attached to the ocean floor,

consist of an artificial island, or remain floating. In general, offshore concrete struc-
tures are classified into fixed and floating structures. Fixed structures are mostly built
as concrete gravity structures (also termed as caisson-type), where the loads bear down
directly on the uppermost layers as soil pressure. The caisson provides buoyancy dur-
ing construction and towing and acts as a foundation during the operation phase.
Floating units may be held in position by anchored wires or chains in a spread
mooring pattern. Because of the low stiffness associated with these systems, the
natural frequency is low and the structure can move in all six degrees of freedom.
Floating units serve as production, storage, and offloading units (FSO) for crude oil
or as terminals for liquefied natural gas.
Concrete offshore platforms are almost always constructed along their vertical
altitude, which allows the onshore installation of deck girders and equipment and the
subsequent transport of the entire structure to the installation site [7].
A concrete gravity platform differs from template platforms in several aspects.
The most fundamental difference is how the platform is anchored to the seabed. All
24 Offshore Operations and Engineering

structures, that is, template platforms tension-leg, guyed tower utilizes some form of
anchoring system, that is, piles, anchored guy lines, anchored tension cables, etc. On
the other hand, concrete gravity platforms sit firmly on the seabed and are held in
place by the sheer force of their own weight (Figure 2.7).
Concrete gravity platforms have fixed bottom structures and remain in place on
the seabed without the need for piles. Partial construction of these platforms occurs
at dry docks adjacent to the sea. The structure is built from the bottom up, similar
to an onshore structure. At a certain point, the dock is flooded (ballasting) and the
partially built structure floats [8]. Then, it is towed to deeper sheltered water where
the remaining construction is completed. After towing to the field, the base is filled
with water (ballasting) to sink it on the seabed. Concrete gravity platforms are used
for moderate water depths of up to 300 m [9].
Advantages and salient features:

• Requires less maintenance.

• Can be installed where the soil is firm having substantial bearing capacity
and the seabed must be virtually leveled.

FIGURE 2.7 Fixed platform structure [6].

Offshore Structure and Design 25

• The material of construction, that is, concrete, is relatively inexpensive and

easily available.
• Has the facility for storage and requires shorter installation period as piling
is not required.
• Highly fire and explosion-resistant.
• Requires less maintenance.
• Requires favorable sheltered water for construction.

2.2.1.1 Design
The large size of offshore concrete gravity structures as well as large environmen-
tal forces can cause design problems. The structural requirements for these struc-
tures include material quality, strength, and serviceability. The design is targeted to
offer the least resistance to environmental factors while providing adequate support
for the structure. Typically, the structure is designed to meet the criteria laid down
for the ultimate progressive collapse, fatigue, and serviceability limits. Prestressed
concrete, used for concrete gravity structures, provides good resistance to fatigue
and corrosion. Prestressing is essential because it permits the concrete to remain
compressed at all times.
The following temporary loading conditions may very well govern the structural
design (Figure 2.8):

• Construction in dry dock

• Construction in protected harbor
• Ballasting for deck installation
• Towing
• Installation

Often, the cellular base walls are not pressurized, and therefore, must be designed
to resist the substantial hydrostatic pressure imposed during immersion and in
place condition. Coincidentally, the ballasting of concrete gravity structures for
deck installation prior to towing to site is often regarded as an effective, full-scale,
onshore pressure test prior to offshore installation [10].

FIGURE 2.8 Concrete platform construction and installation [6]. (Courtesy of MSL
engineering.)
26 Offshore Operations and Engineering

2.2.1.2 Construction and Installation

The construction and installation of concrete gravity structures are entirely differ-
ent from those of jacket structures. Figure 2.8 shows a typical set of construction
and installation steps for a concrete gravity structure. As illustrated, the base of the
structure is constructed in a dry dock, after which it is floated out and moored in
a deepwater protected harbor [11]. Completion by slip-forming of all the cellular
base walls is undertaken in the harbor, followed by slip-forming of the towers in a
continuous process (Figure 2.9). Once the towers are constructed and topped off,
the whole structure is ballasted down to receive the topsides deck and modules. The
completed platform is de-ballasted to a minimum draft for towing and is towed using
tugboats to its final location and ballasted onto the seabed. It can be observed that
offshore hook-up is minimized because most of the topsides equipment and facilities
are commissioned onshore prior to placement on the deck [12].

FIGURE 2.9 Construction of the troll platform [13]. (Courtesy of Photographic Services,
Shell Intl., London.)
Offshore Structure and Design 27

Advantages:

• Concrete structures lower maintenance costs

• Long life of the structure
• Large storage capacity
• Support large deck loads

Disadvantages:

• Cost increases exponentially with depth

• Foundation settlement
• Subject to seafloor scour

2.2.2 Compliant Tower and Guyed Tower

Compliant towers reduce the steel requirements by using a jacket of constant cross-
sectional area. These towers use guy lines, articulated columns, and buoyancy tanks
to maintain position (Figure 2.11). Compliant towers differ from fixed platform jackets
in that they are configured to respond flexibly to large waves. Compliant towers can
support a large number of platform wells and may serve as host to subsea wells. Risers
are supported laterally along their length and can be set at close spacing without the
risk of interference. Compliant towers are mostly installed in water depths ranging
from 1,500 to 3,000 ft (450 to 900 m). These towers are designed to sustain hurricane
conditions. Significant lateral deflections and forces are experienced by compliant
towers in case of hurricanes. Chevron Petronius tower installed at a water depth of
623 m is the deepest tower at present. Flex legs or axial tubes types of flex elements
are used to reduce resonance and de-amplify wave forces. These flex elements can be
designed to adapt to existing fabrication and installation equipment [14].
Compared with floating systems, such as tension-leg platforms and SPARs, the
compliant tower has a sturdier design to withstand significant lateral deflections dur-
ing hurricane conditions [15].
During fabrication and installation of equipments, this type of installation struc-
tures can be configured.
The freestanding compliant tower concept (Figure 2.10, adopted for the Petronius
platform in the Gulf of Mexico) and the guyed tower concept (Figure 2.11, adopted
for the Lena platform in the Gulf of Mexico) are based on the principle of “compli-
ance” to attack by waves. Vertical and lateral stability is assured through the use
of either flotation devices or guys. The dynamic response of a compliant tower is
crucial, and dynamic analyses form a part of the design process for this structure.

2.2.2.1 Design
The surface facility of the tower comprises the drilling, production, and crew quarter
modules. Individually, size is determined by the dimensions needed to handle pro-
duction, drilling operations, and crew accommodations. The surface facilities are
smaller on compliant towers than those on fixed platforms because of the decreased
jacket dimensions.
28 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 2.10 Compliant towers [16].

For a compliant tower, the supporting structure may have a lower and upper sec-
tion. Typically, the tower’s jacket is composed of four leg tubular that can range from
3 to 7 ft in diameter and are welded together with pipe braces to form a space-frame-
like structure. The lower jacket is secured to the seafloor by weight and with 2- to
6-ft piles that penetrate hundreds of feet beneath the mud line. Both the lower and
upper jacket dimensions can range up to 300 ft on one side. The water depth that the
structure will reside in dictates the height of the jacket.
A series of buoyant tanks (up to 12) located on the upper part of the jacket places
the members in tension, reducing the foundation loads of the structure. The tanks can
range up to 20 ft in diameter and 120 ft in length. The amount of buoyancy is digitally
programmed for control maintaining the appropriate tension in the structure mem-
bers during wind and wave movements. This buoyant system can also be incorporated
into some member designs, minimizing the size and placement of the tanks.

2.2.2.2 Construction and Installation

In general, for compliant towers, mooring is only used in the guyed-tower design.
For guyed towers, several mooring lines (up to 20 lines measuring 5½-inch dia.)
are attached to the jacket close to the waterline and are spread out evenly around it
Offshore Structure and Design 29

FIGURE 2.11 Guyed tower concept [17]. (Photographic archives, ExxonMobil.)

(up to 4,000 ft of line). Clump weights (120 ft × 8 ft, up to 200 tons) may be attached
to each mooring line and move as the tower moves with the wind and wave forces.
To better control the tower motions, the lines are kept in tension during the swaying
motions. The portion of the lines past the clump weights are anchored onto the sea-
floor with piles (as many as 20, each 72-inch dia., 115-ft long, penetrating 130 ft, and
weighing up to 60 tons). During the onshore fabrication of the jacket, the mooring
system for the guyed tower is installed.
A specially designed, dynamically positioned crane barge can be utilized for
installing the compliant tower, including guy line winch module, anchor pile mod-
ule, and clump weight module. The installation procedure starts with the anchor
piles, followed by the chains, the clump weights, and finally, the remaining mooring
lines that attach to the jacket, as needed. Until the jacket is installed, anchor buoys
hold the remaining lines in position [18].
Fit-for-purpose barge or ship is used to tow the jacket as per requirement in one
or two pieces to the site for launching either from the side or rear of the barge/ship
for installation. Typically, guyed-tower design jacket is in one piece whereas normal
compliant tower has two jackets – upper and lower. Topside facilities are transported
separately from the shore to the site for placement on the installed jacket.
A dynamically positioned pipe-laying ship installs the pipeline or pipeline bun-
dle. The complete installation process can take up to 8 months before any additional
drilling or production can start [16].
30 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Advantages:

• Lower cost than steel jackets

• Good stability – guy lines and clump weights give additional restoring force
• Possible reuse

Disadvantages:

• High maintenance costs

• Small fields only
• Difficult mooring
• Cost increases exponentially with depth

2.2.3 Jacketed Platform
• Underwater, the piles are contained inside the legs of a “jacket” structure
serving as bracing for the piles against lateral loads.
• The jacket also serves as a template for the initial driving of the piles.
(The piles are driven through the inside of the legs of the jacket structure.)
• Natural period (usually 2.5 s) is kept below wave period (14–20 s) to avoid
amplification of wave loads.
• Ninety-five percent of offshore platforms around the world are jacket-­
supported [19] (Figure 2.12).

FIGURE 2.12 Jacket platform [6].

Offshore Structure and Design 31

Typical Design: Jacket design depends on many factors including water depth,
bathymetry, subsea soil condition, topside load, expected field life, and environmen-
tal conditions. Pile design, including its foundation and installation, is one of the
most important factor influencing the entire jacket platform.
Installation: Offshore installation varies with the type of development
involved. Fixed platforms require considerable efforts to install; jackets and top-
side decks need to be transported to the well location. Once the jacket is in its
final position and piled, the deck is lifted into position and welded to the jacket.
Following its installation, the hook-up is completed to services and production
lines on the jacket. Any additional modules are lifted into position, fixed, and
installed.
Topside Installations: Normally, topside facility is fabricated onshore and sub-
sequently transported to offshore sites on a barge or ship. A topside facility can
be installed in a single lift or modular lifts, and depends on the available/planned
logistics and lifting capacity. Another important aspect of topside facility instal-
lation and hook-up activity is offshore weather conditions. Figure 2.13 shows the
different stages in the installation of the jacketed platform, and Table 2.1 lists the
activities performed in these stages.

1 2

3 4

FIGURE 2.13 Installation steps for jacketed platform [20].

(Continued )
32 Offshore Operations and Engineering

5 6

7 8

9 10

11 12

13 14

FIGURE 2.13 (CONTINUED) Installation steps for jacketed platform [20].

Offshore Structure and Design 33

TABLE 2.1
Stages of the Installation of the Jacketed Platform
Tag Activity to Be Carried Out
1 The cargo barge is positioned for jacket transfer
2 The vessel sails to the installation location
3 The jacket reaches the installation location
4 The jacket is tilted to a vertical position
5 The jacket is ready to lower down
6 The jacket is lowered to the seabed
7 The jacket is positioned to the seabed, and piling and installation are started
8 The vessel approaches the cargo barge
9 The topside is loaded on the vessel
10 The vessel approaches the installation location
11 The vessel moves around the jacket
12 Motion are compensated to put topside on the jacket
13 Lowering of the topside onto the jacket
14 All support yokes are disconnected and the vessel moves away from the platform

Advantages:

• Deck load is not a constraint

• Ease of transportation and installation
• Suitable for long field life and big fields
• Processing and stabilization of the product can be done offshore
• Better stability
• Operation less dependent on water

Disadvantages:

• Cost dependent on water depth

• Prone to corrosion
• Limited logistics and storage area

2.2.4 Jackup Platform/Rig
See Figure 2.14.

2.2.4.1 Design
Once jacked up, a jackup platform/rig must remain stable under adverse environ-
mental conditions. Design engineers should ensure that the platform’s/rig’s gravity
load can withstand the horizontal forces of wind, wave, and ocean current. Wind
provides the majority of the overturning momentum. Wind acts primarily on the
portion of the legs above the hull, and the load increases as the square of wind
speed. Meteorologists categorize wind speed according to the time interval used to
34 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Jackups, as the name suggests, are platforms

that can be jacked up above the sea using legs
which can be lowered like jacks.
These platforms are typically used in water
depths up to 400 feet, although some designs
can go to 550 feet depth.
They are designed to move from place to
place, and then anchor themselves by
deploying the legs to the ocean bottom using a
rack and pinion gear system on each leg.

FIGURE 2.14 Jackup platforms [21].

record it. The 3-second gust, defined as the highest, is used for designing individual
steel members. The 1-minute wind speed is used to calculate rig stability.
Wave and ocean current are minor contributors to overturning incidents associ-
ated with jackup platforms. Wave forces depend on the height and period of the waves
and water depth. Empirical formulas predict two components – inertia and drag – of
the wave force against the legs assuming the worst-case scenario, the 50-year wave.
Water depth influences these forces because it affects the shape of the wave.
Ocean current load is hard to predict because its velocity and direction vary with
depth. Current drag can be important. Safe operation, however, depends on local
conditions; if the local conditions exceed the equivalent design criteria, platform/
rig stability is re-evaluated. This assessment uses laboratory data and lengthy model
calculations.
Leg penetration is predicted before the rig is relocated by taking a sample of the
ocean floor and studying its shear strength. Safe operation is limited by leg length.
In small water, small penetration causes the leg to extend high above the jack house
and increase the horizontal wind load. A minimum leg reserve of 5 ft above the top
of the jack house is required as the penetration estimation is not exact.
Water depth corresponds to the highest annual tide plus a storm surge, which
is a rise in the ocean level caused by low barometric pressure. This information is
obtained through the local meteorological office. The air gap, measured from the
mean water level to the bottom of the hull, must be sufficient to avoid the crest of any
wave striking the hull. For safety, an extra 4 ft or 10% of the air gap is added [21].

2.2.4.2 Installation
The jackup platform is installed in stages illustrated in Figure 2.13. The activities as
per the stage are:

A. Arriving on the location

B. Lowering leg
C. Coming out of water
Offshore Structure and Design 35

D. Preloading and ballasting of spud tank, and checking stability and leg
penetration
E. All full air gap with environmental loads (Figure 2.15)

Advantages:

• Jackups can be easily relocated

• They have all the advantages of a fixed platform in shallow water, and
do not require moorings. They have a low abandonment cost and can be
returned to drilling
• Wells and riser can be of conventional type (Figure 2.16)

Disadvantages:

• Limitations on topside weight and water depth operating range

• Limited to areas where soil conditions permit satisfactory leg support
• Fatigue problems could limit utilization unless costly alterations are made
to the structure
• Limited storage capability

2.3 FLOATING PLATFORM
2.3.1 Mooring and Anchoring
Ships or vessels at sea have to be kept in their place to enable oil or gas production,
transfer, and storage on board. Mooring is a system of permanent or temporary sta-
tion keeping at sea. A vessel is said to be moored when it is fastened or held secured
to a fixed object such as a pier or quay or to a floating object such as an anchor buoy
using cables, anchors, or lines. Mooring and anchors are very critical for the stability
of a floating system (Figure 2.17).
Anchors: The mooring system relies on the strength of the anchors. The hold-
ing capacity of anchors depends on the digging depth and the soil properties. The
mooring lines run from the vessel to the anchors on the seafloor. Anchor types
include [23]:

• Dead weight
• Drag embedment anchor
• Pile
• Suction anchor
• Vertical load anchor

1. Dead weight: Dead weight is probably the oldest anchor in existence.

The holding capacity is generated by the weight of the material used and
partly by the friction between the dead weight and the seabed. Steel and
concrete are common materials used today for the construction of dead
weights.
36 Offshore Operations and Engineering

A B

C D

E F

FIGURE 2.15 Jackup platform installation [22].

Offshore Structure and Design 37

FIGURE 2.16 Various loads on the legs of the jackup platform [21].

Mooring System

• A mooring system is made up of a

– mooring line,
– anchor and
– connectors,
and is used for station keeping of
a ship or floating platform in all
water depths.
• A mooring line connects an
anchor on the seafloor to a
floating structure.

FIGURE 2.17 Mooring and anchoring [23].

2. Drag embedment anchor: A drag embedment anchor (DEA) is the

most utilized anchor for mooring floating mobile offshore drilling units
(MODUs) in the Gulf of Mexico. Drag anchors are dragged along the sea-
bed until they reach the required depth. As they penetrate the seabed, they
utilize soil resistance to hold the anchor in place. A DEA is mainly used for
centenary moorings, where the mooring line arrives on the seabed horizon-
tally, and does not perform well under vertical forces (Figure 2.18).
38 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 2.18 Different types of anchoring systems [24]. (Courtesy: Vryhol Anchor.)

3. Pile: The pile is a hollow steel pipe installed into the seabed using a piling
hammer or a vibrator. The pile is held in place by soil friction along the
pile and lateral soil resistance. In general, piles need to be installed at great
depth below the seabed to achieve the required holding capacity. Piles are
capable of resisting both horizontal and vertical loads.
4. Suction anchor: Suction piles are the predominant mooring and founda-
tion system used for deepwater development projects worldwide. Tubular
piles are driven into the seabed and a pump sucks the water from the top
of the tubular, pulling the pile further into the seabed. Suction piles can be
used in sand, clay, and mud soils, but not gravel, as water can flow through
the ground during installation, making suction difficult. Once the pile is in
position, the friction between the pile and the soil holds it in place. It can
resist both vertical and horizontal forces.
5. Vertical load anchor: Vertical load anchors are similar to drag anchors as
they are installed in the same manner. However, the vertical load anchor
can withstand both horizontal and vertical mooring forces. It is used pri-
marily in taut leg mooring systems, where the mooring line arrives at an
angle to the seabed [25].

2.3.1.1 Classification of Mooring Systems

See Figure 2.19.

2.3.1.2 Catenaries Mooring System

The catenaries system is the most common type of mooring system employed in shal-
low water. The catenaries refer to the shape that a free hanging line assumes under
gravity (Figure 2.16). The catenaries system provides restoring forces through the
suspended weight of the mooring lines and its change in configuration arising from
vessel motion [27]. In other words, under environmental loadings, the moored vessel
Offshore Structure and Design 39

FIGURE 2.19 Classification of mooring systems [26].

tries to lift the mooring lines, which creates a restoring force mostly through the
weight of the catenaries [25]. By catenaries system the mooring line terminates at
the seabed horizontally, the anchor point is only subjected to horizontal forces at the
seabed. This requires that the mooring lines be relatively long compared to the water
depth. With the increase in water depth, the weight and the length of the mooring line
start to increase rapidly. In deepwater, the weight of the mooring lines becomes exces-
sive and the mooring lines tend to hang directly down from the rig. The excessive
weight diminishes the working payload of the vessel of the floating offshore structure.
To overcome this problem synthetic ropes are used in the mooring line (Figure 2.20).

2.3.1.3 Single Point Mooring System

In the single point mooring system, mooring lines are connected to a single point.
Single point mooring systems are generally used on ships, as shown in Figure 2.17.
The single point can consist of an external or internal turret, a floating buoy in a
catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM), or a single anchor leg mooring (SALM). The
single mooring system allows for a ship to weathervane into environmental condi-
tions. The ship is often free to rotate 360°.
40 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 2.20 Example for mooring system (www.dredgingengineering.com) [27].

Single Point Mooring (SPM) Buoy serves as a link between the offshore facilities
and the tankers for loading or offloading liquid and gas cargo. Some of the major
benefits of using SPM include [28]:

• Ability to handle extra-large vessels

• Does not require ships to come to the port, saving both fuel and time
• Ships with high drafts can be moored easily
• Large quality of cargo can be easily handled

Mooring and anchoring system, buoy body, and product transfer system are the main
parts of the SPM Buoy. The mooring arrangement is such that it permits the buoy to
move freely within the defined limits, considering wind, waves, current, and tanker
ship conditions. The SPM Buoy is anchored to the seabed using anchor chains (legs)
attached to the anchor point (gravity-based or piled) on the seabed. Chain stoppers
are used to connect the chains to the buoy.
Because floating platforms are normally used in deep and ultradeep waters, types
of floating platforms, design, installations, and application considerations will be
further discussed in detail in Chapter 6 (Deep Water Development System).

REFERENCES
1. “How Offshore Drilling Works”. Available at https://science.howstuffworks.com/­
environmental/energy/offshore-drilling.htm.
2. W.L. Leffler, R. Pattarozzi, and G. Sterling, Deepwater Petroleum Exploration &
Production, PennWell Corporation, Tulsa, OK (2003).
3. H. Ivanov, Corrosion Protection Systems in Offshore Structures, Honors Research
Projects. (2016).
4. offshore-platformdesign. Available at https://es.slideshare.net/rahulranakoti/offshore-
platformdesign.
Offshore Structure and Design 41

5. N. Haritos, Introduction to the analysis and design of offshore structures—an overview,

Electron. J. Struct. Eng. 7 (2007), pp. 55–65.
6. Minimal Offshore Facilities of the Future. 2001. League City, Texas: PennWell
Conferences and Exhibitions (2001).
7. Offshore_concrete_structure. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshore_​
concrete_structure.
8. M. Waller and M.A. Shah, Advances in drilling technology, Trans. Inst. Min & Metall.
Sect. A: Min. Ind. 101 (1992), pp. A166–172.
9. The deepest offshore drilling rig in the world. Available at http://www.energy​
industryphotos.com/deepest_offshore_oil_drilling_ri.htm
10. Type of offshore structures, Retrieved from. Available at http://omeleteholic.blogspot.
com/search?q=type-of-offshore-structures
11. C. Günther, E. Lehmann, and C. Österfaard, Offshore Structures: Conceptual Design
and Hydromechanics, Springer, Berlin (1992).
12. C. Hard, Spoilt for choice: How to classify and select minimum facility solutions, in
Conference on Minimal Offshore Facilities of the Future (2001).
13. P. O’Connor, S. Defranco, and B. Manley, Minimal Structures Open Global Production
Opportunities, Offshore Magazine (1999).
14. S. Chakrabarti and C. Capanoglu, Learn more about compliant tower historical develop-
ment of offshore structures, in S. Chakrabarti (ed.) Handbook of Offshore Engineering,
Offshore Structure Analysis, Inc., Plainfield, IL (2005).
15. Concrete platform construction and installation. Available at http://blog.gooshared.
com/view/166.
16. Compliant Tower: The Next Generation. Available at https://www.offshore-mag.
com/business-briefs/equipment-engineering/article/16757589/compliant-towers-
the-next-generation.
17. G. Moritis, Tallest structure installed in gulf, Oil Gas J. 96 (1998), pp. 49–52.
18. platform-compliant-tower. Available at https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/​
s­ ystems/​ship/platform-compliant-tower.htm
19. 31-story-about-platform. Available at http://bourneronin.blogspot.com/2010/06/31-
story-about-platform.html
20. offshore/steel. Available at www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/98-9/offshore/steel.
htm
21. BENNETT & ASSOCIATES. Available at www.keppelfels.com.sg (A technical primer by
BENNETT & ASSOCIATES, L.L.C.).
22. How Do Jackups Work? Available at www.rigzone.com/training/insight.asp?insight_
id=​339&c_id=
23. How do Mooring Systems Work? Available at www.rigzone.com/training/insight.
asp?insight_id=358
24. Anchor manual 2005, Vryhof anchors. Available at www.dredgingengineering.com/
dredging/media/LectureNotes/Anchors/AM2000.pdf
25. No Title. Available at http://svrmoorings.weebly.com/services-we-provide.html.
26. AEA Technology Engineering Solutions, Failure modes, reliability and integrity of
floating storage unit (FPSO, FSU) turret and swivel systems, Offshore Technol. Rep.
2001/073 (2001).
27. B. Zanuttigh, L. Martinelli, and M. Castagnetti, Screening of Suitable Mooring
Systems, Aalborg University, Aalborg (2011), pp. 1–31.
28. Offshore Mooring Lines, by Offshore Consulting Engineering. Available at www.
dredgingengineering.com/moorings/lines/Offshore mooring lines mooring system.
htm.
 3 Offshore Drilling
and Completion
Drilling is undertaken once the necessary support system (drilling platform) along
with living accommodation for the drilling crew is in place. This chapter focuses on
drilling and completion operations offshore.

3.1 OFFSHORE DRILLING
3.1.1 Introduction
Drilling an offshore well is much more challenging compared to drilling an onshore
well. At the same time, economics associated with offshore drilling operations are
quite significant given their complexity and difficulty. Because the platform cost is
significantly high, separate platforms for individual well and drilling a vertical well
may be cost prohibitive. Directional drilling has made it possible to drill a large
number of wells in each direction with only a few vertical wells, significantly reduc-
ing the cost of field development. Rigs used for offshore drilling are classified into
two basic types and are discussed in Chapter 2.

• Bottom supported
Fixed – platform
Mobile (MODU) – Jackup, barge, submersible
• Floating
Fixed – Tension-leg platform, SPAR
Mobile (MODU) – Semi-submersible, drillship [1].

Offshore rigs and land rigs have several similarities in terms of type of equipment
used. While drilling depth dictates the equipment design in land rig; it is the water
depth that largely dominates in deciding the type of platform to be used for installa-
tion of rig in offshore. Matching drilling units to platform type/vessels for different
water depth is depicted in Figure 3.1.
Jackup rigs are the most widely used drilling rigs in offshore drilling operations.
A jackup rig is a barge fitted with long support legs that can be raised or lowered.
The jackup is maneuvered (self-propelled or towed) into location with its legs up and
the hull floating on the water. Upon arrival at the desired location, the legs are jacked
down onto the seafloor. Subsequently, “preloading” takes place, where the weight of
the barge and additional ballast water are used to drive the legs securely into the sea
bottom such that they do not further penetrate during operations. After preloading,
the jacking system is used to raise the entire barge above water to a predetermined

43
44 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.1 Matching drilling units to vessels (Courtesy: Greatship India Limited).

height or “air gap”, so that wave, tidal, and current loading acts only on the relatively
slender legs and not on the barge hull [2].
Because offshore drilling operations involve drilling multiple wells from a single
platform, use of directional well drilling and extended reach drilling (ERD wells)
is increasing to penetrate long intervals of pay zone and achieve more hydrocarbon
exploitation from a single platform. As the difficulty of drilling such advanced wells
is high compared to conventional well drilling, special completion type is required for
such wells. Types of completion used in offshore operations is discussed in Section 3.2.
Because offshore operations are very expensive, the first and most important step
is efficient planning.

3.1.2 Well Planning [3]

Well planning refers to the identification of all the required resources for drilling,
completion, and production, as well as utilizing these resources effectively and effi-
ciently for production throughout the life cycle of the well.
Well planning is a multidisciplinary exercise consisting of mud program, casing
program, drill string design, bit program, etc., and the best approach in well planning
is the one in which service contractors become equally involved with their area of
expertise [4].
Well planning process includes:

• Setting priorities
• Information flow
• Decision support
• Optimization

Wellbore planning requires consideration of various parameters such as completion,

trajectory, well stability, drilling fluid, casing, cementing, wellhead/BOP, BHA and
Offshore Drilling and Completion 45

FIGURE 3.2 Well planning process. (Courtesy: www.petroskills.com.)

drill string, drill bits, hole cleaning, and hydraulics based on geology, reservoir, and
suitable rig equipment (Figure 3.2).

3.1.2.1 Geology
Geology of formation must be studied to determine rock type/strength, porosity/
permeability, dip angles/faults, fracture and pore pressure gradients, expected fluid,
and expected flow rates. This can be achieved with the help of offset well data, elec-
tric logs, mud logs, samples, cores, test results, and seismic data. With the help of
geology, target selection and specifications can be obtained, including true vertical
depth (TVD), size, shape, orientation, directional tendencies, dip angles, and faults.

3.1.2.2 Completion Design
Parameters to be considered for completion design include production casing/tubing
size, completion design, artificial lift requirements, stimulation design, length/orien-
tation in reservoir, and future intervention requirements.

3.1.2.3 Trajectory Design
Trajectory design include measured depth (MD)/TVD, inclination, Azimuth, kick of
point (KOP), build rates, walk rates, dogleg Severity, N-S/E-W displacements, hori-
zontal departure, anti-collision requirements, and surveying requirements.
46 Offshore Operations and Engineering

3.1.2.4 Wellbore Stability
Well is designed such that wellbore stability is maintained. Different stability param-
eters include mechanical stability, mud weight (MW) window, casing seat options,
drilling practices, tripping chemical stability, and inhibitive fluid requirements

3.1.2.5 Drilling Fluid Design

This includes mud type, mud properties, mud weight, rheology, filtration, inhibition,
solids control requirements, and handling/disposal of cuttings.

3.1.2.6 Casing Design
This includes casing sizes, weights, grades, connections, casing setting depths, cas-
ing versus liner/tieback, and load cases – tension, burst, collapse, buckling, special
tools, and running procedures.

3.1.2.7 Cement Job Designs

This includes slurry type/additives, slurry volumes, spacers/washes, displacement,
conventional versus inner string, tool selection – float equipment, centralizers, stage
tools, external casing packers (ECPs), formation integrity test (FIT)/leak off test
(LOT) plan.

3.1.2.8 Wellhead/Blowout Prevention (BOP) Design

This includes wellhead size/design/pressure rating, blowout prevention (BOP) size/
configuration/working pressure rating, and testing procedures/frequency.

3.1.2.9 BHA and Drill String

These include bottom hole assembly (BHA) configuration/directional response; drill
string – length, size, weight, grade, connection; performance properties – tension,
torque, buckling; operating procedures – torque and drag, percent rotary mode, tor-
tuosity, casing wear prediction/mitigation plan, inspection procedures/frequency.

3.1.2.10 Bit Design
This includes bit size, roller cone/fixed cutter, style, features; operating p­ arameters –
WOB, RPM, expected ROP, footage, bit life, cost/foot, eccentric or bicenter
requirements.

3.1.2.11 Hole Cleaning and Hydraulics

These include flow rates, standpipe pressures, pump horsepower requirements, annu-
lar velocities, equivalent circulating densities, surge/swab, bit hydraulic horsepower,
hole cleaning recommendations.

3.1.2.12 Rig Equipment
This includes top drive torque/RPM capability, pump HP/flow rate/pressure capabil-
ity, hook load capacity, Derrick setback space/capacity, drilling fluid storage/mixing/
solids control, bulk dry/liquid storage capacity, deck space/bed space.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 47

3.1.3 Rig Selection Criteria [3]

Rig selection criteria include the following:

• Health, safety, and environment (HSE) compatibility

• Technical capability
• Full-cycle efficiency
• Cost
• Availability

3.1.3.1 HSE Compatibility
Lost time injury (LTI) rate; deck space to minimize crowding; variable load to mini-
mize crane and boat operations; zero discharge – cuttings drying/storage/offloading,
slurrification, and reinjection system; and familiarity.

3.1.3.2 Technical Capability
This includes access to all platform slots from primary access; load limits at canti-
lever distance;
pumps – number, HP, pressure, drill pipe, and other tubulars; inventory; and
handling
systems.

3.1.3.3 Full-Cycle Efficiency
This includes transitions – drilling to completion, handling multiple fluids/tubular
strings, minimum stack changes for required pressure, rig move, sea states and proce-
dures, rig up/rig prep procedures, accommodations, and historical non-productive time.

3.1.4 Wellbore Stability
The successful completion of gas and oil wells involves the selection of mud weight
to maintain hole stability, avoid formation fluid intrusion into the wellbore, and
minimize mud loss to the formation. Our concern here is to understand the rock
mechanical response to drilling and hydrostatic fluid support. Borehole instability
is caused by the tensile or compressive failure of the borehole wall. The borehole
fails in tension when the pressure exerted by the drilling mud induces stresses in the
borehole wall that exceeds the tensile strength of the rock. The failure manifests in
the form of cracks, typically starting from the borehole and running radials inside
formation [5]. Drilling mud may then penetrate and propagate through these cracks,
leading to a fall in mud level in the borehole. If this continues, the borehole stability
is eventually restored by the resulting reduction in the hydrostatic load of the hole at
the depth. The borehole fails in compression when the pressure of the drilling mud
is insufficient to maintain the shear stresses in the borehole wall below the shear
strength of the formation [5]. When the borehole fails in compression, broken rock
falls into the borehole, and the borehole diameter increases at the point of failure.
Both the increase in borehole diameter and the volume of rock debris falling into the
borehole sometimes make it difficult or impossible to move drilling equipment into
48 Offshore Operations and Engineering

or out of the borehole. Certain rock types, such as salt, creep rather than fail when
compressed and may close around equipment in the borehole or reduce borehole
diameter, again making it difficult or impossible to move drilling equipment into
or out of the hole. The implications of borehole instability to lost drilling time and
equipment has prompted operators and service companies to apply rock mechanics
principles to define working limits for mud weights to avoid tensile or compressive
failure [5]. This is particularly true for long reach, highly deviated, and horizontal
wells where the cost of downtime is very high. The theoretical analysis involved
in borehole stability is quite complex and requires a great deal of mathematical
derivation.
The quantification of wellbore instability requires understanding and quantifying
the following five steps:

1. Determining the magnitude and direction of in-situ earth stresses

2. Determining rock properties
3. Establishing a rock failure criterion
4. Calculating induced stresses around the wellbore for vertical and deviated
wells
5. Comparing induced stresses with the stresses from failure criterion to
establish if the wellbore will fail [6].

3.1.4.1 Stress Distribution around the Wellbore

The in-situ stresses in an undisturbed rock mass are shown in Figure 3.3. It is usu-
ally assumed that the major principal stress, σ1, is vertical and the intermediate and
minor principal stresses, σ2 and σ3, respectively, are horizontal. However, in tectoni-
cally active areas, the principal stresses may be inclined vertically and horizontally.
When a borehole is drilled into a rock mass, drilling fluid of a different density
replaces the excavated rock, and the natural stress field redistributes locally around
the borehole. The stress distribution in the borehole wall depends on the magnitude

FIGURE 3.3 In-situ stresses in an undisturbed rock [7].

Offshore Drilling and Completion 49

of the in-situ principal stresses and the stress–strain response of the rock material.
Borehole stability studies have assumed a homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic
rock, with no fluid flow through. Hence, drilling a hole in the ground disturbs the
in-situ stresses around the wellbore and induces additional stresses. In particular,
hoop or circumferential stresses, σθθ, are induced which act around the wellbore.
The mud pressure creates radial stresses, σrr, which provide support for the walls of
the wellbore. As σrr increases, the induced hoop stresses decrease and may become
negative, resulting in rock failure in tension, that is, wellbore burst. A third stress,
σzz, longitudinal stress, acts along the axis of the wellbore. Hence, at any point near
the wellbore, there will be three induced stresses – σθθ, σrr, and σzz. These stresses are
mutually perpendicular to each other at any point [8].

3.1.4.2 Establishing a Minimum Safe Mud Weight [9]

Which criterion is used to establish the minimum safe mud weight? Clearly, it is one
that will minimize the risk of complete hole collapse [10]. However, additional fac-
tors can also influence this, including:

• The volume of cuttings

• The inclination of the well
• The position around the well of the breakouts

The cuttings volume and well inclination are important because of hole-cleaning
issues. The larger the cuttings volume per unit hole length, the better the hole clean-
ing needs to be. Because hole cleaning is easier in vertical wells than in deviated
wells, vertical wells can accommodate larger amounts of failure.
Increase in pumping rate and carrying capacity, or reduced penetration rates, can
mitigate the risk associated with excessive cuttings volumes. Because in ­deviated
wells there is considerable pipe contact with the top and bottom of the well, breakouts
in these locations are likely to be more problematic than breakouts on the sides of the
hole. However, if the well needs to be steered, breakouts on its sides may adversely
affect directional control. Because breakout width is relatively easy to measure and is
directly related to cuttings volume, and because breakout depth increases with time,
we ordinarily choose the breakout width as the criterion to establish the a­ppropriate
minimum mud weight [11].
Because breakouts have been observed that extend more than 100° on each side of
a well in vertical wells drilled into some shales, this is an appropriate limit for such
wells. Narrower breakouts will become problematic in more brittle rock, therefore,
in practice, it is best to use a breakout width limit of 90° for breakouts on each side
of a vertical well. This limit implies that at least half of the wellbore circumference
must be intact, a condition that has been referred to as “sufficient to maintain arch
support” in sanding analyses. Because hole cleaning is more difficult in deviated
wells, the maximum safe breakout width should be reduced as deviation increases.
It is important to remember that it is not necessary to completely avoid breakout
formation to drill wells safely. Using such an overly restrictive criterion is not only
unnecessary but will inevitably lead to recommendations for excessively high mud
weights in situations where these are not warranted.
50 Offshore Operations and Engineering

3.1.4.3 Validating the Geomechanical Model [9]

When using geomechanical analysis, it is important to use prior drilling experience
to validate the geomechanical model. This is possible, even when no log data are
available for previous wells, by using drilling events such as:

• Mud losses
• Tight spots
• Places necessitating repeated reaming
• Evidence of excessive or unusually large cuttings

If wellbore stability predictions for existing wells are capable of reproducing previ-
ous drilling experience, we can be confident that the geomechanical model is appro-
priate for use in predicting the stability of planned wells.
Figure 3.4 was prepared using the drilling mud program for that well, and the
­geomechanical model was developed for the field based on offset experience.

FIGURE 3.4 An example prediction of the degree of wellbore instability in a vertical well
in deep water [12].
Offshore Drilling and Completion 51

The model indicates that, while the section above 5,800 ft will be quite stable (no
failure is predicted), below that depth, failure will progressively worsen, until at
7,400 ft, it is severe enough to cause considerable drilling problems. Although
the model could not explain problems encountered in this well above 5,400 ft, it
turned out that these problems were not caused by geomechanics because they were
­mitigated with no change in mud weight, and no evidence of enlargement was found
in log data from this interval. In contrast, considerable drilling difficulties were
encountered just above 7,800 ft in this well that were detailed in drilling reports,
including several pack-off and lost-circulation events. These problems required set-
ting casing prematurely at that depth. Single-arm caliper logs subsequently revealed
that this section was severely enlarged [13].
Below the casing point, the mud weight increased, which reduced hole insta-
bility problems in the remaining sections of the well, as predicted by the calcula-
tions. Nevertheless, there was some evidence for wellbore enlargements in caliper
data in the interval below 9,200 ft, even for the higher mud weights used. These
sections were those where the predicted breakout width exceeded 90°, lending
support to the validity of the geomechanical model. Subsequently, the model was
used to design a number of wells, all of which reached total depth (TD) without
any incident

3.1.4.4 Sand Production
The two main mechanisms responsible for sand production are shear failure and
tensile failure. Shear failure is usually initiated by reducing pore pressure below
a critical value. Tensile failure is usually initiated by a production rate above
a ­critical value. Sand production caused by tensile failure at high production
rates is not as prolific as that caused by shear failure. Increasing the effective
stress increases the likelihood of shear failure of the formation at the borehole
wall but reduces the likelihood of tensile failure. Accurate knowledge of the size
and directions of the in-situ principal stresses aids more accurate calculation
of the ­effective stresses, and therefore, better predictions of the onset of sand
production.

3.1.5 Casing Design
3.1.5.1 Casing Program [14]
In offshore oil industry, five types of casing are used, which are discussed below.

3.1.5.1.1 Structural Casing
Structural casing is the outer string of large diameter, heavy-wall pipe installed in
wells drilled from floating installations to isolate very shallow sediments from sub-
sequent drilling and to resist the bending moments imposed by the marine riser, as
well as to support the wellhead installed on the conductor casing. Structural casing
refers to a short string of large diameter pipe set by driving, jetting, or drilling to
support unconsolidated shallow sediments, provide hole stability for initial drilling
operations, and provide anchorage for a diverter system.
52 Offshore Operations and Engineering

3.1.5.1.2 Conductor Casing
Conductor casing is the first string set below the structural casing (i.e., drive pipe or
marine conductor run to protect loose near-surface formations and to enable circu-
lation of drilling fluid). The conductor isolates unconsolidated formations and water
sands and protects against shallow gas. This is usually the string onto which the casing
head is installed. A diverter or a BOP stack may be installed onto this string. When
cemented, it is typically cemented to the surface or to the mud line in offshore wells.

3.1.5.1.3 Surface Casing
Surface casing is set to provide blowout protection, isolate water sands, and pre-
vent lost circulation. It also often provides adequate shoe strength to drill into high-
pressure transition zones. In deviated wells, the surface casing may cover the build
section to prevent keyseating of the formation during deeper drilling. This string is
typically cemented to the surface or to the mudline in offshore wells.

3.1.5.1.4 Intermediate Casing
Intermediate casing is set to isolate:

• Unstable hole sections

• Lost-circulation zones
• Low-pressure zones
• Production zones

It is often set in the transition zone from normal to abnormal pressure. The casing
cement top must isolate any hydrocarbon zones. Some wells require multiple inter-
mediate strings. Some intermediate strings may also be production strings if a liner
is run beneath them.

3.1.5.1.5 Production Casing
Production casing is used to isolate production zones and contain formation pres-
sures in the event of a tubing leak. It may also be exposed to:

• Injection pressures from fracture jobs

• Down casing, gas lift
• The injection of inhibitor oil

Must allow for enough room below the target zone to install completion [17].

3.1.5.2 Loads Encountered While Designing Casing

There are three basic forces the casing is subjected to – collapse, burst, and t­ ension.
These are the actual forces that exist in the wellbore. They must first be calcu-
lated and then maintained below the casing strength properties. In other words, the
collapse pressure must be less than the collapse strength of the casing and so on.
Casing should initially be designed for collapse, burst, and tension. Refinements to
the selected grades and weights should only be attempted after the initial selection
is made.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 53

For directional wells, a correct well profile is required to determine the TVD.
All wellbore pressures and tensile forces should be calculated using TVD only. The
casing lengths are first calculated as if the well is a vertical well, and then these are
corrected for the appropriate hole angle.

1. Burst:
In oil well casings, burst occurs when the effective internal pressure
inside the casing (internal pressure minus external pressure) exceeds the
casing burst strength.
At the top of the hole, the external pressure is zero, and the internal
pressure must be supported entirely by the casing body. Therefore, burst
pressure is the highest at the top and the lowest at the casing shoe where
internal pressures are resisted by the external pressure originating from
fluids outside the casing. As will be shown later, in production casing, the
burst pressure at shoe can be higher than the burst pressure at surface in
situations where the production tubing leaks gas into the casing.
Burst calculations for individual casing strings
Conductor Casing: There is no burst design for conductors.
Surface and Intermediate Casings
For gas to surface (unlimited kick size), calculate burst pressures as fol-
lows: Calculate the internal pressure (Pi) using the maximum formation
pressure at the next hole TD, assuming the hole is full of gas (see the below
Figure 3.5).

FIGURE 3.5 Types of casing [15].

54 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Burst at surface = Internal pressure (Pi) – External pressure

Burst pressure at surface (B1) = Pf − G × TD (note external pressure at the
surface is zero)
Burst pressure at casing shoe (B2) = Internal pressure − Backup load =
Pi − 0.465 × CSD
B2 = Pf − G × (TD − CSD) − 0.465 × CSD
The backup load is assumed to be provided by mud which has deterio-
rated to salt-saturated water with a gradient of 0.465 psi/ft
Production Casing: The worst case occurs when gas leaks from the top
of the production tubing to the casing. The gas pressure will be transmitted
through the packer fluid from the surface to the casing shoe (Figures 3.6
and 3.7).
Burst pressure = Internal pressure − External pressure
Burst at surface (B1) = Pf − G × CSD
Burst at shoe (B2) = B1 + 0.052 ρp × CSD − CSD × 0.465
Where, G = Gradient of gas, usually 0.1 psi/ft
Pf = Formation pressure at production casing seat, psi
ρp = Density of completion (or packer) fluid, ppg
0.465 = Density of backup fluid outside the casing to represent the worst
case, psi/ft.
2. Tension Criteria:
Most axial tension arises from the weight of the casing itself. Other ten-
sion loadings can arise due to bending, drag, shock loading, and during
pressure testing of casing. In casing design, the uppermost joint of the string

FIGURE 3.6 Burst design for surface and intermediate casing [6].
Offshore Drilling and Completion 55

FIGURE 3.7 Burst design for production casing [6].

is considered the weakest in tension because it has to carry the total weight
of the casing string. Selection is based on a design factor of 1.6–1.8 for the
top joint.
Tensile forces are determined as follows:
1. Calculate weight of casing in air (positive value) using TVD;
2. Calculate buoyancy force (negative value);
3. Calculate bending force in deviated wells (positive value);
4. Calculate drag force in deviated wells (this force is only applicable if
casing is pulled out of the hole);
5. Calculate shock loads due to arresting casing in slips; and
6. Calculate pressure testing forces.
Forces (1) to (3) always exist whether the pipe is static or in motion.
Forces (4) and (5) exist only when the pipe is in motion. The total surface
tensile load (sometimes referred to as installation load) must be determined
accurately, and must always be less than the yield strength of the top joint
of the casing. Moreover, the installation load must be less than the rated
derrick load capacity so that the casing can be run in or pulled out of hole
without causing damage to the derrick.
LOAD CASES:
There are three load cases for which the total tensile force should be
­calculated – running conditions, pressure testing, and static conditions.
These load cases are sometimes described as installation load cases.
Load Case 1: Running Conditions
This applies to the case when the casing is run in hole and prior to pumping
cement.

Total tensile force = buoyant weight + shock load + bending force

56 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Load Case 2: Pressure Testing Conditions

This condition applies when the casing is run to TD, the cement is dis-
placed behind the casing, and mud is used to apply pressure on the top
plug. This is usually the best time to test the casing while the cement is
still wet. In the past, some operators tested casing after the cement was set.
This practice created microchannels between the casing and the cement
and allowed pressure communication between various zones through these
open channels.

Total tensile force = buoyant weight + pressure testingforce + bendingforce

Load Case 3: Static Conditions

This condition applies when the casing is in the ground, cemented, and the
wellhead installed. The casing is now effectively a pressure vessel fixed
at the top and bottom. One can argue that other forces should be consid-
ered for this case such as production forces, injection forces, temperature-
induced forces, etc.

Total tensile force = buoyant weight + bendingforce + ( miscellaneousforces )

3. Collapse criteria:
Collapse pressure originates from the column of mud used to drill the
hole, and acts on the outside of the casing. Because the hydrostatic pressure
of a column of mud increases with depth, collapse pressure is the highest at
the bottom and zero at the top.

Collapse pressure = External pressure – Internal pressure

COLLAPSE CALCULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL CASING

STRINGS
CONDUCTOR:
The conductor is usually set at a shallow depth ranging from 100 ft to
1,500 ft. Assume complete evacuation so that the internal pressure inside
the casing is zero. The external pressure is caused by the mud in which the
casing was run. For offshore operations, the external pressure is made up
of two components:
Collapse pressure at mud line = External pressure due to a column of sea
water from sea level to mud line = (0.45 psi/ft) × mud line depth =
C1 psi
Collapse pressure at casing seat = C1 + 0.052 × ρm × CSD

INTERMEDIATE CASING
Three collapse points will have to be calculated using the general form
(Figure 3.8):

Collapse pressure, C = external pressure − internal pressure

Offshore Drilling and Completion 57

FIGURE 3.8 Collapse design for intermediate casing [6].

1. Point A: At Surface

C1 = Zero

2. Point B: At depth (CSD-L)

= 0.052 ( CSD − L ) × ρm − 0

C 2 = 0.052 ( CSD − L ) ρm
3. Point C: At depth CSD
C3 = 0.052 CSD × ρm − 0.052 L × ρm1 (where ρm1 the mud weight in
which casing was run in.)
PRODUCTION CASING
For production casing, the assumption of complete evacuation is justified in
the following situations:
1. If perforations are likely to be plugged during production as in gas
wells. In this case, surface pressure may be bled to zero, and hence,
give little pressure support inside the casing.
2. In artificial lift operations. In such operations, gas is injected from the
surface to reduce the hydrostatic column of liquid against the formation
to help production. If the well pressure were bled to zero at surface, a
situation of complete evacuation could exist.
3. In air/gas drilling, all casing strings should be designed for complete
evacuation.
4. Another situation that results in complete evacuation is a blowout which
unloads the entire hole.

3.1.6 Trajectory Design
As planning well trajectory is not a simple task at all, especially in multi-well
­platform, directional companies are closely involved in the planning. Aspects to be
considered before calculating final well path include the following (Figure 3.9).
58 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.9 Trajectory components [14].

3.1.6.1 The Target
The target is usually specified by the geologist, who will define certain points as the
target with acceptable tolerance (e.g., a circle of radius 100 ft having the exact target
as its center). Large target zones are preferable. In the case of multiple zones pen-
etration, they should be selected considering that planned pattern can be achieved
without causing big drilling problems.

3.1.6.2 Kick-Off Point and Build-Up Rate

Measured depth from where a well is steered (usually beginning of the build section)
is called kick-off point. Inclination angle difference between two consecutive survey
points, extrapolated to 30 m (or 100 ft). The selection of both the kick-off point and
the build-up rate depends on the following factors:

• Hole pattern
• Casing program
• Mud program
• Horizontal displacement and maximum tolerable inclination.

Kick-off points should be selected such that the well path is at a safe distance from
the surrounding existing wells. The shallower the KOP and the higher the build-up
rate used, the lower the maximum inclination.
Build-up rates are usually in the range of 1.5°/100ʹ M.D. to 4.0°/100ʹ M.D. for
normal directional wells. Build-up rates selection should always be done considering
maximum permissible dogleg severity.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 59

In practice, well trajectory is calculated for several KOPs and build-up rates, and
the results are compared. The optimum choice is one which gives:

• Safe clearance from all existing wells

• Keeps the maximum inclination within desired limits
• Avoids unnecessarily high dogleg severities

3.1.6.3 Tangent Section
Tangent section is the section of a well where the well path is maintained at a
certain inclination, with the intent of advancing in both TVD and vertical sec-
tion. If wells are drilled at inclinations (up to 80°), the area which can be covered
from a single platform is approximately eight times that covered when maximum
inclination of the wells is limited to 60°. However, high inclination angles can
result in excessive torque and drag on the drill string, presenting hole cleaning,
logging, casing, cementing, and production problems, which are avoidable by the
current technology.
Experience over the years has shown that directional control problems are aggra-
vated when tangent inclinations are less than 15°. This is because there is more
­tendency for the bit to walk (i.e., change in azimuth), and so more time is spent
keeping the well on course. As such, most run-of-the-mill directional wells are still
planned with inclinations in the range 15°–60°.

3.1.6.4 Drop-Off Section
On S-type wells, the rate of drop-off is selected to ease casing problems and avoid-
ance of completion and production problems. It is much less critical to drilling
because there is less tension in the drill pipe that is run through deeper doglegs and
less time spent rotating below the dogleg.

3.1.6.5 Trajectory Measurements
3.1.6.5.1 Inclination (or) Drift
The angle of the wellbore defined by a tangent line at any point of wellbore and a ver-
tical line is called the inclination. The angle measured in degrees between the actual
well path at some depth and a vertical line below the rig site. By oilfield convention,
0° is vertical and 90° is horizontal (Figure 3.10).

3.1.6.5.2 Azimuth
The azimuth of a wellbore at any point is defined as the direction of the wellbore on
a horizontal plane measured clockwise from a north reference. Azimuths are usually
expressed in angles from 0° to 360°, measured from zero north.

TRUE NORTH = MAGNETIC NORTH ± ( DECLINATION )

All magnetic tools give readings to magnetic north; however, the final calculated
coordinates are referenced to either true north or grid north (Figure 3.11).
60 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.10 Inclination angle [14].

FIGURE 3.11 Azimuth [14].

Offshore Drilling and Completion 61

3.1.6.5.3 Types of Directional Patterns [14]

The advent of steerable systems has resulted in wells that are planned and drilled
with complex paths involving three-dimensional turns. It is used especially in case
of re-drills and side-tracked wells. The well path should be kept as simple as pos-
sible. Different types of vertical projections for common directional patterns are
shown in Figure 3.12 and Table 3.1.

3.1.6.5.4 Well Trajectory Calculation [16]

• Build section
• Build radius = R1
• Build-up rate (BUR)
• Length of arc = L1 = r1 · Θ
• Vertical depth = r1 · sinΘ
• Horizontal deviation = r1 · (1-cosΘ)
• Hold section
• Length of hold section = L2
• Vertical depth = L2 · cosΘ
• Horizontal deviation = L2 · sinΘ
• Drop section
• Drop radius = R2
• Drop rate (DR)
• Length of arc = L3 = r 2 · Θ2
• Vertical depth = r 2 · sinΘ2
• Horizontal deviation = r 2 · (1-cosΘ2)

Total measured depth = Kick-off depth + Length of arc of build + Length of hold
section + Length of arc of drop (Figure 3.13).
Total measured depth = D1 + L1 + L2 + L3

FIGURE 3.12 Types of directional well trajectory [14].

62 Offshore Operations and Engineering

TABLE 3.1
Directional Trajectories Options, Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages
Trajectory
Sr. No Options Features Advantages Disadvantages
1 Build and Hold Constant BUR till Simple, low tangent angle, High contact force in
tangent angle, and large horizontal build can result in high
keeping the tangent displacements can be torque and casing wear
angle constant achieved
2 Undersection Build and hold with Lower contact force in High tangent angle
deep KOP build section that results results in less horizontal
in application in salt dome displacement; BUR is
drilling, fault drilling, and difficult to control; more
side-tracking or tripping time to change
repositioning of target BHA while deflecting
3 Double Build Build-hold-build-hold Long horizontal Deep steering is required;
trajectory; can use displacements with less high angle in second
two different BRs contact force in upper tangent
in curves. build section
4 S-Shaped (or) Build-hold-drop (or) Low angle reservoir entry; More torque and drag can
Modified Build-hold-drop- drilling of relief well be expected due to the
S-Shaped hold trajectory to where it is necessary to additional bend;
reach the target run parallel to wild well; Reduces final angle in
completing a well that reservoir bringing risk
intersect multiple of key seating
producing zones
5 Catenary Continuously Lowest contact force of any Not cost-effective in
increasing BUR trajectory; smooth drilled implementation; limited
with depth without wellbore, thus reducing reach; hard to select
tangent section torque and drag, less BHAs with the required
chance of key seating, and rate of build
differential sticking

• Total measured depth = D1 + r1 · Θ + L2 + r 2 · Θ2

Total vertical Depth = D1 + Vertical depth of build + Vertical depth of
hold section + Vertical depth of drop
• Total vertical depth = D1 + r1 · sinΘ + L2 · cosΘ + r 2 · sinΘ2
Total horizontal deviation = Horizontal deviation of build + Horizontal
deviation of Hold section + Horizontal deviation of drop
• Total horizontal deviation = r1 · (1−cosΘ) + L2 · sinΘ + r 2 · (1−cosΘ2)
• Lead angle [17]
Lead angle is the angle to the left of the target location to compensate
for the walking tendency of bit in the right. In the old days, it was normal
practice to allow a “lead angle” when kicking off, because roller cone bits
used with rotary assemblies tend to “walk to the right”. In extreme cases,
the lead angles could be as large as 20°.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 63

FIGURE 3.13 Well trajectory schematic [16].

Because of greatly increased used of steerable motors and PDC bits for
drilling, now there is no need to give lead angle to wells when kicking off.
• Nudging
The technique of “nudging” is used on platforms to “spread out” conduc-
tors and surface casings, which minimizes the chance of a collision.
Other reasons for “nudging” include:
• To drill from a slot located on the opposite side of the platform from the
target when there are other wells in between.
• To keep wells drilled in the same general direction as far apart as possible.
64 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• If the required horizontal displacement of a well is large compared to the

total vertical depth, then it is necessary to build angle right below the sur-
face conductor to avoid collision.
The directions in which the wells are “nudged” should be chosen to
achieve maximum separation. Wells may not necessarily be nudged in their
target directions.
• Proximity (anti-collision) analysis
To eliminate the risk of collisions directly beneath the platform on multi-
well projects (particularly offshore), the proposed well path is compared to
existing and other proposed wells. The distances between the other wells
and the proposal are calculated at frequent intervals in critical sections,
using the EC*TRAK software (BHI) or COMPASS.

Survey uncertainty must also be computed for both the proposed well and the exist-
ing wells. The minimum acceptable separation of wells are usually linked to “cone
of error” or “ellipse of uncertainty” calculations.
All the above-mentioned well trajectories and their terminologies will guide us
through directional drilling operations. Directional drilling and extended reach
drilling are common operations in offshore operations due to greater water depths.
Thus, directional drilling along with emerging drilling technologies is explained in
the next section.

3.1.7 Directional Drilling
Directional drilling has been described as “the art and science involved in the deflec-
tion of a wellbore in a specific direction in order to reach a pre-determined objective
below the surface of the Earth”. Directional drilling is the process of directing the
wellbore along some trajectory to a predetermined target.

3.1.7.1 Evolution of Directional Drilling

The oil and gas industry developed directional drilling in the 1920s, and while
the concept has remained the same, the technology has improved greatly over the
years. The origins of directional drilling in the oil industry go back to the late 19th
­century in the United States. Rotary drilling techniques are being i­ ntroduced,
replacing the older cable-tool rigs. The oil and gas industry have developed a
number of technologies to improve overall efficiency, such as using advanced
drill sensors and global positioning technology to ensure the success of a well.
In ­addition to these technologies, other tools such as whip stocks, bottom-hole
­assembly configurations, three-dimensional measuring devices, as well as spe-
cialized drill bits and motors have enabled a single location to service multiple
wells dug at nearly any angle, thus t­ apping reserves more than a mile deep and
miles wide.

3.1.7.2 Types of Directional Wells

1. Slant
2. Build and hole
Offshore Drilling and Completion 65

3. S-curve
4. Extended reach
5. Horizontal

3.1.7.3 Conventional Drilling versus Directional Drilling

Drilling in deviated holes is similar to drilling in vertical holes with allowances
made for the tools and hole deviation. Bits generally are similar, sometimes with
more side-cutting action during deviation. Drilling is slower because most direc-
tional assemblies cannot operate efficiently at the higher bit weights and rotary
speeds common to vertical drilling. This reduces the penetration rate correspond-
ingly. There are more non-drilling-type operations, resulting in an increase in total
time. These include measurements, orientation, longer circulation periods for hole
cleaning, extra trips for various assemblies, and slower trip time due to extra drag
and torque. This non-drilling time should be kept to a minimum. There also are
more drilling and related problems, especially in holes with higher inclinations and
more complex patterns. The net result is that less time is spent drilling; directional
drilling is slower; and has more risk of failures. Careful planning is essential. For
example, making a correction with a deviation assembly after drilling with rotary
assemblies takes one or two days and can be eliminated by predicting bit walk
accurately [14].
To understand directional drilling technology it is necessary to understand the
different directional drilling tools.

3.1.7.4 Directional Drilling Tools

• Drilling tools
• Surveying/Orientation services
• Steering tools
• Conventional rotary drilling assemblies
• Steerable motors
• Instrumented motors for geosteering applications
• Rotary steerable systems
• At-bit inclination sensor

3.1.7.5 Measurement While Drilling (MWD) Tool [18]

For wireline logging, we had to stop the drilling process, put the drill pipe on slip,
break out Kelly, lower the wireline tool, retrieve the tool, read the survey, and plan
further action. These increase the non-productive time (NPT), and in offshore, as
the day rates are much higher than the onshore rigs, NPT results in huge amount
of loss to the company. Therefore, to supplement this issue, MWD and LWD are
preferred in offshore directional drilling. The MWD tool transmitted the survey
reading to surface through the mud stream in the drill pipe. The drilling process was
stopped for few minutes and survey readings were obtained in pump off condition.
This saved time to a greater extent compared to wireline logging. The transmission
of survey data though mud stream was one of the means. Thus, MWD is considered
66 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.14 MWD tool [18].

a better option for survey data transmission compared to wireline procedure. MWD
was equipped with gamma ray sensor to detect the natural radioactivity and char-
acterize shale presence, gauge to measure annular pressure which are useful in slim
hole to determine ECD, and strain gauge to measure weight on bit (WOB) and torque
on bit (Figure 3.14).
MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit,
including:

• Rotational speed of the drill string

• Smoothness of that rotation
• Type and severity of any vibration downhole
• Downhole temperature
• Torque and weight on bit, measured near the drill bit
• Mud flow volume

3.1.7.6 Importance and Uses of Directional Drilling [14]

• Directional drilling has now become an essential element in oilfield devel-
opment, both onshore and offshore.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 67

• With horizontal drilling, productivity of the same formation is increased up

to 20 times than conventional drilling.
• With the addition of high-temperature-resistant drilling motors and modi-
fied drill bits, which can drill into nearly any surface, directional drilling is
now possible in nearly any geological environment.

3.1.7.7 Application of Directional Drilling

1. Multiple wells from single location:
• An optimum number of wells can be drilled from a single platform or
artificial island. This greatly simplifies gathering systems and produc-
tion techniques.
2. Inaccessible locations:
• If a reservoir is located under river beds, mountains, cities, etc., this
technique of directional drilling is used.
3. Fault drilling:
• This eliminates the hazard of drilling a vertical well through steeply
inclined fault plane, which could slip and shear the casing.
4. Salt dome drilling:
• To reach the producing formation, which often lies underneath the over-
hanging cap of the dome, the well is first drilled at one side of the dome
and is then deviated to producing zone to avoid drilling problems such
as large washouts, lost circulation, and corrosion.
5. Side tracking and straightening:
• It is used as remedial operation either to side track obstruction by devi-
ating the wellbore away from obstruction by deviating the wellbore
back to vertical by straightening out crooked holes.
6. Relief well drilling:
• This technique is applied to the drilling of relief wells so that heavy
mud may be pumped into the reservoir of the uncontrolled well.
7. Controlling vertical wells:
Horizontal well:
• Reduced production in a field may be due to many factors, including
gas and water coning or formations, with good but vertical permeabil-
ity. Engineers can then plan and drill a horizontal drain hole. This is a
special type of directional well.
• Horizontal wells are divided into long, medium, and short-radius
designs based on the build-up rates used. Other applications of direc-
tional drilling are in developing geothermal fields and in mining.
• ERD well:
– Replace subsea wells and tap offshore reservoirs from fewer
platforms
– Develop near shore fields from onshore
– Reduce environmental
– Impact by developing fields from pads (Figure 3.15)
68 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.15 Directional well drilling application [14].

3.1.8 Dual Gradient Drilling

3.1.8.1 Introduction
Drilling for hydrocarbons offshore, in some instances hundreds of miles away from
the nearest landmass, poses a number of challenges over drilling onshore. To meet
the world’s increasing demand for energy, deepwater exploration and production
has become a requisite in the past years. Hence, the need for newer technologies
becomes essential for safe and successful operation into deep water. The wellbore
pressure (at any depth) should be maintained between the naturally occurring pres-
sure of the formation fluids and the maximum wellbore pressure the formation can
maintain without fracture. A variety of new drilling technologies are being devel-
oped to address the phenomena of narrow pore-pressure/fracture-gradient windows
as pore-pressure/fracture-gradient prospects are drilled in greater water depths.
Among them, one of the more proficient drilling types is the dual gradient drilling
(DGD). We will discuss in detail the concept of DGD, its significance in deepwater
offshore drilling, history of origin, the system description, types of DGD, advan-
tages and limitations with an overall review of DGD process.
3.1.8.2 Dual Gradient Drilling – Overview [19]
In DGD, the pressure profile in the annulus has two distinct pressure gradients.
An example would be a heavy mud below the midline and a seawater gradient above
the mud line.

3.1.8.3 Single versus Dual Gradient Drilling

See Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 69

Conventional Riser Drilling

-Wellbore Pressures
FLOATER
SEA WATER
DRILLING RISER
HYDROSTATIC
CHOKE LINE
MUD HYDROSTATIC
BOP

SEAFLOOR

DEPTH
PRESSURE

FIGURE 3.16 Conventional riser drilling.

Static Wellbore Pressures

FLOATER
MUD MUD
RISER HYDROSTATIC HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE PRESSURE
CHOKE
DGD Conventional
LINE
BOP
DEPTH

SEA WATER PRESSURE

DGD
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE 4

FIGURE 3.17 Dual gradient drilling [19].

3.1.8.4 Dual Gradient System

The subsea equipment of DGD includes:
• Marine riser
• Subsea rotating diverter (SRD)
• Drill string valve (DSV)
• Mud lift pump (MLP)
• Return lines
• Mani folding
• Dual trip tanks
70 Offshore Operations and Engineering

3.1.8.5 Types of Dual Gradient Drilling [19]

1. PUMP-BASED DGD
Pump-based DGD (PGDB) is where all the systems rely on subsea pumps.
The drilling systems were designed to provide a continuous loop circulating
system for pumping mud down the drill string and up the annulus to the well-
head, where the wellbore pressure at the seafloor is essentially the hydrostatic
pressure of the seawater column above it. In PGDB, the hydrostatic pressure
in the wellbore at the wellhead is at or near seawater hydrostatic.
2. DILUTION-BASED DGD
This employs two fluid gradients in the wellbore. In dilution-based
DGD, the “riser” mud weight is determined by the “downhole” mud weight
(the density of the mud pumped down the drill string and up the annulus to
the injection point, nominally just above the BOP stack), the density of the
“dilution” mud (which is pumped down an auxiliary line such as the riser
boost line), and the ratio of their respective flow rates (the “dilution ratio”).
These different densities and dilution ratios are engineered to meet the par-
ticular requirements of the hole section being drilled. A bank of specialty
centrifuges is installed to separate the returning “riser mud” back into the
heavy “downhole” and light “dilution” mud weight components. Additional
control equipment is also required to monitor and control fluid densities
and flow rates.
3. RISER-LESS DGD
This is an emerging technology. Drilling deep holes presents major
wellbore stability challenges that are typically mitigated through the cir-
culation of dense drilling mud to prevent hole collapse and remove drill
cuttings. This is normally accomplished through the application of riser
system. However, riser lengths are presently limited to use in water depths
of around 3,100 m. Drilling in extreme water depths requires the use of the
“riser-less” drilling technique which is not constrained by the length limita-
tions of a riser system.
Riser-less drilling primarily uses seawater, rather than drilling mud
to manage the borehole because the drilling mud cannot be recirculated.
Seawater has lower density than drilling mud, thus, the boreholes are likely
to collapse with increasing depth as the pore pressure exceeds the hydro-
static pressure exerted by seawater. For deeper drilling, drilling mud with
regulated density must be continuously circulated to keep the borehole from
collapsing. The use of alternate techniques, such as riser-less mud recovery
(RMR) and DGD, provides an attractive solution to drill deep holes in deep-
water settings (Figures 3.18 and 3.19).

RMR provides a DGD setup of the well, while capturing the drilling fluid and return-
ing it to the drillship. The term “dual gradient” implies two hydrostatic gradients: (1)
the seawater gradient that begins at the sea surface, and (2) the drilling mud gradient
that begins at the seafloor. Conventional drilling has only one pressure gradient for
both seawater and mud that originates at the sea surface. Because DGD has much
less hydrostatic head associated with the drilling mud in the borehole, drilling fluids
Offshore Drilling and Completion 71

FIGURE 3.18 The dual gradient drilling approach establishes the drilling mud hydrostatic
gradient at the seafloor, which allows for the use of heavier drilling muds with an advanta-
geous pressure increase with depth [19].

can be properly weighted, allowing drilling to be more easily contained within the
window between the formation pore pressure and the formation fracture pressure,
thereby avoiding wellbore instability [17].

3.1.8.6 Limitations of DGD
Problems of DGD faced by operating companies that employed DGD process in the
past includes:

• Difficulty in primary subsea cuttings separation that necessities the use

electrical submersible pumps (ESP).
• Major drawbacks in gas dilution DGD includes:
– Corrosion and inflammability associated with air injection.
72 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.19 The AGR riserless mud recovery subsea equipment consists of a mud suc-
tion module and seafloor mud pumps. The mud is collected in the mud suction module and
returned to the drillship via the seafloor mud pumps [19].

– Deeper water depths require huge amount of gas for it to be effective.

– Large gas expansion occurs when the gas traverses from shallow
to deep.
– Control of hydrostatic pressure for riser margin is difficult.

3.2 OFFSHORE WELL COMPLETION

3.2.1 Introduction
Once the well has been drilled, cemented, and cased the next decision is about the
completion of the well by using equipment which will produce maximum amount
of oil and gas at minimum expenditure. Completion of a well is the most impor-
tant phase of a well’s life. The production technique, future workover possibilities,
well productivity, downhole problems, etc. depend on how the well was completed.
Before a completion operation is designed, various factors need to be taken into
account:

• Type and volume of produced fluids

• Target zone depth and surrounding environment
• Presence of multiple zones
• Stimulation potential of the well
• Type of artificial lifts (generally gas lift in case of offshore)
• Frequency of workover operations
Offshore Drilling and Completion 73

After considering all the relevant factors, engineers need to choose from various
completion systems available, ranging from simple open hole completions to com-
plex multilateral completions. Optimal completions provide solid flow efficiency,
data gathering, and flexibility. Generally, completions designs are planned before
drilling but engineers should be prepared for unexpected contingencies which can
arise in their plan.
This section discusses various types of completion systems available, equipment
utilized, and the safety features specific to offshore operations.

3.2.2 Well Completion Concepts in Offshore

In offshore, completion is referred to in two contexts, a well completion or a subsea
completion. Well completions refers to development of a wellbore to obtain con-
trolled recovery of fluids, whereas subsea completion refers to a system of pipes,
connections, and valves that reside on the ocean bottom and serve to gather hydro-
carbons produced from individually completed wells and direct them to a storage
and offloading facility that might be either offshore or onshore.
Other than some specialized and innovative completion solutions, offshore com-
pletion and onshore completion are not very different. Most offshore wells are direc-
tional and multilateral; completion techniques utilized in these types of requirements
are discussed further in the chapter.
Although basic structure of wellheads and trees is also similar to those used
on land, these are designed to be compact and lightweight and possess a greater
degree of robust remote control so that they can be operated remotely in case of
emergencies.

3.2.2.1 Classification of Completions
3.2.2.1.1 Based on Configuration of Casing
• Open hole completions [20]
In these, the production casing is set on top of or slightly into the pay
zone and cemented. The pay zone is left open without cementing. In a typi-
cal open hole completion, casing is set prior to drilling into the producing
interval. A non-damaging drilling fluid can then be used to drill into the
pay section.

This type of completions has several advantages such as:

• Higher production as the flow comes from full wellbore diameter area.
• Savings in terms of no perforations costs.
• Flexibility for future completions and deepening of hole

However, these can only be applied in formations having consolidated formations,

and controlling the fluid flow also becomes very difficult. In case of gas and water
coning, these completions are not effective in providing control. A simple open hole
completion is described in Figure 3.20 (Right).
74 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.20 Left: a simple open hole completion; Right: a perforated liner completion [6].

In open hole completions, production casing is set on top of the pay zone similar
to open hole completions, but the production interval is completed by using a liner.
Several types of liner completions are commonly employed in well completions,
including:

• Slotted liner (Figure 3.20 Right)

• Screen and liner
• Cemented liner (Figure 3.20 Right)

The slotted liner completion is similar to an open hole completion and has all the
major advantages and disadvantages discussed for open hole completions. The
only difference is that a slotted liner is hung in the open hole interval to minimize
­sloughing of the formation into the wellbore and increase the level of integrity a
completions provides.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 75

A screen and liner completion is similar to the slotted liner completion in that a
screen and liner is set in the open hole section of the wellbore. The difference is that
gravel is sometimes placed behind the screen. The advantages and disadvantages
are the same as those for open hole completions. The screen and liner completion is
used primarily in unconsolidated formations to prevent the movement of formation
materials into the wellbore, restricting the flow of reservoir fluids.
The cemented liner completion is used when intermediate casing is set in a well
prior to reaching total depth. Many times intermediate casing is used to isolate zones
behind pipe, such as low-pressured intervals, that tend to cause lost circulation prob-
lems or isolate zones such as shale or salt layers. Intermediate casing is also set in
transition zones between normally pressured intervals and geopressured intervals.
After the casing is set, the weight or chemistry of the drilling fluid can be changed to
continue drilling the well. The cemented liner completion is advantageous because
particular intervals behind the liner can be selectively perforated. This selection will
allow one to control both the production and injection of fluids in those intervals.
The main disadvantage of a cemented liner is the difficulty encountered in obtaining
a good primary cement job across the liner.

3.2.2.1.1.1  Perforated Casing Completions In these completions, the ­producing

interval is covered by the production casing which is cemented in place and then per-
forated for production. These are the most commonly used completion techniques
today. Modern perforating charges and techniques are designed to provide a clear per-
foration tunnel through the damaged zone surrounding the wellbore. This ­­provides
access to the undamaged formation, allowing efficient reservoir drainage.
The technique has several advantages:

• The tubing controls the internal corrosion of the casing because produced
fluid flows through it and does not contact the casing.
• A good cement job can be achieved and zonal isolation is successful.
• Finally, the perforated casing completion is quite adaptable to multiple
completions and alternate completions.

However, the tubing restricts the flow of produced fluid, and the completion is more
expensive because of the cost of the packer, tubing, and accessories (Figure 3.21).

3.2.2.1.2 Based on Number of Production Strings or Number of Zones

3.2.2.1.2.1  Single Zone Completion When a single zone has to be completed,
a single tubing string is lowered into the well to take production from a single layer,
as shown in Figure 3.20.
Economics of production and functional requirement are the driving force for
determining the nature of completion. Single zone completion is the easiest comple-
tion as one string with a packer or isolation device is used to provide protection to
both the casing and liner. A flow control device is also installed.

3.2.2.1.2.2  Multiple Zone Completion In case production is taken from

­multiple layers through a single string, then the completion string uses packers and
76 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.21 Left: casing completion; Right: cemented liner completion [6].

sliding sleeves to control flow from individual layers. It is important that the reser-
voir pressures of all the layers flowing into a single string be similar for this type of
completion to be successful.
Simultaneous production from multiple zones verses selective production from
selected zones, depending on reservoir requirement along with other functional
requirement and economics of production, decides the selection of configuration of
multiple zone completion. Dual-zone single string completion (Figure 3.22)
The flow from two layers is taken through tubing and casing. This type of comple-
tion is not used in offshore as production through casing and tubing annulus is con-
sidered a safety hazard. Such a configuration does not allow upper formation to be
produced through tubing.

3.2.2.1.2.3  Dual-Zone Dual Packer Completion In this type of completion,

there is flow in tubing and annulus. However, it allows the upper zone to be flowed
through the tubing. Again, for safety of casing, such completions are not used in
offshore unless where there is provision to divert the production through annulus to
tubing string.

3.2.2.1.2.4  Dual-Zone Parallel String Completion (Figure 3.23) In this type

of completion, two layers are completed and production from each layer is taken
through different production strings. Such a type of completion does not require the
Offshore Drilling and Completion 77

FIGURE 3.22 Dual-zone single string completion. (Courtesy: Baker Hughes.)

pressures of individual layers to be similar as production from each layer is indepen-

dent of one another. The layers are isolated through the use of packers.

3.2.2.1.3 Advantages
• It is possible to produce from/inject into more than one production/injection
zone through a single well, thereby reducing the overall development costs.
• Selective treatment of individual zone is possible.
• Use of natural energy from one zone can be used to artificially produce
another zone.

3.2.2.1.4 Disadvantages
• Large number of equipment downhole used can create problems.
• Expensive and more complicated completion and workover technique.

There is a possibility of loss of production in zone due to mechanical problems and

formation damage during workover.
78 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.23 Single zone completion. (Courtesy: Baker Hughes.)

Offshore Drilling and Completion 79

3.2.2.1.4.1  Multiple Zones Single String Completion (Figure 3.24) In such

completions, the producing zones are opened or closed individually through the use
of wire line or hydraulic pressures.

3.2.2.1.4.2  Naturally Flowing Completions Natural flow of well is p­ ossible

when reservoir pressure is higher than the summation of hydrostatic pressure exerted
on reservoir due to depth and friction offered in flow path. Well completion for a

FIGURE 3.24 Dual-zone parallel string completion. (Courtesy: Baker Hughes.)

80 Offshore Operations and Engineering

naturally flowing well is simple and economical. Simpler downhole components

and equipment are required. However, completion of high-temperature and high-­
pressure wells are complicated and costly due to the specific requirements of high-
temperature and high-pressure reservoir and its safety requirement.
During well completion design, requirement of other production methods, like
artificial lifts, should be considered to avoid design complication at a later date.

3.2.2.1.4.3  Artificial Lift Completion When production from naturally flowing well

starts depleting or reservoir pressure of a new well is not sufficient to support natural
flow, artifical lift systems are deployed. Specialized downhole components/equipment
consisting of electrically or mechanically operated pumps/valves and/or other preci-
sion engineered devices are placed to increase or sustain the production level. These
systems have some component/equipement placed on the surface. Periodical or break-
down maintenance is a requirement of such systems involving workover operation.
Artificial lift system:

• Gas lift
• Electric submersible pump
• Plunger lift
• Hydraulic or jet pump
• Variable cavity pump (VCP)
• Progressive cavity pump (PCP)

Of these, gas lift is very commonly used for offshore applications. When using gas
lift to enhance production, a packer is utilized to separate the produced fluid pathway
from the injected gas pathway down the annulus. Packers are often used with ESPs
to facilitate control of well zones. Tubing anchors are commonly used to increase the
efficiency of rod pumps. Anti-rotational anchors are commonly used with PCPs. Gas
lift and ESP completions are shown in Figures 3.25 and 3.26.

3.2.3 Horizontal Well Completions

3.2.3.1 Open Hole Completion
In open hole completion, the horizontal segment of the wellbore is kept open without
any casing or liner. This type of completion is very inexpensive and is well suited for
a stable formation that remains stable throughout the life of the well. It completion
ideally suits the formations having very little zonal isolation requirement for water
and gas breakthrough. The most common application for open hole completion is
in fractured limestone or chalk formations. Another advantage is that the formation
does not get damages due to completion, for example, cementing, etc. Absence of
a casing in open hole, however, severely limits stimulation and remedial options,
including control either in injection or production throughout the life of the well.

3.2.3.2 Slotted Liner Completion

The only difference between open hole and a slotted liner completion is the addi-
tion of a slotted liner having narrow longitudinal slots/holes in the open hole
Offshore Drilling and Completion 81

FIGURE 3.25 Multiple-zone single string completion.

section of the well. Convenient path for entry of downhole tools during workover
operations is an added benefit of slotted liner apart from additional stability to
the open hole section without adding substantial cost or complexity over the open
hole completion.
Sand control in unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs is achieved to considerable
degree by pre-pack/gravel pack liners.
The conventional slotted liner completion fails to provide any zonal isolation,
which makes selective layer simulation nearly impossible. This is the major disad-
vantage of conventional slotted liner completion.

3.2.3.3 Slotted Liner Completion for Zonal Isolation

Selective zonal isolation and stimulation to a great extent can be achieved by deploy-
ing ECPs during completion. This is an improvement over conventional slotted liner
completion.
A long horizontal section is divided into several producing section by install-
ing inflatable ECPs outside the slotted liner in open hole. ECPs are used to isolate
unwanted horizontal section from producing zone. Ported subs or sliding sleeves,
bridge plugs, packers, or straddles can be used for achieving limited zonal isolation.
Production control along the wellbore with limited zone isolation can be achieved
by this type of completion at lesser cost and risk than cemented and perforated
82 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.26 Left: A gas lift completion; Right: ESP completion. (Courtesy: Baker
Hughes.)

c­ ompletion. This type of completion is not favored for reservoirs with corrosive and
scaling environment due to risk of metal corrosion and scale deposition.

3.2.3.4 Cemented and Perforated Completion

After lowering of casing or liner in wellbore section, cement is pumped at adequate
pressure to form a bond between casing/liner and wellbore. Perforation is done
after completion of cementation in hydrocarbon-bearing section. This completion is
known as cemented and perforated completion. Retrievable or permanent plugs or
Offshore Drilling and Completion 83

packers are used for achieving effective zonal isolation. This type of completion is
normally adopted in following conditions:

• Low permeability formation requiring either transverse or longitudinal

hydraulic fracture to ensure economical drainage for production.
• Reservoir with top gas or lower water layers having thin oil column neces-
sitating frequent well operation for isolation/shutting-off unwanted gas and
water production zone.

3.2.4 Intelligent Well Systems

Wells are completed with component and facilities in place to collect flow, pressure,
and temperature data at different levels of interest in the well to facilitate online
monitoring and analyze well behavior and production. Wells completed in line with
the above-mentioned requirements are called intelligent or smart wells. Some of the
significant capabilities available as a result of such completion include:

1. Collection of real-time data of reservoir, as well as wellbore and wellhead

parameters
2. Real-time monitoring of production and well
3. Capability of remotely controlling the well

Intelligent well system is the foundation stone for creating an intelligent producing
field. These systems have the following key benefits.

• Best possible optimization of hydrocarbon recovery with reduction in water cut.

• Real-time data monitoring and analysis to achieve optimized infill develop-
ment targets.
• Better understanding of reservoir for oil and gas production
• Optimized utilization of artificial lift/secondary or other recovery systems.
• Eliminating unwanted well intervention, water handling, etc., thereby
reducing operating costs.
• Controlled co-mingling of zones, as well as monitoring and control of mul-
tiple laterals.
• Multiple simultaneous functions from the same well such as utilizing the
same well for injection well, observation well, and production well.
• Monitor and manage well integrity.
• Monitor environmental conditions.

All the above help reduce the capital cost for the complete project. A simple sche-
matic is shown in Figure 3.27.

3.2.5 Multilateral Completions
In view of the rising cost of hydrocarbon exploitation, multilateral well completion
systems have become a convenient tool to reduce cost by utilizing single slot or
84 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.27 A schematic of an intelligent well system with various components.

(Courtesy: Baker Hughes).

mother bore for producing from multiple layers. Type of multilateral completion
depends on reservoir characteristics, production profile, lifting mechanism, sand
control/debris control, water handling, etc.

3.2.5.1 Multilateral Well Classification

Type of completion for multilateral well defines various multilateral well types.
Drilling operations do not vary much for different types of multilateral wells.
However, the completion hardware used in the two systems vary widely, and the risk
involved is also different.
An oil industry forum on the Technical Advancement of Multilaterals (TAML)
has been created to develop multilateral classification matrix and foster a better
understanding of multilateral well application, capabilities, and equipment. Major
global oil and service companies are the members of this forum.
To properly categorize various multilateral systems, TAML group has classified
the systems into levels as a function of increasing risk and complexity. In this, a well’s
classification level corresponds to the highest junction level in the well (Figure 3.28).

3.2.5.2 Level 1 Multilateral Well

This type of multilateral well is drilled from an open hole main bore (parent bore)
without any mechanical support or hydraulic isolation at the junction. These are the
simplest multilateral systems and utilize multiple drainage legs from a parent open
hole bore. The advantages of this system are its low cost and simplicity. There is no
milling required, no whipstocks to retrieve, no liners to cement, and no production
Offshore Drilling and Completion 85

FIGURE 3.28 TAML multilateral well classification. (Multilateral wells, Oilfield Review
2000, Schlumberger.)

control equipment to install. Lack of casing support limits its use to stable formation
only at the cost of no production control of individual layers. The production must be
commingled and cannot be selectively shut-off.

3.2.5.3 Level 2 Multilateral Well

Level 2 multilateral system has a cased parent bore and open or simple (slotted liners,
pre-packed screens) lateral bores. The parent bore is cased and cemented, and an ori-
entation packer is set below the proposed junction kick-off point. A w
­ hipstock is then
landed into the packer and oriented in the desired kick-off direction. Subsequently,
the casing is milled away and a lateral is drilled to the target length. After drilling
the lateral section, the whipstock is retrieved and the hole is completed in various
ways with different completion hardware depending on well requirements.
The requirement of casing exit and whipstock retrieval in Level 2 poses a signifi-
cantly greater risk than Level 1, but minimizes the chances of borehole collapse and
provides hydraulic isolation between the lateral zones.
A low cost option of multilateral completion system that provides both parent
bore support and production control, not found in Level 1, is to incorporate a sliding
sleeve between the orientation packer and a second packer placed above the casing
exit so that production from both the laterals can be commingled. Production isola-
tion of either lateral is possible in this arrangement. In case bottom zone begins to
86 Offshore Operations and Engineering

deplete or produce water, a plug can be placed in the lower packer to shut off produc-
tion from the lower bore. In case the upper lateral production needs to be shut off,
then the same can be done by closing the sliding sleeves.
However, the main disadvantages of this type of completion system are continued
reliance on formation for junction stability at exit point, no provision to produce
separately from individual layers, and limitation of re-entry in lateral bore due to
sliding sleeve. Re-entry into lateral bore is possible in case a lateral nipple is used
instead of a sliding sleeve.
3.2.5.4 Level 3 Well Completions
The next level of completion in terms of risk and complexity is Level 3 that has its
main bore cased and cemented and laterals cased but not cemented. Lateral liner
is anchored with main bore but not cemented. The well can be completed with a
lateral re-entry system or a sliding sleeve in the same manner as in Level 2 comple-
tion. Quality of mechanical support at the junction is achieved by anchoring the
lateral liner, however, still hydraulic support is not available at the junction. Cement
sheath in main bore at the junction is not capable of withstanding even a small pres-
sure differential and can fail over a period of time if draw down becomes substan-
tial. Therefore, this system is not useful for wells with unconsolidated formations
expected with higher drawdown during production.
3.2.5.5 Level 4 Well Completions
Level 4 junction offers both a cased and a cemented main bore and lateral. This gives
the lateral mechanical support, however, the cement itself does not offer pressure
integrity at the junction. There is a potential for failure if the junction is subjected to
a pressure drawdown. Zonal isolation and selectivity is possible by installing packers
above and below the junction in the main bore [13].
3.2.5.6 Level 5 Well Completions
The Level 5 multilateral junction offers cased main bore and lateral, and provides
increased mechanical integrity. Pressure integrity is achieved by using completion
to isolate the junction. Both the main bore and the lateral can be accessed indepen-
dently, and the zones can be produced independently or commingled.
3.2.5.7 Level 6 Well Completions
In Level 6 multilateral system, both mechanical and pressure integrity are achieved
using the casing to seal the junction. Cementing the junction, as was done in the
Level 4 system, is not acceptable. The Level 6 system uses a premanufactured junc-
tion. In one type of system, the junction is reformed downhole. TAML6 junction as
of today are not considered to be viable because of significant loss of ID and complex
installation. Contemporary TAML5 systems offer higher pressure ratings and IDs,
which almost made TAML6 junctions obsolete [11].

3.2.6 Subsea Completion
A subsea completion refers to a system of pipes, connections, and valves that reside
on the ocean bottom and serve to gather hydrocarbons produced from individually
Offshore Drilling and Completion 87

completed wells and direct them to a storage and offloading facility that might be
either offshore or onshore. It is different from a platform-based well where tubing
carrying hydrocarbon with full pressure continues up to the platform deck. The
emergence of subsea technology has revolutionized the industry’s offshore activities,
and has developed at a remarkable pace in recent years In general, surface comple-
tion systems are cheaper to manufacture, easier to install, and far less troublesome
to maintain than subsea systems; hence, the decision to opt for subsea development
is generally taken when other context-specific criteria make it demonstrably superior
in terms of overall cost-effectiveness. Such criteria include water depth, prevailing
climate and environmental conditions, well numbers, reservoir size and reserve dis-
tribution, well maintenance requirements, etc. [21]. Conditions that particularly favor
the adoption of subsea completion technology include:

• Deepwater fields
• Small/Marginal field or fields with scattered reserve distribution
• Harsh environmental conditions
• Fast track development projects
• Phased development – designed to achieve early production that can then be
augmented by later stages of development

In some situations, subsea developments linked to floating production system (FPS)

or tied to the existing platforms provide the most cost-effective development options.
One of the fundamental aspects of field development, including deepwater develop-
ment, is whether to have an above-surface wellhead or subsea. In deep waters, the
choice is limited due to water depths, availability of appropriate technology, and
extreme cost limitations in for opting a surface tree. Subsea well completion has
proved to be reliable in service and cost, and hence, the numbers of subsea comple-
tions have increased over the years, especially for the development of deepwater
fields where subsea completion presents a low cost-development solution in deep
water. There are, however, several key elements that need to be in place to find an
optimal subsea solution. The subsea wellhead may also be designed to accommodate
a tieback to a surface facility on a TLP, SPAR, or a fixed platform. This section will
provide a brief description of subsea completion, while all the other components and
equipment involved in subsea completion will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

3.2.6.1 Types of Subsea Completions

a. Individual Satellite Well
Satellite wells consist of individual wells with separate control ­umbilical
and flow line for each well linking production back to the floater or plat-
form. In the past, subsea connection and maintenance work was carried out
by divers, and therefore, these systems were depth-limited. Moreover, the
cost of individual flow lines and umbilical was prohibitively expensive in
case of long distances. However, with technological advances in production
hardware and development of remotely operated vehicles (ROV), the satel-
lite concept has become a practical and effective development strategy for
deepwater prospects and has been adopted in many current projects.
88 Offshore Operations and Engineering

b. Cluster Development
The cluster concept permits drilling and completion independent of the
manifold. This allows for a smaller manifold structure, which is cost-effective
and can be made retrievable through a drilling rig moon pool. This results in
reduced installation cost and provides more installation options. Piling and
leveling of the manifold are less stringent due to the size and overall load-
ing, although soil parameters can be the governing factor. In case deepwa-
ter production wells are scattered over a wide area and well maintenance is
relatively low, then subsea systems involving seabed completion are selected.
Clustered wells provide inherent flexibility. The clustered approach allows:
• Location of the wells to best develop the reservoir
• Scheduling well drilling and other construction activities to accommo-
date equipment and installation vessel availability, as well as to meet
production needs and investment plans
• Future expandability with minimal up-front investment.
Some of the disadvantages of cluster developments are the costs associ-
ated with flow line and umbilical jumpers and the need for a centralized
location, which, in turn, necessitates extended-reach drilling requirements
(Figure 3.29).
c. Integrated Manifold
Integrated template/Manifolds are used to combine flows from a number
of wells. A template can provide the base for multiple wellheads, manifolds,
and protective structures. In the early 1970s, designs emerged for integrated

FIGURE 3.29 Cluster development concept. (Offshore Energy Today, May 2012.)
Offshore Drilling and Completion 89

subsea template/manifold through which a dozen or more wells could be

drilled and completed allowing the commingling of their production.
Typically, in the case of a 12-well development, instead of using individual
flow lines and central lines for each well, only five lines will be required
in the case of integrated template layout – two production flow lines, one
injection flow line (if applicable), and perhaps a test flow line and a single
electrical/hydraulic control umbilical.

However, in addition to increased complexity and associated costs, the integrated tem-
plate/manifold has several significant disadvantages such as its heavy weight, which
requires a dedicated crane barge for its installation, increased drilling costs in terms of
extended reach drilling from a central location, need for precise levelling at the sea bed,
etc. These factors can offset the savings made in terms of flow lines and umbilicals.

3.2.7 Completion Equipment
3.2.7.1 Christmas Tree (Xmas Tree)
A Christmas tree is the most important well control equipment used in well comple-
tions. It consists of an arrangement of valves, spools, flanges, and connections to
control the flow of fluids from the well. Based on the application and environment
of use, several types and configurations of Christmas trees are available. Primarily
Christmas tree used offshore is of two types: (1) Platform completed (Dry tree), and
(2) Subsea completion (Wet or dry tree). Platform completed wells (Dry tree) are
similar to those being used onshore. However, subsea trees are entirely different and
will be discussed separately in Chapter 6.

3.2.7.2 Production Tubing
Production tubing forms the conduit for reservoir fluids to flow from wellbore to sur-
face. In addition, it facilitates wellbore service operations such as wire line, stimula-
tion, and circulation. Typically, tubing is run inside a casing or liner but can also be
cemented in slim hole wells as the casing. Depending on the type of completion, one
or two tubing strings may be used in the well.
Major considerations in the selection of tubing for a particular well include:

Tubing size is determined on the basis of inflow performance of the reservoir

and tubing performance to ensure optimum production rates over the life of
the field. Tubing sizes from 2 7 8 ″ to 5 1 2″ are in use.
Tubing grade determines the chemical composition as well as the physical and
mechanical properties of tubing. The tubing grade selected for a particular
completion must satisfy the minimum performance requirements for that
application. Tubing of a sufficient yield strength to withstand the various
forces caused by changes in pressures and temperatures must be used in the
well. The tubing must also be resistant to formation fluids containing cor-
rosive components, such as H2S, CO2, chlorides, and water. Normally, L-80
tubing grade is used which provides resistance to sulfide stress cracking.
90 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Tubing weight determines the burst and collapse ratings of a tubing and is nor-
mally expressed in pounds per foot (ppf) and is a function of wall thickness.
Tubing connections are primarily either API connections or premium con-
nections. The commonly used API connection is EUE that provides reli-
able service in a majority of wells. Premium tubing connections are used in
corrosive environments, high-pressure wells, and in wells with bends and
doglegs.

3.2.7.3 Packers
A packer provides a means of sealing the tubing string from the casing or liner,
thereby preventing fluid movement between them. This protects the casing from
undue stress in the form of pressure differentials, as well as protects the casing
against corrosion and erosion from the produced fluids. Because casing used in a
well is a permanent component of the completion system, repair/replacement of cas-
ing is very complicated and expensive. The packer along with tubing string is easier
to remove and replace. Packers are also used for zone separation as in the case of
multiple zone completions.
All packers mostly consist of:

i. Flow mandrel to provide the flow conduit for production.

ii. Resilient elements to ensure the tubing to annulus pressure seals.
iii. Cone or wedges to assist in positioning of the slips.
iv. Slips to grip the casing wall and prevent the packer from moving up and down.
v. Hold down buttons to prevent packer from unseating.

The packer design also provides for a spacer tube that has holes to remove trapped air
and bypass ports to circulate out debris settled on packer and pressure equalization
across the packer elements.
The criteria for packer selection must consider:

• Selection/completion strategy
• Rig capacity for fishing/milling
• Fishing requirements
• Well fluid characteristics, H2S, CO2
• Bottom hole pressure and temperature

Packers can be single, dual, or triple bore, and are mainly classified as:
3.2.7.3.1 Retrievable Packer
A retrievable packer is run as an integral part of the tubing string, and is set
either mechanically or hydraulically and can be released by pulling or rotating
the string.
It provides advantages of reuse and saves rig time as milling operation is not
required for removing the packer. However, these have low differential pressure
rating, and pressure distribution is also not uniform. As mechanically set pack-
ers are temperature-sensitive, care should be taken while using cold fluids during
simulation.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 91

The mechanically set retrievable packers are set by applying sufficient right hand
rotations to the string and released by straight pull. Compression-set mechanical
packers have dies downwards. Tension-set mechanical packers are used when packer
is to be set at shallow depths where required compression cannot be given. Packer
configuration in tension-set packer is opposite to that of compression set, that is,
slips at top and rubber elements at bottom. Prior to running in the packer, it must be
ensured that the rubber elements, spacer rings, dies, slips, and Teflon ring at the top
sub are in good condition (Figures 3.30 and 3.31).
The hydraulic-set retrievable packers are set by applying a pressure of 1,400–
2,000 psi inside the string, thus requiring pump-out plug (POP) to apply pressure.
The POP rating depends on well pressure. The ratchet mechanism in the packer
stores the setting pressure and enables the elements to remain in inflated condition.
The packer is released through a release ring/screws that shear at an overpull of
20,000 to 30,000 lbs above the pullout weight (Figure 3.32).

3.2.7.3.2 P  ermanent Packer

Normally, once set, the permanent packer, is regarded as part of the casing
and can only be removed destructively by milling. The completion string can
be engaged for providing the flow conduit or removed from the packer for well
killing. Permanent packers can be set mechanically, hydraulically, or electrically
through wire line.
These packer types are recommended for when long-term completion, high-
pressure differential, maximum dependability, and large packer bore are required
(Figure 3.33).

FIGURE 3.30 Tension-type retrievable packer. (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

FIGURE 3.31 Compression-type retrievable packer. (Completions Primer 2000,

Schlumberger.)

FIGURE 3.32 Hydraulic-type retrievable packer. (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

92 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.33 Permanent packer. (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

FIGURE 3.34 An illustration of an inflatable packer. (Courtesy: Drillingcontractor.org.)

3.2.7.3.3 Inflatable Packer
Inflatable packers are run through the tubing string, either on wire line or coiled tub-
ing, and inflated to the required size. The pressure rating of such packers is less. These
packers are used in straddle completions and for open hole testing (Figure 3.34).

3.2.7.4 Blast Joint
Reservoir fluids entering the wellbore through perforations may display a jetting
behavior that can erode the tubing string at the point of fluid entry, and ultimately
may cause tubing failure. The blast joints are pipe joints of 20–30 ft length with a
wall thickness greater than the tubing and are run in the string to be opposite of the
perforations. The blast joints delay the erosional failure at the point of entry of fluids
into wellbore.

3.2.7.5 Flow Coupling

A flow coupling is a short piece of pipe that has a wall thickness greater than the
tubing string. It is used to delay the failure caused by erosion wherever turbulent flow
is anticipated such as around a landing nipple or subsurface safety valve. The flow
couplings are available in 3–10 ft length, and length of flow coupling for a particular
application depends on how quickly turbulent flow is expected to dissipate, as well
as the abrasive nature of the fluid.

3.2.7.6 Seating Nipple
Seating nipples are located at various depths in the tubing string. The seating nipples
enable various wire line intervention jobs for flow control. Some of these jobs include
shutting the well for testing the tubing string, circulation, pressure equalization,
Offshore Drilling and Completion 93

operation of subsurface safety valve when hydraulic control is lost, and installation
of downhole chokes.

3.2.7.7 Landing Nipple
A landing nipple is a short section of thick-walled tubing machined internally to pro-
vide a locking profile and at least one packing bore. It provides a profile at a specific
point in the completion string to locate, lock and seal subsurface flow controls either
through wire line or pump-down method.

3.2.7.8 Expansion Joint
Expansion joints are used to compensate tubing movement caused by temperature
and/or pressure changes during treatment or production. These are available in vari-
ous stroke lengths.

3.2.7.9 Safety Joints
Safety joints are used between the packers in multiple completions and in selective
completion using hydraulic single string packers.
The shear pin in safety joint enables stuck tubing to be sheared off. However,
because it introduces a weak joint, its use should be restricted, wherever possible.

3.2.7.10 Safety Valves

3.2.7.10.1 Surface Safety Valves (SSVs)

SSV is a hydraulically actuated fail-safe gate valve installed in a Christmas tree for
producing or testing oil and gas wells with high flow rates, high pressure, or the pres-
ence of H2S. The SSV is used to quickly shutdown the well upstream in the event of
overpressure, failure, leak in downstream equipment, or any other well emergency
requiring an immediate shutdown. SSVs are known as Hi Lo valve. Figure 3.35
explains the positions of different valves and their link to the main control room.

3.2.7.10.2 Subsurface Safety Valves (SSSVs)

SSSVs are devices installed in upper wellbore to provide emergency closure of pro-
duction conduits. Two types of SSSVs are available: (1) surface controlled and (2)
subsurface controlled. In each case, they are designed fail-safe so that wellbore can
be isolated in an event of system failure (Figure 3.36).

3.2.7.10.2.1  Subsurface Control Safety Valves (SSCSVs) Subsurface control

is executed by a number of devices such as safety valves, bottom hole chokes and
­regulators, and injection safety valves. These are installed below the surface, and

FIGURE 3.35 Blast joint (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

94 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.36 A schematic of safety valves and control [22].

sometimes are referred to as storm chokes. Based on operating/activation ­mechanism,

these valves can be classified as below.
Differential pressure or velocity type where the valve is spring operated and
kept normally open. The differential pressure design valve shuts in the well auto-
matically when there is abnormal production rate; this is caused by rupture in sur-
face equipment resulting in higher pressure differential than the spring setting of
the valve.
Pressure-activated type consists of a dome-pressure-operated valve which is
normally closed until acted upon by a pressure greater than the preset dome pressure.
The pressure-actuated values are precharged with a set dome pressure and held open
by well pressure. When the flowing pressure of the well drops, the valve closes to
shut in the well. When the tubing pressure is equalized with dome pressure, it will
open the valve automatically (Figure 3.37).

3.2.7.10.2.2  Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves (SCSSSVs) The use

of SCSSV is mandatory for offshore producing wells and offers a mechanism for
remotely operated subsurface well control. It consists of a flapper-type valve located
in the string at a depth of 150 m from the wellhead. It is controlled from the surface
by hydraulic pressure application through external ¼″ stainless steel control line.
The valve has a fail-safe close and is held open against spring pressure by maintain-
ing hydraulic pressure. Loss of hydraulic pressure causes the valve to close and shut
in the well. Surface control units that supply the hydraulic pressure also monitor any
abnormal increase or decrease in flow-line pressure. The valve operation is indepen-
dent of tubing pressure and well fluid surges. Both wire line retrievable and tubing
retrievable designs of SCSSV are available.
Offshore Drilling and Completion 95

FIGURE 3.37 Subsurface safety valve. (Oilfield glossary.)

3.2.7.10.3 Surface Safety Valves (SSVs)

SSVs are pneumatically controlled and installed in the flow line after flow valve.
These are linked to remote operation system either through SCADA system or other
communication systems to enable remote operation from the control room located
at the process platform or the main control room on land. SSV is remotely oper-
ated by an ESD, which can be triggered automatically by high or low-pressure pilot
actuators.

3.2.7.11 Circulating Valves
Tubing to annulus communication is required to circulate fluids in a well, treat a well
with chemicals, inject fluids from the annulus into the tubing string, or produce a
zone that is isolated between two packers. Such tubing to annulus access is provided
in the completion string through various circulating devices.

3.2.7.11.1 Sliding Sleeve
Sliding sleeves are the principle circulating devices that provide the ability to circu-
late a well and selectively produce multiple reservoirs.
A sliding sleeve is a cylindrical device with an inner sleeve and outer body bored
to provide matching openings. The inner sleeve is moved using a wire line shifting
tool. When the sleeve is moved and matched with openings in the outer body, it cre-
ates a circulation path between tubing and annulus. Some of the typical applications
for which the sliding sleeves are used are for displacing fluid, selective testing, treat-
ing or production in multiple completion, killing by circulation, pressure equalizing,
etc. (Figure 3.38).
96 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 3.38 Sliding sleeve (Open and closed). (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

FIGURE 3.39 Side pocket mandrel. (Completions Primer 2000, Schlumberger.)

3.2.7.11.2 Side Pocket Mandrel

Side pocket mandrel has a polished receptacle/pocket on one side that can accom-
modate downhole tools lowered by wire line. Side pocket mandrels are placed in the
tubing string at a location where ever required (Figure 3.39).

REFERENCES
1. “Basic Drilling Technology,” Petroskills. Available at www.petroskills.com/course/
basic-drilling-technology-bdt.
2. drilling-flash-cards. Available at https://quizlet.com/26578790/drilling-flash-cards/
3. “Well design and engineering,” Petroskills. Available at www.petroskills.com/course/
well-design-and-engineering-wde
4. 0ldfinal-report. Available at www.slideshare.net/SureshSanapathi/0ldfinal-report
5. Drillingfluid. Available at https://drillingfluid.org/drilling-fluids-handbook/1.html
6. H. Rabia, Well Engineering & Construction, Entrac Consulting, London (2002).
Offshore Drilling and Completion 97

7. M.B. Oyeneyin, Total Sand Management Solution for Guaranteed Flow Assurance in
Subsea Development (2014).
8. P.P. Benham and F.V. Warnock, Mechanics of Solids and Structures, Pitman Publication
(1973).
9. Predicting wellbore stabilty Petrowiki, Jan 2016. Available at http://petrowiki.org/
Predicting_wellbore_stability
10. R.F. Mitchell, Petroleum Engineering Handbook, Volume II: Drilling Engineering,
(2007) Society of Petroleum Engineers, ISBN: 978-155563-332-5, Editor-in-Chief:
Larry W. Lake.
11. R.R.E. Fjær, R.M. Holt, P. Horsrud, and A.M. Raaen, Petroleum Related Rock
Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Elsevier Science, Burlington (2008).
12. wellbore instability. Available at http://petrowiki.org/File:Devol2_1102final_Page_061_
Image_0001.png
13. C. Hogg, Comparison of multilateral completion scenarios and their application, in
Offshore Europe (1997).
14. Directional, Horizontal, and Multilateral Drilling - DHD. Available at www.
petroskills.com/course/directional-horizontal-and-multilateral-drilling-dhd
15. Introduction-to-casing. Available at www.drillingcourse.com/2015/12/introduction-
to-casing.html
16. A.T. Bourgoyne Jr., K.K. Millheim, M.E. Chenevert, and F.S. Young Jr., Applied
Drilling Engineering (SPE Textbook Series 2), Society of Petroleum Engineers (1986).
17. “Offshore Drilling Operations”. Available at www.petroskills.com/course/offshore-
drilling-operations-odo
18. Measurement While Drilling MWD.
19. Dual-gradient system evaluation highlights key high-risk issues. Available at www.
drillingcontractor.org/dual-gradient-system-evaluation-highlights-key-high-risk-­
issues-17111.
20. Types of Completions,” AAPG Wiki, January 2016. Available at http://wiki.aapg.org/
Types_of_completions
21. B.J. Blythe, L.P. Brzuzy, C.E. Campbell, and J.E. Cooper, Subsea Drilling, Well
Operations and Completions (2011), pp. 1–45.
22. Annual Report, Oil and Gas Production Safety System Events (2017).
 4 Offshore Oil and
Gas Production and
Transportation
Offshore oil and gas production and transportation are crucial and challenging due
to limited available space, infrastructure, and sometimes extreme weather condi-
tions. Thus, a detailed explanation is provided in this chapter for the readers to have
a thorough understanding of these challenging operations.

4.1 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION OPERATION

As discussed in Chapter 2, a chain of platforms are located offshore to accommodate
facilities such as unmanned well (only wells-W) Platform to facilitate production
from wells, production testing, and data transmission with the help of remote ter-
minal units (RTU) and telemetry. Process platform to receive produced fluid from
Unmanned Well platforms and form other platforms along with well data for further
processing and transporting of partially stabilized fluid through pipelines to onshore,
where process platform plays the key role. Till pipeline comes, stablised crude can
be transported to onshore terminal through tanker. A typical flow diagram depicting
the various elements of a production system located on small-to-medium and large
platforms is shown in Figure 4.1.

FIGURE 4.1 Overview of offshore production operation.

99
100 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Process platform is the nerve center of all controls; however, monitoring and emer-
gency control can be also exercised from land-based control through the SCADA
system. With advancement in technologies (smart and intelligent well concept), the
traditional well platform, with common testing facilities, RTU, and telemetry for
data transmission, is slowly becoming obsolete. The major elements of offshore pro-
duction systems are explained in the below section.

4.1.1 Major Elements of Offshore Production System

4.1.1.1 Wells (Subsea/Platform Wells)
Wells are the first element of the production system, and can be either platform com-
pleted (dry wells) or subsea completed (wet wells).

4.1.1.2 Platform Wells/Dry Trees

A dry tree has its wellbore extended vertically up all the way to the host platform.
The tree with its various valves and chokes is placed on the platform. The wellbore
can be directly accessed from the top for interventions. Platform completed wells are
all dry, easy to maintain, and workover in such wells provides comfortable operation.

4.1.1.3 Subsea Wells/Wet Trees

A subsea well is one in which the wellhead – Christmas tree and production – control
equipment is located on the seabed. Subsea oil production systems can consist of
either single satellite well flowing to a fixed platform, FPSO, or an onshore installa-
tion through a flowline, or multiple wells on a template/clustered around a manifold
flowing to a fixed or floating facility, or directly to an onshore installation through a
pipeline (Figure 4.2).

FIGURE 4.2 A subsea field development [1].

Offshore Production and Transportation 101

Any reservoir, or part thereof, can be developed by connecting subsea drilled

wells from one or multiple locations to its dedicated subsea production system.
Deployment of subsea production system becomes essential in the case of deepwater
conditions or ultradeep water conditions due to technical or economical ­unfeasibility/
limitations of traditional offshore surface facilities, such as on a steel-piled jacket on
account of increased water depth.

4.1.1.4 Offshore Pipelines
Pipeline either in offshore or onshore is the basic facility for transporting any liquid
from one place to another safely and economically with minimum adverse ­ecological
impact. Different materials starting from ferrous to HDPE can be used for laying of
pipeline, depending on transported liquid and its temperature and pressure. Pipeline
laid in offshore is known as offshore/subsea pipeline. Subsea pipeline is the pri-
mary means of evacuation of oil and gas produced in offshore field from offshore
to onshore. Subsea pipelines are categorized as below for ease of identification of
different sections of pipeline network in offshore.

• Infield pipelines: Subsea pipeline meant for transporting the produced

­liquid containing oil, gas, and water (multiphase flow) from well to pipeline
manifold to process platform. In some cases, produced liquid is directly
transported from well to process platform. These lines are also called flow-
lines and feeder lines. Infield lines are also used for transporting treated
water or gas for secondary recovery system by water injection or gas injec-
tion system, respectively.
• Export pipelines: Pipelines used for evacuation of processed oil and gas
either together or separately from offshore to onshore terminal for further
activities. These pipelines may have single phase (only gas or oil) or mul-
tiphase flow (mixture of oil and gas). In real scenario, most pipelines have
multiphase flow.
• Transmission/cross country pipelines: Pipeline carrying oil and gas from
one installation to another on commercial basis.

4.1.1.5 Processing Platforms
A typical oil platform process flow includes:

• Incoming or outgoing pipeline isolation system (like subsea isolation valve,

SSIV)
• Separation equipment
• Process heating
• Process cooling
• Crude dehydration
• Produced water treating systems
• Gas handling compression
• Gas dehydration
• Safety and fire detection and fighting
102 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.3 A typical process platform in the Gulf of Mexico [2].

• The basic function of process equipment and system on any installation

is to separate the produced liquid in oil/condensate, gas, and water and
stabilize for onward transportation to onshore for further processing.
Custody transfer/measurement system forms a part of process equipment
and system on any installation. Custody transfer normally occurs at the
point of delivery from installation and at the receipt point of installation.
• There are no major differences between the process equipment (oil and
gas separators, freewater knockouts, gas scrubbers, pumps, compressors,
etc.) installed on an offshore process platform and onshore installation.
Preference is given to compact and lightweight equipment and component
with enhanced or better corrosion resistance properties (Figure 4.3).

4.1.1.6 Export Pipelines/Tankers for Evacuation of Oil and Gas

Offshore pipelines are more expensive and difficult to build than onshore pipelines,
and if the oil and gas field is small, it may be uneconomical to use them. In some
areas, long distances or unstable seafloor conditions may make it impractical or
impossible to lay pipelines. Instead, tankers can be used to transport oil to shore.
If liquefied using special processing equipment, natural gas can also be shipped
in tankers from one port to another. Special re-gasification facilities at the receiv-
ing port return the liquid to its gas form for cross-country shipment by pipeline.
New sources and rising demand for oil and gas during the last half of the 20th cen-
tury meant shipping larger quantities for longer hauls. To make long-distance trans-
portation more cost-effective, producers also wanted to use the largest carriers the
ports could manage. Ultimately, tanker manufacturers developed super tankers or
“very large crude carriers (VLCCs)” that measure up to four football fields in length
(Figure 4.4).
Offshore Production and Transportation 103

FIGURE 4.4 A very large crude carrier tankers [3].

4.1.2 Maintenance and Supply

Typical oil and gas processing platform is required to be self-sufficient in terms
of energy, water, accommodation, processing, and product stabilization system.
Produced oil and gas is then transported to onshore either by pipeline or tanker.
Nowadays, some platforms are installed with electrical power fed from shore through
subsea electrical transmission as it is overall cost-effective.
Wellhead, production manifold, production separator, glycol process to dry gas,
gas compressors, water injection pumps, oil/gas export metering, and main oil pumps
are the main elements or systems of an oil and gas production process/installation
[4]. All production facilities are designed to have minimal environmental impact.
Normally, offshore manned platforms are supported by emergency support ­vessels
(ESVs) to provide immediate support during any exigency like man overboard or
emergency evacuation etc. Platform supply vessels (PSVs) cater to all the major
resourcing and support (Figure 4.5).
The illustrations below show the relationship between oil companies or operators
(dark blue) and the different service and supply segments (light blue). The industry
also consists of other services (orange), however, petroleum-induced activity in these
segments are not considered a part of the service and supply industry.

4.1.3 Essential Personnel/Workforce
Normally, adequate workforce is maintained on every platform, however, multitask-
ing is also common. Some quite common trade designations used globally are:

• Offshore installation manager (OIM) – Final authority on platform for essen-

tial decisions regarding operation of platform, including safety of platform.
104 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.5 Maintenance and supply chain directly and indirectly linked with the offshore
industry [5].

• Operations team leader (OTL) – Responsible for operations and assists the
OIM on all issues related to operation. OTL is assisted by a technical team
of control room and other production crew.
• Offshore operations engineer (OOE)/Offshore maintenance engineer –
Responsible for all maintenance jobs of platform in consultation with OIM.
OOE is supported by multidisciplinary team.
• Safety head/Engineer – Responsible for all aspects of health, safety, and
environment. On most installations, paramedics assists them in issues
related to health apart from other team members.
• PSTL or Operations coordinator for managing crew changes [4].
• Dynamic positioning operator for navigation, ship, or vessel maneuvering
(MODU), station keeping – Available on deepwater floating installation.
• 2nd mate meets manning requirements of flag state operates fast rescue
craft, cargo operations, fire team leader – Available on floating installation
mainly.
Offshore Production and Transportation 105

• 3rd mate meets manning requirements of flag state, operates fast rescue
craft, cargo operations, fire team leader – Available on floating installation
mainly.
• Crane operators – To assist the installation in material transfer on the deck
or to and from boat. They are responsible for crane maintenance also.
• Catering crew will include people tasked with performing essential
­functions such as cooking, laundry, and cleaning the accommodation.

The size and composition of the crew of an offshore installation will vary greatly
from platform to platform. Because of the cost-intensive nature of operating an
offshore platform and the nature of operations itself, it is important to maximize
productivity by ensuring work continues 24 hours a day. This means that there are
essentially two complete crews on board at a time, one for day shift and the other for
the night shift. Crews also change at regular intervals as per the national law or the
requirement of state.

4.1.4 Risks
Risk is the potential of gaining or losing something of value. Values (such as physical
health, social status, emotional wellbeing, or financial wealth) can be gained or lost
when taking risk resulting from a given action or inaction, foreseen or unforeseen
(planned or unplanned). Risk can also be defined as the intentional interaction with
uncertainty. Uncertainty is a potential, unpredictable, and uncontrollable outcome;
risk is a consequence of action taken despite uncertainty. To mitigate or minimize
risk or threat to operation, normally risk assessment and hazard analysis is done
before the start of any operation.
Normally, all external security threat is handled by state authorities as per their
risk perception (Table 4.1).
Shutdown Panel
Shutdown panel is a very crucial part of the production operation system which
activates and shutdowns the entire production system at the time of any accident or
emergency situation. Overall protection of installation is designed with pneumatic
shutdown panel as nucleus. Three levels of protection for personnel, production
wells, and surface facilities are envisaged.

4.1.4.1 Basic Protection Concepts

Accidental release/leak of hydrocarbon poses a major threat to any production ­system
and installation. Risk analysis for complete installation and system shall be carried
out at the design stage and before the start of operations to mitigate such risks.

4.1.5 Prevention
Normally, every installation/plant/system is built with two layers of protection,
primary and secondary, to mitigate any problems due to accidental release of
hydrocarbon.
106 Offshore Operations and Engineering

TABLE 4.1
Risks Associated with Offshore Production Operations (Part A)
Type of Event Explanation
Anchor failure Problems with anchor/anchor lines, mooring devices, winching equipment, or
fairleads (e.g., anchor dragging. breaking of mooring lines, loss of anchor(s).
winch failures)
Blowout An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other fluids from the reservoir, that is, loss
of barrier (i.e., hydrostatic head) or leak and loss of barrier (i.e., BOP/DHSV)
Capsize Loss of stability resulting in overturn, capsizing, or toppling of unit
Collision Accidental contact between offshore unit and/or passing marine vessel when at
least one of them is propelled or is under tow. Examples include: tanker,
cargo ship, and fishing vessel. Also included are collisions with bridges,
quays, etc., and vessels engaged in oil and gas activity on other platforms
than the affected platform, and between two offshore installations (to be
coded as CN only when intended for close location)
Contact Collisions/accidental contacts between vessels engaged in the oil and gas activity
on the platform affected, for example, support/supply/stand-by vessels, tugs or
helicopters, and offshore installations (floating or fixed). Collisions between
two offshore installations are also included only when these are intended for
close location. Contact is result of coming near of two floating or one floating
and one fixed offshore installation without any damage or loss of anything
Crane accident Any event caused by or involving cranes, derrick, and draw-works, or any
other lifting equipment
Explosion Explosion
Falling load Falling load/dropped objects from crane, drill derrick, or any other lifting
equipment or platform. Crane fall and lifeboats accidentally to sea and man
overboard are also included
Fire Fire
Foundering Loss of buoyancy or unit sinking
Grounding Floating installation in contact with the sea bottom
Helicopter accident Accident with helicopter either on helideck or in contact with the installation
Leakage Leakage of water into the unit or filling of shaft or other compartments causing
potential loss of buoyancy or stability problems
List Uncontrolled inclination of unit
Machinery failure Propulsion or thruster machinery failure (including control)
Off position Unit unintentionally out of its expected position or drifting out of control.
Spill/release “Loss of containment”. Release of fluid or gas to the surroundings from unit’s
own equipment/vessels/tanks causing (potential) pollution and/or risk of
explosion and/or fire
Structural damage Breakage or fatigue failures (mostly failures caused by weather, but not
necessarily) of structural support and direct structural failures. “Punch
through” also included
Towing accident Towline failure or breakage
Well problem Accidental problem with the well, that is, loss of one barrier (hydrostatic head)
or other downhole problems
Other Events other than those specified above
Offshore Production and Transportation 107

4.1.6 Shut In
In the event of loss of containment due to release or leak of hydrocarbon, it is essen-
tial to stop feeding the hydrocarbon to the area of release to minimize or eliminate
any chance of contamination of environment/fire/explosion. Protective shut-in is
always incorporated in design itself to achieve above.

4.1.6.1 Fire and Gas Leakage Protection System

Protection system is designed for automatic detection of any gas leakage before it
forms a combustible mixture, with subsequent initiation of shutdown action. Such
shutdown includes all ignition sources. This protection is designed in such a man-
ner that it does not allow restarting of units till hazardous condition is removed. In
case of fire incidents, detection is followed by automatic initiation of suppression
action.

4.1.6.2 Technology Development: HIPS

HIPS: High integrity protection system
HIPS is a high availability fail-safe safety instrumented system designed to
achieve a predefined risk reduction, as defined by the Safety Integrity Level (SIL-3).
HIPS can replace flare/mechanical pressure relief or mechanical thickness of piping
to remove the source of overpressure.
The risk analysis report addresses the following major safety elements:

• Identifying the hazards mitigation and protection provided by the HIPS and
full flare system.
• Determining the potential frequency and consequences of each identified
hazard.
• Determining the system availability of each of the two overpressure protec-
tion systems.
• Quantifying the associated risks for both overpressure protection solutions
in terms of IRPA and PLL (Figure 4.6).

4.1.6.3 Surface Facility Protection

A safety analysis or hazardous operability (HAZOP) analysis of surface facilities
including all systems and equipment on board is carried out. All possible hazards
and interrelation between various parameters are identified and listed. The func-
tional chart thus evolved is the safe safety analysis and function evaluation [4].
A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic examina-
tion of a complex planned or existing process or operation to identify and evaluate
problems that may represent risks to personnel, system, or equipment. Figure 4.7
explains the procedure of HAZOP for blast hazard/fire hazard. The intention of
performing a HAZOP is to review the design to pick up design and engineering
issues that may otherwise not have been found or may result due to integration of
different systems. The technique is based on breaking the overall complex design
of the ­process into a number of simpler sections called “nodes”, which are then
­individually reviewed.
108 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.6 Three-dimensional model of HIPS system [6].

FIGURE 4.7 HAZOP tree construction for fire/blast hazard [7].

Offshore Production and Transportation 109

FIGURE 4.8 A well control process with help of shutdown panel [7].

4.1.6.4 Well Control and Protection

Wells need to be closed quickly to prevent spillage and sea pollution in the event of
sudden emergency at the production platform. Wellhead shutdown panel is designed
for well-defined sequential operation of various valves installed on wellhead includ-
ing surface and subsurface safety valve for control of flowing well. Figure 4.8
explains the automated well control shutdown panel.

4.1.7 SCADA – An Essential Part of Digital Oil and Gas Field

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) has revolutionized the
complete process controlled industry and has become an integral part of offshore
operations as well. This is the most common intelligent system utilized to maintain
and optimize the production at offshore and as well as onshore platforms. Figure 4.9
explains the pyramidal steps of SCADA utilized to optimize the production, while
Figure 4.10 explains the process of data acquisition in SCADA system.
Flow chart for Decision Making based on data acquisition
The detailed process level of SCADA system is explained in the below sections.

4.1.7.1 Process Levels in SCADA

4.1.7.1.1 Manual Process Level
This is the initial reference point which assumes a fully manual process. The data are
not being acquired in real time. Basic surface sensors (pressure (P), temperature (T),
and volume (V)) are used, and readings are recorded and annotated by people when
110 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.9 A digital oil field pyramid explaining the entire process [8].

FIGURE 4.10 An entire cycle of data acquisition cycle [7].

Offshore Production and Transportation 111

they visit the operation site. Production well tests are conducted periodically on
demand. The data are exchanged between different disciplines by email or in a
repository of shared folders. The engineering workflows are performed manually by
each discipline (in silos, no integration). Monitoring is performed monthly, and diag-
nostic and optimization are performed randomly (2–3 times a year). Communication
is by phone, email, and meetings. Asset team collaboration is low.

4.1.7.1.2 Automation Level
The real-time data is gathered only from basic surface sensors (P, T), and the
information is gathered using wireless technology. Production well tests are taken
monthly or on demand. Data are centralized in a SCADA/historian storage cen-
ter using industry-standard protocols. Some engineering workflows are automated.
Monitoring is performed daily, while diagnostic and optimization processes can be
performed monthly. Team discussions of production issues are conducted in meet-
ings and situation rooms, and collaboration starts to improve [9].

4.1.7.1.3 RTOC Level
Most surface locations in a field have real-time sensors, including flow meters.
For wells without flow meters, virtual metering is used for the entire field that
can ­provide production data for individual wells. Data are sent using wireless or
WiMAX technologies (to support high-volume data traffic). The data are central-
ized in the SCADA/historian storage center using the industry standard ­protocols.
Most engineering workflows are automated with advanced algorithms to provide
alarms and alerts. Monitoring is performed in real time, while diagnostic and
optimization can be performed weekly or monthly [9]. The operation includes
a dedicated real-time operations center, with a dedicated staff. Collaboration is
significant but not optimal. Communication with field operations staff is via cell
phone and by texting.

4.1.7.1.4 DOF Level
The operations is exactly the same as an RTOC; however, most engineering work-
flows are intelligent and with predictive capability to generate advice and guidance.
Monitoring is performed in real time with exception-based surveillance, while diag-
nostic and optimization can be performed daily with an advisory system to prevent
production downtime [10]. There is a dedicated collaboration working environment
(CWE) with dedicated staff and complete workflow mobile communication with
field operations staff. Collaboration reaches very high levels with synergy between
disciplines. Communication with field operations staff is via closed-circuit TV,
video, and chatting.

4.1.7.2 Instrumentation, Remote Sensing, and

Telemetry of Real-Time Processes
This area focuses on the equipment and technology in the physical oil and gas opera-
tions, both on the surface and downhole, required for telemetry, remote collection,
and transmission of data required to monitor, optimize, and automate operations.
The wellhead includes a series of mechanical or electronic devices (gauges) to
112 Offshore Operations and Engineering

measure real-time pressure, temperature, fluids, and other special data such as chem-
icals, solids detection, and radiation (Figure 1.14). Downhole locations are equipped
with another family of sensors especially designed to work in high-temperature and
high-pressure conditions. Sensors are connected to electrical cables that send analog
pulses to a control panel located close to the wellhead. The control panel consists of
many hardware components for the analog to digital signal conversion [11]. A key
component includes remote terminal units (RTU) and programmable logic control-
lers (PLC), which perform similar functions. They are connected to sensors with
cables and send digital data to the transmission hardware using wireless equipment
that includes ethernet, switchboards, WiMAX (microwave signals), and routers all
connected to a CPU, often powered by a solar panel.
Figure 4.11 explains an offshore wellhead with a series of mechanical or elec-
tronic devices to measure real-time pressure, temperature, fluids, and other special
data such as chemicals, solids detection, and radiation. Furthermore, Figure 4.12
explains the working of SCADA system along with its wireless features.

4.1.7.2.1 Data Management and Data Transmission

Located in the SCADA terminal, real-time signals from the field are gathered by
cellular modems and sent to a family of servers. The servers use multiplex software
to organize and store the data in different structured layers under a series of informa-
tion technology (IT) industry protocols. The software that does this data collection
and aggregation is referred to as a historian, which accumulates time data, Boolean
events, and alarms in a database, which can be used for many visualization solu-
tions. The data are previously QA/QCed, cleaned, and conditioned using a series of

FIGURE 4.11 A wellhead with a series of mechanical or electronic devices (gauges) to

measure real-time pressure, temperature, fluids, and other special data such as chemicals,
solids detection, and radiation [12].
Offshore Production and Transportation 113

FIGURE 4.12 The working of SCADA system and wireless [12].

algorithms (data reduction, wavelet filtration, and missing data interpolation) that
filter the data from signal abnormalities such as noise, spikes, outliers, and frozen
data. The historian commonly feeds a repository or master database, such as the
Structured Query Language (SQL) or Oracle. Other types of data, such as mechani-
cal equipment, interventions, tubing scans, and gyro scans, are unstructured and
stored in well files are well databases.

4.1.7.2.2 Workflow Automation
Traditionally, geoscientists and various engineering disciplines (production, reser-
voir, facilities, etc.) spent considerable time gathering data from disparate sources
for input into their mostly manual workflows.
Engineers generally use models developed in commercial software applica-
tions to reproduce the oil production process. However, even these software models
required complex manual workflows that consumed engineer’s time, for example,
collecting data from different sources (spreadsheet, text, tables, figures, historian,
etc.); ­filtering data from noise; performing repetitive, error-prone tasks to update
models (e.g., manual data entry); reconciling the data and calibrating the model; and
running different model scenarios.
Workflow automation uses high-level programming language routines to connect
these manual processes, so that models can be automatically populated and updated.
Automation is just part of the DOF requirement for workflow construction.
DOF solutions also require that engineering workflows are intelligent enough to
capture in real time alarms and alerts to generate prompt actions, update engineering
applications, and deliver right-time monitoring, diagnostics, and process optimiza-
tion that deliver operations guidance at the field level.
114 Offshore Operations and Engineering

4.1.7.2.3 Well Automation
Generally, in offshore, a number of control systems are employed for automation
and effective management of oilfield operations. Out of these systems, SCADA
is a very comprehensive and sophisticated automation system. SCADA system is
utilized for all kinds of production system installed with different artificial lift
systems. In offshore production system, generally installation of gas lift system is
very common due to abundant availability of gas and lack of storage and transpor-
tation facilities for gas. The lack of gas storage and transportation facility is due
to its expensive nature and constraint of space and isolation from the land. Thus,
to explain the well automation for production optimization has been explained for
a gas lift systems.

4.1.8 Automated Gas Lift Optimization in Offshore

Gas lift automation is a key to get rid of daily struggle of gathering enough data
to analyze field production. Combination of automation equipment and computer
software allows operators to control each well’s lift gas injection rate. It enables the
field engineer to monitor the well in real-time from the computer. Continuous gas lift
automation along with wellhead surveillance system installed on offshore platform
to ensure technocommercial profitability in oil production.
Gas lift optimization in offshore is usually implemented through continuous
gas lift method. However, major problem encountered with continuous gas lift
is maintaining an optimum gas injection rate assigned to each well [13]. This is
attributed to the fact that, as injection gas is limited in offshore facilities, ­optimum
gas rate cannot be provided to each well. In past, optimum gas rate is considered
the rate at which the well would yield maximum production. Nowadays, optimum
gas injection rate is recognized from gas lift performance curve where the cost
of additional injection gas exceeds the anticipated profit that would be made via
increased oil production. Figure 4.13 explains an overview of well automation
and Figure 4.14 displays the gas lift automated system for offshore production
operations.
The primary objective of gas lift optimization system is to inject less gas to less
productive system but continue to inject the optimum rate to most productive wells
in case of limited gas supply.
The optimization system has four main tools that work together to provide overall
benefit.

1. Constant gas lift injection rate

In the automation system, the system and software assisted tools con-
stantly measures gas lift rates and adjusts injection choke according to set
point. Maintaining a constant injection rate decreases amount of slugging
in the wells, and thus reduces production process instabilities.
2. Real-time wellhead surveillance
This tool enables engineers to monitor temperature and pressure data of
individual wells.
Offshore Production and Transportation 115

Techincal Objective Business Objective

- Carry out optimization - To increase field
work online to supply lift production through gas lift
gas to individual well at optimization
optimum level for - To reduce unplanned
maximum performance deferment

Monitoring Regime
- Gas volume monitoring
Control Regime
- Gas balance for gas lift
distribution - Set-point control on gas
lift valve to individual gas
- Well monitoring at lifted wells for optimizing
platform gas lift injection rate
- Trunk line pressure
monitoring

FIGURE 4.13 An overview of well automation [13].

FIGURE 4.14 Flowchart showing typical offshore gas lift optimization network [13].

3. Optimization well testing

It is imperative to run optimization well test on each well to determine
optimum gas lift injection rate on each well. The system and software assisted
tools then determine the optimum injection rate by analyzing the fluid flow
versus gas lift rate data.
116 Offshore Operations and Engineering

4. Data to desktop
This tool transmits all the automation data back to office and stores it in
a database. The engineer can access the data and customize the interface to
display specific well data.

Thus, production process automation yields the following benefits of automated

SCADA system:

1. Gains in oil production.

2. As operator can access the same data and system on desktop, there is
improved collaboration between field planning, well surveillance, and
operations.
3. Capture and save the history of lifecycle of each well.
4. Wellhead and well-test data is online and easy to access.
5. Availability of historical data to perform analysis, modeling, and
optimization.

Now after understanding the offshore production operations, we will discuss the next
step of processing the produced fluids.

4.2 PROCESSING IN OFFSHORE
In general, three phase fluids are encountered from offshore wells (oil, water, and
gas). The produced well fluids are oil, water, and/or gas (if present), all of which must
be separated and individually treated before further dispatch or disposal. The well
fluids are collected at the topside from the wells using a complex network of subsea
pipelines and risers and treated so that they can be further dispatched to the required
destination for commercial usage. For processing these fluids large process platforms;
these platforms generally contain the following process modules (Figure 4.15):

1. Fluid separation and oil dispatch

2. Gas compression and dehydration
3. Produced water treatment plant
4. Seawater conditioning and injection system

4.2.1 Oil Treatment
The target of the separation of reservoir fluids from undersea wells is to produce a gas
stream free of C3+ hydrocarbons to the maximum extent and a crude oil stable at stor-
age conditions. Indeed, the produced crude oil must not vaporize when delivered into the
storage tank and in the event of small variations of storage pressure and/or temperature.
Aims are often accomplished by progressively reducing pressure and tempera-
ture of the fluid through a multistage separation consisting of a sequence of two
or three separators, which forms a configuration termed separation train. The top-
side contains a series of machines and equipment called a train. Produced fluids
are treated through this train. Each train consists of a production manifold, well
Offshore Production and Transportation 117

FIGURE 4.15 An integrated process platform with living accommodation [3].

fluid heater, inlet separator, crude oil manifold, crude oil heater, surge tanks, and oil
pumps [14]. The treatment occurs in the following manner:

1. Well fluids arrive at the production manifold through subsea pipelines and
risers.
2. A de-emulsifier is dozed into the production manifold, which will improve
the oil–water separation and break any emulsions formed between the fluids.
3. The dozed well fluids are passed through the well fluid heater, which
­provides heat and further improves separation. (Hot oil is circulated in the
shell side, while well fluids flow through the tubes.)
4. The hot well fluids are sent to the inlet separator. The inlet separator sepa-
rates the fluids with aid of gravity, and improved separation is achieved with
chemicals and heat.
5. Separated gas is taken out through the top and is sent for compression and
dehydration.
6. Separated water is siphoned through the bottom and sent for conditioning.
Here we are performing partial separation, and pump oil, water, and gas
mixture to land using special pumps called main oil line (MOL) pumps.
7. The oil from the inlet separator is further heated with a crude oil heater and
sent to the surge tank with an oil manifold.
8. Surge tank is maintained at a lower pressure to stabilize crude, that is, to
remove maximum associated gases from crude oil.
9. Oil from surge tanks can be either pumped directly with MOL pumps or
can be diverted to third-stage separators (Surge tank 3).
118 Offshore Operations and Engineering

10. Separated crude oil is pumped with CTP/MOL pumps to export trunk lines.
11. Separated gas is diverted to gas compression module after boosting the
pressure LP booster compressor [13].
12. Excess gas after internal consumption is delivered to export gas pipeline after
compression and dehydration on platform for further processing on land.
13. Separated water is diverted to produced water conditioning unit.
14. The pumps dispatch the oil from the platform using pipelines connected to
the land, possibly a port or a refinery (if one is situated sufficiently close).

4.2.1.1 Important Notes
The surge tank is placed at lower pressures than the separator to stabilize the crude
oil, that is, remove as maximum associated gas from the oil.
There can be more stages of separation as per requirements, otherwise oil is
­usually sent to the pumps for dispatch (Figure 4.16).
In the early stages of the platform, when pipelines have not been laid, oil is
­dispatched by tankers.

4.2.1.2 Loading of Tankers
Tankers are filled by using a set-up of submarine pipeline, flexible hose, and a
­floating tank/buoy. The buoy is held at a fixed location by anchors and moors the
tanker to it with a mooring rope.

4.2.2 Gas Treatment
Gas previously separated from oil is taken for compression and dehydration prior
to usage or dispatch. The separated gas can be used for either one, two, or all three
utilities of export, lift gas, and internal usage.

FIGURE 4.16 Oil and gas processing on offshore platform.

Offshore Production and Transportation 119

Dehydration is the most important treatment for the produced gas as further
processes may cause formation of gas hydrates. Gas hydrates are formed when
moisture-laden gases are subjected to high pressures and low temperatures.
If formed, gas hydrates can solidify in areas that can hamper smooth oil field
­operations such as fluid transportation in pipelines and compressors. By dehydrat-
ing the gas, these potential problems are eliminated. Removal of water is done for
the following reasons:

• Natural gas can combine with liquid or free water to form solid gas hydrates
that can plug pipelines or valve fittings.
• Water can condense in the pipeline causing corrosion.
• Water vapor increases the volume and decreases the heating value of
the gas.
• The maximum water content is 7 lb H2O/MMscf. There are several
­methods of dehydrating natural gas. The most common of these are liquid
desiccant (glycol) dehydration, solid desiccant dehydration, and refrigera-
tion (i.e., cooling the gas) (Figure 4.17).

The glycol dehydration process is widely used in offshore platforms for gas treat-
ment (Figure 4.18).

4.2.2.1 Gas Dehydration Follows the Steps Below

1. Wet feed gas is entered a tray tower; the gas rises from the bottom while
lean (water-free) glycol is sprayed from the top.
2. The glycol mixes with the gas and dehydrates the gas, allowing dry gas
to vent through the top while water-laden rich glycol is collected into the
­bottom of the tray tower.

FIGURE 4.17 Glycol dehydration unit [15].

120 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.18 Produced water treatment unit.

3. The cool, rich glycol is sent to a flash tank to remove any gases in the glycol.
Any flash gas obtained is sent for flaring and any low pressure gas is com-
pressed and mixed in the gas stream.
4. The cool glycol is sent through a reflux coil for heating, and then passed through
a rich glycol-lean glycol heat exchanger, which further heats the rich glycol.
5. When rich glycol is re-introduced into the second tray tower, it is hot
enough to allow the water to escape as steam, which is vented. The glycol,
now stripped of water, falls to the bottom.
6. This lean glycol is sent for re-boiling and removal of flue gases.
7. Once the flue gases are removed, the lean glycol is sent through the heat
exchanger for cooling and then re-supplied into the first tower.

Triethylene glycol (TEG) is the most commonly used glycol for such an operation.
The benefits of TEG include:

• Superior dew point depression

• Easy to regenerate up to 99% of utilized chemicals
• Higher decomposition temperature
• High operation reliability and low operating costs
• Low vaporization losses

4.2.3 Produced Water Treatment

The water recovered through the separation train and gas processing contains traces
of oil and other impurities. Produced water stream can be reused through re-injection
in the reservoir to enhance production, or it is discharged in the sea after treatment.
In the latter event, impurities and oil must be removed by several processing steps. In
particular, oil concentration must be lowered below 40 mg/L.
Offshore Production and Transportation 121

Water discharge standard in offshore and onshore are different. This is because in
offshore very less land is available compared to onshore. To achieve the standard of
onshore in offshore it required huge amount of capital investment that will adverse
impact on ecumenical aspect of the project.
The most undesired component of well fluids is reservoir water. However, d­ isposal
of this fluid is not easy. Produced water is significantly different from water present
on the surface. Further, contact with oil makes treatment even more necessary before
it can be disposed into sea.
International regulations of quality must be followed, and the water must be
treated to acceptable levels before being discharged into the sea.
The water conditioning/treatment unit consists of four units, namely:

1. Flash vessel
This vessel receives water from the inlet separators and surge tanks, and
is maintained at 0.8 kg pressure. In the flash vessel, most dissolved gases
are flashed out, which are then routed to the LP flare header. Associated oil
from the produced water is sent to a closed drain and the oil is collected in
the sump caisson.
2. CPI separators
The CPI separators (corrugated plate interceptor) collect oil from the
water sent from the flash vessel. These are plates installed in parallel, and
the oil collected from these CPI separators is collected in a tank. This
­collected oil is later pumped to the oil manifold; gas is flared off.
3. IGF unit
Water from the CPI separators flow into the IGF unit. The IGF unit is
a tank that uses motor-driven agitators to aerate gas bubbles in the water.
These bubbles float the oil droplets to the surface, which is then collected
and pumped to the CPI separators [13].
4. Sump caisson
This vessel collects water sent from the IGF unit. The vessel has an open
bottom from which water continuously drains into the sea. Oil floating in
the surface of the sump caisson is collected in the blow caisson. The oil is
then lifted and flown into a skimmer by gas injection.

4.3 SEA WATER INJECTION

Sea water is often used in offshore platforms when the necessity of water injection
arises. Water injection is done to maintain reservoir pressures as well as during water
flooding. To prevent damage to the reservoir, strict quality standards are imposed on
water quality. Additional chemicals are also added to protect pipelines that carry the
water to the wells and well platform.
The main components of water injection systems are:

a. Sea water lift pumps

b. Coarse filters
c. Fine filters
122 Offshore Operations and Engineering

d. De-oxygenation towers
e. Booster pumps
f. Main injection pumps
g. Chemical dosing system

The standard chemicals used during sea water injections are:

a. Flocculants
b. Scale inhibitors
c. Corrosion inhibitors
d. Chlorination
e. Bactericide
f. Oxygen scavengers

The water injection system operates according to the following procedure:

1. Sea water is lifted with sea water lift pumps and fed to the filters for filtering.
2. Coarse filters are able to filter particles up to 20 μm, while the fine filters
filter particles up to 2 μm. Flocculants and coagulants are added to promote
coagulation and filtration of suspended particles.
3. Filtered water flows to de-oxygenating towers for oxygen removal.
Deoxygenating prevents formation of aerobic bacteria colonies in the injec-
tion flowlines. Vacuum pumps and oxygen scavenging chemicals are used
to de-oxygenate water.
4. Booster pumps take de-oxygenated water and feed it to the main injection
pumps.
5. Other chemicals like scale and corrosion inhibitors are dozed into the water
during booster pump discharge.
6. The main injection pumps send the treated water to subsea pipelines and
into water injection wells [16].

The next step after processing is the storage of process fluids for dispatch. In the
­following section, offshore storage system is explained in detail.

4.4 OFFSHORE STORAGE
Offshore storage is normally required because there is inevitably a question of down-
time (time during which a system is not operational) associated with offshore loading
concepts. The normal method of crude evacuation is by shuttle tankers which may
be loaded directly from a loading system or via a storage vessel. If no storage is pro-
vided and adverse weather prevents shuttle tanker loading, the platform supervisory
personnel have no option but to shutdown field production [9]. The field reservoir
characteristics are not always consistent with this stop-start type of production, so
some element of buffer storage must be considered. Several aspects of crude oil
evacuation must be examined before a suitable buffer storage system is selected.
Among the factors to be considered are:
Offshore Production and Transportation 123

• Storm occurrence interval and persistency

• Oil throughput
• Distance of the field from port of discharge
• Speed of the shuttle tanker
• Number and capacity of the shuttle tanker(s)
• Efficiency of discharge port equipment
• Loading system maintenance downtime (hoses, hawser, etc.)

The environmental factors will of course have a bearing on the type of storage struc-
ture selected, but the factors listed above govern the quantity of storage required.
Four basic structures suitable for offshore storage include:

• Tankers
• Barges
• Articulated column
• Spar

4.5 TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS

Pipeline transportation of oil and gas remains the first choice even in offshore.
However, in case of marginal offshore field (where pipeline may not be cost-effective)
or during extended testing phase when pipeline is not available, oil can be stored in
a floating tank and transferred to shuttle tanker through buoy for processing on land
(Figure 4.19).

4.5.1 Oil Tankers
Crude oil tankers are large ships used to transport crude oil from the Middle East,
Africa, and Latin America to refineries worldwide. Tankers that carry refined
­products are known as product tankers and carry refined petroleum products from
refineries to distribution locations.

FIGURE 4.19 Testing/marginal field [17].

124 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 4.20 A commercial oil tanker. It is important to note that oil tankers are very
large, with small ones being around 200 m in length and large ones up to over four 400 m in
length [17].

Oil tankers can vary in size, although smaller vessels are generally used to trans-
port refined petroleum products, whereas much larger tankers are used to transport
crude oil. These larger ships tend to be used more for crude oil as they reduce the
cost per barrel of oil transport. Tanker sizes are expressed in terms of cargo tones,
or how much cargo they can carry. Larger crude oil tankers carry significantly more
and are generally utilized in international crude oil trade [18] (Figure 4.20).

4.5.2 Pipelines
Pipelines are systems of large transportation pipes generally below ground on the
sea bed that serves the purpose of transporting oil and natural gas within extensive
distribution networks. These lines vary in diameter depending on their use and are
generally located underground. In Canada there is an estimated 825,000 km of lines
that serve to transport natural gas, liquefied natural gas products, crude oil, and other
refined petroleum products [18].

4.5.3 Floating Production, Storage, and Offloading (FPSO)

Small, marginal, and isolated fields, which do not justify the high cost of platform
and pipeline, are produced through an integrated system called FPSO.
This type of production support consists of a tanker converted for production
operation with a permanent yoke arrangement. The tanker is allowed to weathervane
around the SPM by means of a fluid swivel arrangement at the yoke/SPM inter-
face. A converted tanker is used because it provides the cheapest form of floating
production and already has existing oil storage capacity. Because these structures
have appreciable motions, the wells are typically subsea completed and connected
to the floating unit with flexible risers that are of either composite material or rigid
steel with flexible configuration. While the production unit can be provided with a
drilling unit, typically the wells are predrilled and the production unit brought in to
Offshore Production and Transportation 125

FIGURE 4.21 Floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) with external turret [19].

carry only a workover drilling system. Previously, FPSOs in shallow waters and in
mild environment had spread mooring systems. As more FPSOs were designed and
constructed or converted (from a tanker) for deepwater and harsh environments, new
and more effective mooring systems were developed including internal and external
turrets. Some turrets were also designed to be dis-connectable so that the FPSO
could be moved to a protective environment in the event of a hurricane or typhoon
(Figure 4.21).
Advantages of FPSO include:

• FPSOs have integral oil storage capability inside their hull. This avoids a
long and expensive pipeline to shore.
• Large area for process equipment.
• Can explore in remote and deepwater as well as in marginal wells, where
building fixed platform and piping is technically and economically not
feasible.
• Easy loading of shuttle tanker from FPSO.
• Easily converted to production support.

4.5.3.1 Single Buoy Mooring

Single buoy mooring (SBM) (also known as single point mooring or SPM) is a load-
ing buoy anchored offshore that serves as a mooring point and interconnect for tanker
loading or offloading liquid products. They are capable of handling any size ship,
even very large crude carriers (VLCC), where no alternative facility is available.
In shallow water, SPMs are used to load and unload crude oil and refined
­products from onshore and offshore oilfields or refineries usually through some
form of ­storage system. These buoys are usually suitable for use by all types of oil
tanker. In ­deepwater oil fields, SPMs are usually used to load crude oil direct from
the ­production platforms, where there are economic reasons not to run a pipeline
to the shore [19].
126 Offshore Operations and Engineering

REFERENCES
1. “Oilfield review,” 1989. schlumberger oilfield review.
2. processplatform/gulfofmexico. Available at www.stateoil.com/processplatform/­
gulfofmexico.com.
3. offshore-oil-amp-gas-production. Available at http://docshare.tips/offshore-oil-amp-
gas-production-_5767ae19b6d87fa6918b4582.html.
4. Oil platform. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_platform.
5. “Exxon Mobil Offshore Operations Manual,” 2016.
6. “World Offshore Accidental Database,” 2000.
7. Saudi Aramco Development Program. Available at www.saudiaramco.com/en/careers/
saudi-applicants/our-offer/employee-training.
8. A digital oil field Pyramid explaining the entire process. Available at www.petrowiki.
org.
9. What-is-scada. Available at https://oleumtech.com/what-is-scada.
10. G. Carvajal, M. Maucec, and S. Cullick, Introduction to digital oil and gas field ­systems,
in Intelligent Digital Oil and Gas Fields, Elsevier, Gulf Professional Publishing, UK
(2018), pp. 1–41, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804642-5.00001-3
11. Remote-monitoring-and-control. Available at http://bluetickinc.com/remote-­
monitoring-and-control/resources/.
12. Oilfield-monitoring. Available at http://petrocloud.com/solutions/oilfield-monitoring/.
13. P.W. Abshire, D.J. Hoge, and C.H. Neeley, Programmable controllers integrate oil
field SCADA and automation, in 37th Annual Conference on Petroleum and Chemical
Industry, Houston, TX (1990).
14. N. Mitra, Principles of Artificial Lift, Allied Publishers Ltd, New Delhi (2012).
15. Central-processing-platforms. Available at www.thepiping.com/2015/08/central-­
processing-platforms-cpp.html.
16. glycolunit. Available at www.wikipedia.org/glycolunit.
17. Transportation_of_oil. Available at https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/
Transportation_of_oil.
18. D.P.V. Li, Offshore Engineering Handbook Series.
19. Starzz Offshore Structure Website.
 5 Utilities and
Support System
Although the technology of drilling or production does not change drastically
between onshore and offshore environments, drilling or production is entirely differ-
ent in both these environments. This is because the amenities and support services
freely available onshore have to be constructed in offshore operations, which is not
just limited to living accommodations.
Offshore installations are self-sufficient in every respect including energy, water,
accommodation, etc. Product evacuation is done either through dedicated pipelines
or tankers.
All production facilities are designed to have minimal environmental impact.
Normally, offshore manned platforms are assisted by emergency support vessels
(ESVs) to provide immediate support during any exigency such as man overboard or
emergency evacuation. Platform supply vessels (PSVs) cater to all major resourcing
and support.
Because of the cost-intensive nature of operating an offshore platform and the
nature of operations, it is important to maximize productivity by ensuring that
work continues 24 hours a day. This means that there are essentially two shift crews
onboard at any time, one for day and the other for night shift. Crews also change at
regular intervals to maintain continuous operations.

5.1 LIVING ACCOMMODATION
Accommodation on a drilling or production platform has improved considerably
in recent years. Some set-ups can be compared to that of a dormitory with four
to eight people often sharing a room with bunk beds and private rooms (for head
­engineers). Laundry facilities are provided after each shift change to ensure clean-
liness. Dormitories create a very close relationship between workers with some
­describing their roommates as a “second family”. All room cleaning services are
done by staff people during shift change, ensuring cleanliness for the new shift.
Figure 5.1 ­displays the living accommodation on offshore platforms [1].
Food
Most offshore installations have self-service style canteens/mess with a wide variety
of food options, including fresh food such as salad, as well as vegetarian and non-
vegetarian food options, which are delivered to the rig via helicopters or boats. Each
offshore rig has a dedicated team of kitchen staff who prepare high-quality food
around the clock. Special arrangements are also made during festivals.
Various galley equipment for cooking, refrigeration, preparation, and laundry are
available on offshore platforms [3].

127
128 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 5.1 Living room [2].

Cooking Equipment Preparation

Oven Mixer
Cooker Peeler
Boiling pan Slicer
Frying pan Toaster
Griddle Cupboard

Figure 5.2 displays the high standard of food available at offshore platforms.

5.1.1 Medical
All employees are required to undergo a medical examination to ensure that their
health is optimum for work on an offshore platform. Paramedic and medical person-
nel are available onboard. Moreover, transport facilities are on standby for quick
medical evacuation from offshore facilities, if required.

FIGURE 5.2 Food in offshore installations [4].

Utilities and Support System 129

5.1.2 Smoking and Alcohol

Smoking on an offshore platform is only allowed in designated areas. Although igni-
tion sources are not allowed on the installation, matches are supplied at the desig-
nated smoking areas. No alcohol and drug policy is the norm on all offshore facilities
and falls under prohibited category.

5.1.3 Entertainment and Recreation

Realizing the stress involved in working offshore, all offshore facilities have ade-
quate recreational facilities as per the company policy to keep the onboard staff
entertained when not on shift. For example, small movie theaters, pool tables, game
zones, gymnastics, large screen TVs, video game consoles, etc. are provided on off-
shore facilities.

5.2 POWER GENERATION [5]

Power generation systems provide electrical power for drilling and production, as
well as all other platform activities and operations.

5.2.1 Fuel Gas System

The fuel gas system comprises suction knockout drums (KODs), compressors,
­heaters, scrubbers, filters, and superheaters. The power generation system PG
­compressor and in some cases main oil line (MOL) pumps have gas generators as
drivers. Fuel gas supply to these generators at a particular pressure and temperature
is vital. Moreover, no liquid should be carried over, which has potential for creating
a hot spot, choking the injectors, and increasing the combustion temperature. Every
unit has its own fuel gas valve, which requires supply pressure at a predetermined
range as fuel gas, otherwise it can stop supply, and the unit will trip. Hence, fuel gas
conditioning before it is sent to gas generators is essential.
Fuel gas can be taped from the separators or from the outlet of the glycol towers. If
the separation pressure for fuel gas is very low, it needs to be compressed. This is done
by a dedicated fuel gas compressor, which is a gas-engine-driven, r­ eciprocating-type
compressor. Gas from the separators is scrubbed by the suction KOD prior to compres-
sion. Depending on the requirement, the compressor can be bypassed, and on increas-
ing the separator pressure, gas can be directly supplied to the conditioning skid. The
line from the tower outlet has a pressure control valve (PCV), in addition to a shut-
down valve (SDV) to safe guard equipment from damage, at a much higher pressure.
Subsequently, the gas is heated up to 55°C–60°C. This electric heater is equipped with
thermal switch high (TSH), which automatically cuts off the heater in case of actuation.
Gas from the heater enters the fuel gas scrubber, where the liquid droplets are knocked
off. A PCV downstream the heater maintains the pressure in the fuel gas manifold.
As a second line of protection, the conditioning skid is equipped with filters
downstream of the PCV to ensure that the gas is absolutely liquid-free. The gas from
the filter enters the superheater where the temperature is raised to approximately
130 Offshore Operations and Engineering

70°C–75°C. The fuel gas heater is quite long, even though jacketed, but any tem-
perature drop can result in condensation; therefore, a superheater is used to increase
the temperature. Moreover, the superheater is equipped with a temperature switch
which cuts off the electrical supply on actuation. The individual units have their own
toppings from the header and are equipped with SDV and blowdown valve (BDV).
In case the units shut down, the SDV closes and the BDV opens such that the gas
downstream of the SDV gets depressurized. The fuel gas header is also equipped
with a BDV, which actuates in case of emergency shutdown (ESD) or fire shutdown
(FSD), depressurizing the entire system.

5.2.2 Utility/Diesel Generators
Offshore installations/production platforms are provided with utility/diesel genera-
tors for power requirement in case of power or ESD including black start-up. These
generators supply power to essential systems to restore power supply after outage
or black start-up of the platforms, including emergency lighting systems and gas
turbine instrument air system. Figure 5.3 displays a diesel generator present on off-
shore platforms. This is the main power supply on a drilling platform as gas remains
unavailable during the drilling phase.

5.2.3 Gas Turbine Generator

Aero-derivative and industrial-type gas turbines from various manufactures, for
example, Rolls Royce, GE, Solar, Siemen, Man GHH, etc., are used in offshore
facilities, either for power generation or as prime mover for gas compressor/main
oil pumps/main water injection pumps. These machines are considered critical for
platform and field operations.
The compressed air is mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The fuel and
compressed air can be premixed or the compressed air can be introduced directly
into the combustor. The fuel–air mixture ignites under constant pressure conditions
and the hot combustion products (gases) are directed through the turbine where they

FIGURE 5.3 Diesel generator [6].

Utilities and Support System 131

expand rapidly and result in shaft rotation. The turbine also has stages, each with a
row of stationary blades (or nozzles) to direct the expanding gases followed by a row
of moving blades. Shaft rotation drives the compressor to draw in and compresses
more air to sustain continuous combustion. The remaining shaft power is used to
drive a generator which produces electricity or provide power for other equipments
like MOL etc. To optimize the transfer of kinetic energy from the combustion gases
to shaft rotation, gas turbines can have multiple compressor and turbine stages.
Vibration monitoring and precise control of different gas turbine systems are
essential for safe and trouble-free operation. All gas turbine generators are provided
with state-of-the-art control systems (mostly the latest version of digital control sys-
tems) along with integrated vibration monitoring systems. Equal importance should
be given to the maintenance of all auxiliary systems and accessories, including lube
oil system, seal oil system, intake air system, and gas conditioning skid for safe and
efficient turbine operation. Figure 5.4 describes the gas turbine generator used in
offshore platforms.
In case of ESD, the auxiliary or emergency generator takes over. These gen-
erators are driven by diesel engines, and their capacity is normally between 1.0
and 1.2 MW. More than one electrical control centers are provided on offshore
installations for operating different equipment and systems. An uninterrupted

FIGURE 5.4 Gas turbine generator [7].

132 Offshore Operations and Engineering

power supply (UPS) system supplies power to the instruments/controls along

with some emergency lighting during generator shutdown and total power failure.
Normally, it is designed for approximately 8 hours of supply. The UPS also has a
battery bank.

5.3 INSTRUMENT AND UTILITY AIR SYSTEM [5,8]

There are normally two compressed air systems on offshore platforms – the utility
and instrument air systems.

5.3.1 Air Compressors
Normally, multistage reciprocating air compressor is used on offshore platforms to
cater to the large demand of compressed air for different applications in instrumen-
tation and utilities. These air compressors compress air to a predetermined level,
normally to 10 bar (1 bar = 100 kPa), to meet the pressure requirements of different
systems. Compressed air is sent to the main air receiver, the utility air receiver.
Moisture present in compressed air makes it unsuitable for use in different pneu-
matic and electronic instruments used for control on the platforms. An air drier
is used to remove moisture from compressed air. Maintaining a predetermined
air pressure in the instrument air header is essential; a drop in air pressure in
the header may result in platform shutdown. All pneumatic tools and winches are
operated by utility air.

5.3.2 Instrument Air and Utility Air Systems

Instrument air is stored in an air receiver. The flow and pressure in the header is
maintained through a PCV. All pneumatically operated instruments, loops, and pan-
els are supplied through this header. In case of pressure loss, a pressure switch actu-
ates and the standby compressor is automatically loaded. Instrument air is used for
PCVs, LCVs, fire loops, ESD loops, etc., and is the most important system in the
installation. Instrument air pressure may be reduced to the proper pressure setting as
per the system requirements before being sent to instrument air distribution depend-
ing on the pressure rating of the instrument air users.
Utility air is used for potable water system, utility generator, pedestal crane, hose
reels at different locations on the decks, and many others. The start-up air for the
firewater pumps is also supplied by the utility air header. A dedicated compressor
is also provided for this purpose. These are “V”-type reciprocating compressor, one
running and one standby. In low-pressure conditions, the standby compressor auto-
matically begins operation. The system comprises air compressor, instrument air
receiver, utility air receiver, pre-filters, dryers, and after-filters. Atmospheric air is
filtered before and after it is compressed. The compressed air is stored in the util-
ity air receiver. Normally, there are two dryers with one always in operation, which
automatically changes after a certain number of hours. A unit not in operation is
dried using electric heaters.
Utilities and Support System 133

5.4 HOT OIL SYSTEM [5]

Hot oil is an organic liquid with a very high boiling temperature and is used as an
indirect heating media. In general, the following units in the processing platform
need to be heated. Normally, oil is heated to the required temperature by utilizing
waste heat recovered from gas turbines. Sometimes, an electrical heater or combina-
tion is also used, according to the requirement.

5.4.1 Crude Oil Heater

The crude oil from the separators should be heated to aid in the demulsification
process. The thermal energy of the hot oil is consumed in heating the Crude. The
temperature is approximately 60°C.

5.4.2 Chemical Tank
Pour point depressants sometimes gets congealed if a temperature of approximately
50°C is not maintained. Heat consumption is comparatively less in this case.

5.4.3 Glycol Reboiler
Rich glycol needs to be stripped of water before being recirculated. Rich Glycol is
passed through stripping column in presence of stripping gas after getting heated in
reboiler. This results in removal of water from Rich Glycol. The regenerated lean
glycol is stored in tank below reboiler. This is a major consumer of hot oil. The high-
temperature header ensures heating of the glycol reboilers. The reboiler temperature
is maintained at approximately 204°C.

5.4.4 Skimmer Vessel
The crude oil from the closed drain header and sump caisson is sent to the skim-
mer vessel. There is a high possibility that this crude oil can congeal or become
semisolid. In such a scenario, removing liquid from the skimmer will be difficult;
therefore, the temperature is maintained around 50°C using hot oil.

5.5 POTABLE WATER SYSTEM [5,8]

The potable water system comprises potable water storage and transfer, potable
water purification and distribution to consumers, topsides and hull utilities, topsides
eyewash and safety showers, and hot and cold water for personnel usage. The potable
water storage and transfer system is designed for filling of freshwater tanks, from
bunker stations, and, from freshwater generators. It includes water makers, filters,
pressurized vessels, and storage tanks. Normally, reverse osmosis (RO)-type water
makers are used for generating potable water, consisting of the following:

• Sand filters
• Cartridge filters
134 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Chemical feed
• High-pressure pump
• Permeator

The RO unit separates suspended and dissolved solids from raw sea water to make
it potable. RO is a membrane process that removes 95%–99% of all dissolved min-
erals, 95%–97% of dissolved organic material, and 98% of biological and colloidal
matter. The flow is reversed by applying pressure to sea water (feed side), which
is more than the osmotic pressure. Consequently, only pure water flows through
the membrane. The sand filter or diatomaceous earth (DE) filter is used to remove
suspended solids. The cartridge filter is an additional protective measure to ensure
filtration of particles passing through the DE filter. The high-pressure pumps are
used to increase pressure of the sea water in the permeater. The RO module or
permeater is a high-pressure fiber glass vessel housing the polymeric material that
acts as the membrane. Prior to filtration, the feedwater is dosed with chemicals
like H 2SO 4 or pH adjusters and coagulants for agglomerating the suspended matter.
Thereafter, the solids are filtered out in the DE filter and are further polished using
the cartridge filter.
The potable water thus produced is chlorinated before storing in the potable water
storage tanks. As the membranes are highly susceptible to chlorine and the raw
sea water contains chlorine, NaHSO3 is also injected to remove free chlorine from
the sea water. In addition, anti-scalant is also dosed to prevent the deposition of
CaCO3 and Mg2 CO3 on the membrane. The produced water should contain less than
500 ppm of total dissolved solids.

5.6 WATER COOLING SYSTEM [5,8]

The seawater service system provides sea water to the central freshwater coolers,
hot oil pumps, glycol booster pumps, glycol recirculation pumps, freshwater makers,
inert gas generators, deck water, firewater pumps, hypochlorite generators, sewage
treatment systems, and hydraulic power unit (HPU) coolers. Sea water is used to cool
the condenser for the refrigeration unit, which in turn cools the closed freshwater
cooling circuit.
The cooling water tank is an atmospheric vessel fitted with float-type-level con-
trol valve to maintain the water level in the tank. The cooler is of finned type and is
cooled by a fan driven by electric motor.

5.6.1 Freshwater Cooling System

The central freshwater cooling system is a closed loop circulating system. The sys-
tem uses a refrigeration system with sea water and the evaporator cools the fresh
water, thus providing fresh water at a temperature lower than cooling temperature
of the condenser at the seawater temperature. Central cooling freshwater system is
predominantly used by heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
Diesel-driven emergency generators and instrument air compressors normally have
their own fan cooling water to air exchanger since they must run in emergencies.
Utilities and Support System 135

Diesel-driven main fire pumps usually use a slipstream of firewater for all cool-
ing operations. Large kilowatt HPUs may have freshwater cooling systems that
cool against the seawater system. Fresh water is used to limit contamination of the
hydraulic fluid as well as damage to hydraulic parts in case of a leak from the cooling
system to the hydraulic fluid.

5.7 UTILITY WATER SYSTEM [5,9]

Utility water system consists of a seawater lift pump to lift sea water and filtration
unit to filter sea water used for the following:

• Water injection
• Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
• Living quarters ablutions
• Drilling facilities
• Freshwater generator
• Fire water ring main pressurization facility
• Biofouling control unit
• Sewage treatment system
• Sand jetting system
• Coarse filter backwash
• Cooling for the cooling medium system

Washdown facilities
After lifting and filtration, anti-fouling treatment, as listed above, is given to sea
water before use.

5.8 DRAIN HEADER AND SUMP CAISSON [5]

There are basically two types of drains:

• Deck drain/Open drain

• Closed drain for hazardous waste

Deck drain/Open drain

Deck drains are used for dumped dirty water and other spillages from the desk
into the sump caisson. Deck drains are open drains connected through the header.

Closed Drain for hazardous waste (These drain may be designed as per pressure
requirement as explained below).
The closed drain header is a low-pressure header, and liquid from these drains
is directed to low-pressure/high-pressure closed drain drums. Liberated gas
from drums is sent to flare and liquid is sent back to low-pressure separator for
retreatment.
Liquid from high-pressure vessels such as gas compressor, dehydration system,
and KOD is drained to surge tank through a high-pressure drain known as a con-
densate drain.
136 Offshore Operations and Engineering

The sump is an atmospheric tank designed as a gravity differential oil–water

separator to treat oily water. It is an open casing about 50 m long and welded to the
tubulars of the structure which have baffles. The oil droplets settle on the top and
form a layer, which can be removed by vertical electrical submersible centrifugal
pumps or can be lifted using gas.

5.9 HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR

CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT [5]
Different control rooms on the platform have advanced and latest instrumentation
and control systems. These components/equipment require conditioned air at con-
trolled temperature with humidity control for efficient running of the system. At the
same time, it should be comfortable for people working and living there. HVAC is
provided on all offshore installations to cater to the abovementioned requirement.
Normally, water-cooled heat exchangers are used.

5.10 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM [5,10]

There are a number of offshore communications technologies, and some of them are
discussed below.

5.10.1 Satellite
A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is used in offshore facilities for uninterrupted
communication between offshore and onshore via satellite. An onshore terminal is
known as a hub. This can be used on both fixed and floating installations. VSAT has
limitations with respect to bandwidth. Figure 5.5 displays a satellite installation on
an offshore facility.

FIGURE 5.5 Satellite installation on an offshore facility [11].

Utilities and Support System 137

5.10.2 Microwave Telecommunication
Wavelengths between 1 m and 1 mm are used in microwave telecommunication for
data transmission between offshore and onshore. Distance is a constraint in micro-
wave data transmission.

5.10.3 Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are used for transmitting control signals as data between different sub-
sea components, including subsea tree, manifolds, and jumper, as well as to control
offshore and/or onshore installations. Optical fibers can support many propagating
paths, thereby carrying multiple data in a single fiber. This technology has been a big
support in deep sea development (Figure 5.6).

5.10.4 Cellular Services
Cellular services can be accessible at some offshore locations. Specifically, the Gulf
of Mexico has cellular towers installed offshore that allow cellular communications
from rigs and platforms near the coast to onshore locations, allowing offshore work-
ers to communicate through their own private cell phones.

5.11 DIESEL SYSTEM [6]

Diesel system is designed to receive diesel on platform/Installation from Supply boat
for providing fuel for the back-up power generation system.
Diesel bunkering or transfer from supply boat is a continuously manned opera-
tion, and bunkering is done with flexible hose equipped with breakaway coupling
in the event of a line break due to any reason or exigencies on installation. Diesel
system consists of the following:

1. Filtration system to remove impurities such as water, associated salts, and

particulates to meet different user requirements.
2. Pumping system to receive and send diesel to and from different user stations.

It also provides fuel for the following systems:

• Cranes
• Life boats
• Fire water pump

FIGURE 5.6 Umbilical containing fiber communications cables [12].

138 Offshore Operations and Engineering

5.12 SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM [5,8]

There are two types of sewage system in offshore platforms – black water system and
grey water system.
The grey water system is drainage water from showers, wash basins, and sinks in
living quarters as well as from galleys and laundries. Grey water from hospital areas
is connected to the black water system with the sewage treatment units.
The black water system collects sewage from toilets in the living quarters by a
vacuum system and sends it to sewage treatment units. Showers, wash basins, and
toilets in the hospital area are connected to separate headers routed to the main
header at the vacuum unit. For units in most locations, the sewage treatment package
must be approved or certified by the government controlling the water where the unit
is located.

5.13 MATERIAL HANDLING [5]

The following equipment are normally available on platforms for moving material
and equipment as well as assisting in maintenance:

• Pedestal crane
• Electric monorail hoists
• Manual hoists
• Manual trolley hoists
• The cranes transfer personnel equipment and supplies between barges or
supply boats and platforms

Figure 5.7 Crane facility utilized for offshore operations.

FIGURE 5.7 Crane [13].

Utilities and Support System 139

5.14 OFFSHORE LOGISTICS
5.14.1 Air Logistics
Transportation of crew members and amenities is very difficult in offshore installations.
A helicopter is used to transfer manpower to offshore installations. Helipad of ade-
quate size and approved type is normally provided on offshore facilities/­installations to
receive helicopters in favorable weather conditions. Normally twin engine helicopter is
used for offshore operations. Such helicopters are normally fitted with flotation mecha-
nisms to avoid immediate submergence in water in case of a crash at sea [1] (Figure 5.8).

5.14.2 Sea Logistics [15]

Offshore vessels are ships that specifically serve operational purposes such as oil
exploration, production, construction, and support services at high seas. These ves-
sels or ships provide logistical support to offshore operations and various facilities
from construction to supply and maintenance of subsea assets. Some of the services
are presented as illustrations.
Below is a brief discussion of the type of vessels and the services provided by
them.

1. Offshore Support Vessel or Platform supply vessel (OSV/PSV: To provide

logistical support for material, personnel, and other resources and supplies
to offshore facilities. To provide services related to search and rescue dur-
ing exigency.

FIGURE 5.8 Helicopter used in offshore rigs [14].

140 Offshore Operations and Engineering

2. ESVs (emergency support vessels)/Emergency response rescue vessel: To

provide immediate support during any exigency, for example, man over-
board or emergency evacuation.
3. Anchor handling tug vessel (AHTV): To handle anchors and moors.
4. Tug vessel: To provide support during shuttle tanker offloading, rig move-
ment (also performed by AHTV), etc.
5. Multisupport vessel (MSV): This is basically a PSV. These vessels are
equipped with crane, diving, and/or remotely operated vehicles (ROVs).
Diving and ROVs are used for inspection, maintenance, and repair/­
replacement of items at subsea.
6. Well intervention vessel: These are specially designed vessels with mast for
hoisting and lowering of tubings and other well items for well maintenance
or repair.
7. Accommodation ships/Accommodations barges: To provide temporary
accommodation in offshore facilities. Sometimes PSV/OSV is also used for
the same purpose.
8. Pipe laying vessel/Barge: These are specially designed vessels for laying
pipeline at subsea.
9. Construction vessel/Heavy lift vessel: These are specially designed vessels
for construction works, including jackets, topside installation, and subsea
installations.
10. Seismic vessel: To map geological structures.

Note: Most of these vessels have dynamic positioning systems for station keeping
(Figures 5.9–5.12). Normally Dynamic Positioning with Level 2 ie DP-2 vessels are
preferred due to their better station keeping facilities.

FIGURE 5.9 Platform supply vessel [16].

Utilities and Support System 141

FIGURE 5.10 Supply vessel [15].

142 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 5.11 Rescue vessel [17].

FIGURE 5.12 Pipe laying vessel [18].

REFERENCES
1. living-on-an-offshore-oil-rig. Available at www.nesgt.com/blog/2016/08/living-on-an-
offshore-oil-rig. Accessed March 2018]
2. Living room. Available at www.pinterest.com/pin/362539838733921452.
3. Laundry Equipment, Dan Marine Galley Equipment.
4. Food in Offshore. Available at www.tanzaniapetroleum.com
5. ONGC, in Graduates’s Guide to Offshore Operations, 2005.
6. Diesel generator. Available at www.eneria.fr/en/references/moho-nord-fpu-emergency-
diesel-generator-package-2/
Utilities and Support System 143

7. Two SGT-A30 RB gas turbines (formerly Industrial RB211) by Dresser-Rand, a busi-

ness of Siemens Power and Gas which is supplied to the Penglai oil field platform in
China.
8. H. Zhang, “An overview of marine & utility system for offshore platforms”.
9. Azeri, Chirag & Gunashli Full Field Development Phase 3 - Environmental &
­Socio-economic Impact Assessment.
10. “How do offshore communications work?” Available at www.rigzone.com
11. Satellite Installation on an Offshore Facility. Available at www.slb.com
12. JDR cable system. Available at www.jdrcables.com/
13. Crane. Available at www.haitaicrane.com
14. Helicopter used in offshore rigs. Available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLPq4f​
NrSkI.
15. Supply vessel. Available at https://products.damen.com/en/ranges/platform-supply-vessel/
psv-3300-cd.
16. Platform supply vessel. Available at https://freerangestock.com/photos/56014/offshore-
supply-vessel.html
17. Rescue vessel. Available at www.errva.org.uk/
18. Pipe laying vessel. Available at www.knudehansen.com/references/offshore-offshore-
wind-vessels/technip-pipe-lay-vessel/
 6 Deep Sea Development

Oil exploration and development in deep waters has been gaining importance
­worldwide in the past few years. Deepwater exploration has resulted in considerable
success, which has further encouraged companies to venture in this high-cost, high-
risk field development with new and cost-effective technologies. We saw in Chapter 1
that the industry classifies offshore oil and gas operations according to water depth
because challenges increase with increasing depth. However, technological develop-
ment has been overcoming such challenges significantly. By and large, depth ranging
from 300 m to 1,500 m are considered deep water, whereas depth beyond 1,500 m are
considered ultradeep in the current scenario.

6.1 FACTORS DRIVING DEEP SEA DEVELOPMENT

• Future oil demand will remain strong
• Deep water has become an important prospect for big reserves
• Innovative technologies will allow economical development and reduced
risks levels
• Government help in form of favorable fiscal policies
• Deepwater triangle (West Africa, Latin America, North America) likely to
dominate production volume over the next decade

6.2 DEEP SEA DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS

Deep sea installations/platforms are mostly floating-type structures as it is not
­economical to construct and install a fixed platform at greater water depth with the
available resources. Although it may be possible to locate a limited number of wells
on the platform, if the number is large, subsea well remains the only option. In deep
sea, mostly subsea wells are drilled and tied back to suitable installation, either in
deep sea or to a shallow water platform or onshore. This depends on technoeconomical
analysis (Figures 6.1 and 6.2).
While the selection of floating platform based on different parameters has been
discussed in Chapter 2, it is important to understand the following few key param-
eters, which influence the production system design in deep water (Figure 6.3).

6.2.1 Recoverable Reserves [2]

In assessing the worth of a newly discovered deepwater field, its recoverable reserve
plays a major role and is often used as an initial indicator of the field’s economical
feasibility.

145
146 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.1 Deepwater production facilities. (Source: Wood Group Mustang [1].)

FIGURE 6.2 Subsea wells in deep water tied to fixed platform in shallow water [1].
Deep Sea Development 147

FIGURE 6.3 Recoverable reserve versus development cost [2].

6.2.2 Water Depth
Subsea oil field developments are usually divided into three categories to distin-
guish between the different facilities and approaches needed according to the water
depth [3]:

• Shallow water subsea field development for water depth <300 m.

• Deepwater subsea field development for water depth ranging between 300
and 1,500 m.
• Ultra-deepwater subsea field development where the water depths are
>1,500 m [4].

6.2.3 Challenges in Subsea due to Water Depth

Water depth governs the kind of mooring system, installation, and production risers.
With the increase in water depth, there will be an increase in the difficulty of opera-
tions due to the following factors:

• Winds
• Waves
• Currents
• Pressure of water column and buoyancy
• Ice loadings

6.2.4 Production Rate
Production estimates over a field’s life are also critical as rapid fall-off of rates (with
low resultant ultimate reservoir recovery) can render a prospect uneconomical, even
with high initial rates.
148 Offshore Operations and Engineering

6.2.5 Reservoir Structure
A highly fractured reservoir will require more drainage points than a homogeneous
reservoir. Low permeability coupled with low radial permeability will result in lower
well flow rates requiring more wells in the field. High vertical permeability may
induce water coning effect or gas breakout early in the field’s life. The well system
depends on the structure of the reservoir.

6.2.6 Reservoir Production Characteristics

The main production characteristics that affect system selection include:

• Flowing well temperature

• Flowing well pressure
• GOR – gas oil ratio of produced fluid from Well measured at surface
• Productivity index (PI)
• Fluid properties
• Production functions (life of field gas, oil, water production rates)

Reservoir pressure, for example, has a direct impact on well production capacity, as
well as on the practical offset distance of a subsea tieback system.
Flowing well temperature and pressure along with subsea e­ nvironmental
­condition will affect the formation of hydrates and/or wax deposition, inviting ­several
other flow assurance problems.
Well production rates can change dramatically throughout the production life of
a reservoir. This leads to difficult tradeoffs between larger flow diameters to decrease
initial rate pressure drops and smaller flow diameters to improve low-rate flow per-
formance (liquid holdup, flow stability) and fluid heat retention in late field life.

6.2.7 Environmental and Geological Conditions

Environmental parameters to be considered include:

• Weather conditions impact the selection of the type of offshore ­installation

or the decision of tying back directly to onshore. It also affects mooring
­system designs. For instance, weather can affect the selection of turret
mooring versus spread mooring for an FPSO. Moreover, a tradeoff may
have to be made whether the FPSO should be permanently moored, or a
detachable or dynamically positioned system would reduce capital cost
enough to offset the increased downtime associated with the periodic
­mooring disconnects.
• Soil conditions affect the mooring and foundation design of the various
surface facilities. Poor soil conditions affect the cost and feasibility of
the TLP’s tendon foundations. It also affects the stability of the produc-
tion system used. For example, the extremely hard clay soil of the North
Sea bottom provides fine support for gravity-based structures. In contrast,
Deep Sea Development 149

the under-consolidated, soupy clay soil in the Gulf of Mexico would have
­platforms slipping and sliding around if they were not nailed down with
deep-driven piles.
• Loop currents and other extreme current events lead to high loads surface-
piercing structures such as a SPAR. The size and cost of mooring a SPAR
in these conditions may offset other benefits of SPARs.

6.2.8 Existing Infrastructure
Existing infrastructure in close proximity is always a major positive contributor in
developing a complete exploration and exploitation scheme.
Key parameters influencing floating production system are summarized in
Table 6.1.
FPSO in combination with shuttle tanker for oil export plays a dominant role in
deepwater development. Relative distribution (by platform type), and their d­ istribution
is shown in Figure 6.4.
Distribution of these facilities in deepwater worldwide is shown in Figure 6.5.

6.3 SUBSEA FIELD DEVELOPMENT

The subsea field development prospects are characterized by large investments,
tight time schedules, and the use of technology in unproven/difficult conditions. The
main objective of subsea field development is to effectively maximize economical
profit from offshore environment using the most reliable, safe, and cost-effective
­solutions available at the time of development. It is becoming commonplace in
the sector of deep and ultradeep waters. Selecting the right development systems

TABLE 6.1
Floating Production System
Process Processing Mooring Fliser Well Manifolding Subsea Export
Key Parameter Platform Equipment System System Locations Arrangement Rowlines System
Water Depth × × × × × ×
Reserves ×
Field Production × × × × × ×
Field Life × × × × × ×
Number of wells × × × × ×
Fluid Properties × × × × × ×
Reservoir Area × × ×
Reservoir Depth ×
Reservoir Pressure × × × ×
Environment × × × × ×
Infrastructure × ×
150 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.4 Relative distribution of production facilities by platform type. (Source: Wood
Group Mustang [1].)

FIGURE 6.5 Deepwater production facilities worldwide – 2014. (Source: Wood Group
Mustang [1].)

involves assessing the physical circumstances – water depth, reservoir configuration

and location, access to oil and gas transportation – as well as the constraints placed
by the local government and the institutional preferences of the investing operator.
Major issues required to be considered for subsea field development are discussed
as below.
Deep Sea Development 151

FIGURE 6.6 View of offshore structures present in subsea [1].

6.3.1 Subsea Well Completion

Subsea wells are located at the bottom of seabed and are not easily accessible. These
wells are designed in a way to minimize reproach for intervention, either with the
help of a diver or an remotely operated vehicle (ROV)-assisted system and methods
in deep and ultradeep situations (Figure 6.6).
We need subsea wells for the following reasons:

• Produce deepwater or marginal fields

• Extend the life of a platform
• To produce marginal fields to existing platforms
• Producing field extremities that can’t be reached by directional drilling
from an existing platform

6.3.2 Subsea Christmas Tree

Subsea Christmas tree is of both dry and wet types based on its contact with seawater
and is designed to be operated and monitored remotely.

6.3.2.1 Dry Tree Systems

Dry Christmas tree is installed at the production deck, and consists of individual
wells from the target reservoir connected directly from the wellhead on the seafloor
to the topside facility via individual flowline risers, with the Christmas tree physi-
cally located on the topside facility/platform. Dry tree systems are typically used in
water depths ranging from 500 ft to 5,600 ft (shallow to deepwater) and are suitable
for drilling locations such as platforms (TLP, SPAR) that can reach the locations of
all the wells. Deepest dry tree facility: Devil’s tower, SPAR in 1,710 m (5,610 ft) WD,
GoM 2004 (Figures 6.7 and 6.8).
152 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.7 Schematic of dry tree system.

FIGURE 6.8 Side view of dry tree system [4].

Deep Sea Development 153

6.3.2.2 Wet Tree Systems

Wet tree systems are the most commonly used subsea Christmas tree currently because
the tree is completely submerged in seawater and directly contacts seawater. Wet
trees are typically used in conjunction with FPSOs, which represent approximately
70%–80% of global floating facilities. Wet trees can be located anywhere in a field in
terms of cluster, template, or tieback methods. In deepwater fields, the wet tree system
normally utilizes a remotely controlled subsea tree installation tool for well comple-
tions, which is installed with the help of Remotely Operated vehicle (ROV), however,
for shallow water the diver can assist with installation and operation [4].

• Wet tree systems are segregated from production operations; the operator
can predrill and complete wells faster.
• Suitable for widespread reservoir structures.
• Relatively simple, and because of the anti-corrosion performance of metal
materials and the technology of remote control from the surface to subsea,
they have been continuously developed in recent years.
• More than 70% of the wells in deepwater developments worldwide use wet
tree systems.
• Requires fewer risers compared to dry tree systems because subsea flow-
lines are grouped together and routed into a limited number of risers.

For a wet tree system, the subsea field layout is usually of the following two types:

• Subsea wells clusters: A subsea cluster of wells gathers the production

from the nearby subsea wells or from remote subsea tieback which connects
to an existing platform or infrastructure through FPSO or FPU in the most
efficient and cost-effective manner.
• Direct access wells: In marginal field development, direct access wells are
applied. Direct access provides cost-effective access to the wells from the
surface for workover or drilling. These developments are based on semi-
submersible floating production and drilling units (FPDUs) with oil export
either via pipeline or to a nearby floating storage and offloading (FSO) unit.
• For both subsea well clusters and subsea direct-access wells, the three main
riser options are vertical top-tensioned risers, steel catenary risers, and flex-
ible risers [4] (Figure 6.9).

6.3.3 Subsea Tieback Development

Tieback refer to the connection of producing wells to floating vessel or platform
through risers system or directly to onshore through pipeline system. This is done
after drilling small or marginal fields, after which all the subsea equipment on the
seabed are installed [5].

6.3.3.1 Challenges
The main technical challenge in subsea tieback development is the design of a robust
production system to economically transport the production fluids from the subsea
154 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.9 Typical well tree system [4].

wells to topside facilities and further to on land for processing. It requires mitigating
or minimizing all flow assurance and operational risks. As subsea developments are
mostly in deepwater or ultra-deepwater regions, the more challenging factors faced
by operators are the locations of tieback facility, cost, and its feasibility.
The limitations in long subsea tieback system involves the limitation of flow
assurance due to hydrate formation-induced plugging of the flowline as a result of
a decrease in temperature along the flowline and loss of heat to the environment.
Because of flow assurance problems the tieback distance becomes a limiting factor
due to multiphase hydrocarbon flow in the pipeline (Figure 6.10).

FIGURE 6.10 Subsea tieback system (tieback to Spar).

Deep Sea Development 155

FIGURE 6.11 (a) Tieback to floating facility, (b) Tieback to TLP, (c) Tieback to onshore
facility.

The subsea development with tiebacks can be categorized as follows:

a. Tieback to floating production unit

b. Tieback to fixed platform
c. Tieback to onshore facility (Figure 6.11)

6.3.3.2 Stand-Alone Development
In stand-alone field development, a new host platform or infrastructure is constructed
for the development of the subsea fields. The utilization of existing infrastructures is
also considered in such a field development to minimize cost. For a stand-alone field
development, the following issues are taken into consideration.

6.3.3.3 Well Groupings
When the reservoir is mapped and the number of wells is determined from the
­reservoir model created, the types of wells and their grouping scenario and loca-
tions are determined. Subsea wells may be installed individually, in clusters, or in a
template. Wells are connected to host facility either on onshore or offshore through
a manifold for transporting produced fluid. Typically, wells are grouped as satellite
well system, template, clustered well system, and daisy chain.
Production field and site optimization including number and type of wells is done
after reservoir mapping and modeling. Field specifications and requirement along
with operator’s approach play a significant role in the selection and configuration of
subsea and associated surface equipment.

6.3.3.4 Satellite Well System

Subsea oil and gas fields are expanded throughout their lifecycle by single satellite
tieback, while in other cases with significant new developments. A satellite well is
an individual subsea well. The initial field development often includes, to a varying
156 Offshore Operations and Engineering

degree, preparation and design for some expansion. Some reasons for introducing
satellite tiebacks are:

• Initially catered for to increase or maintain production rates at a certain

point in time. Typically, to utilize available processing capacity after pro-
duction is off plateau or to access anticipated hydrocarbon accumulations in
the vicinity of the main development.
• Unplanned satellite tiebacks may be the result of lower well productivity than
expected or potentially due to unforeseen reservoir compartmentalization.
• Area maturity. Typically, the smaller hydrocarbon pockets will be devel-
oped last in an area, thus in some cases, resulting in a timeframe challenge
with respect to the existing infrastructure (Figures 6.12 and 6.13).

6.3.3.5 Template Well System

A subsea template is a large steel structure used as a base for various subsea struc-
tures such as wells and subsea trees and manifolds. Multiple wells can be drilled
from one template. Both horizontal and deviated wells can be drilled from such a
template. Normally, this formation is used to cover a large area of reservoir from one
location by combining horizontal and deviated wells. This system results in saving in

FIGURE 6.12 Satellite well system [6].

Deep Sea Development 157

FIGURE 6.13 Satellite tieback system.

terms of umbilical and pipeline spread. Total economics depends on the combination
of well cost and other infrastructure cost like umbilical, pipeline, etc. Well spacing
depends on template design.

6.3.3.6 Clustered Well System

Clustered wells are generally drilled through single well templates. Individual
wells are placed in a cluster formation in a close area, and, in turn, all these wells
are connected to a common control station and manifold for product evacuation.
Well placing is done to avoid damage caused by dropped objects to the extent pos-
sible. Umbilical and pipeline requirement in this system is governed by field layout,
­however, it is less than widely spaced single satellite well system (Figure 6.14).

6.3.3.7 Production Well Templates

Production well template works as the structural framework supporting manifold for
fluids produced from the reservoir that flow to the wellhead and the manifold. Producing
wells located in single seabed location are grouped by production well templates.
The advantages of the production well template over clustered satellite wells
include:

• Prefabricated and tested jumpers and piping deployment in offshore reduces

Installation time and expense.
• Provides precise locating of wells, manifold piping, and valves.

6.3.3.8 Daisy Chain
In a daisy chain configuration, wells located in different seabed locations are
­connected in series one after the other by flowlines. Subsea jumpers may be used to
connect the flowlines to the wells, or, if applicable, the flowlines may be directly con-
nected to the flow base of the wells. In case there are several satellite wells such as
158 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.14 Clustered well system [3].

that from different marginal fields, the daisy chain field layout is considered a more
economic and reliable solution compared to the cluster manifold layout. Typical
­features of daisy chain field architecture include:

• It may be necessary to install subsea chokes manifold on each well/

Christmas tree.
• Flow assurance analysis is key to formulate the production envelop for the
daisy chain flowlines, making flow assurance analysis important.
• To ensure accurate flow allocation among different wells, subsea multi-
phase flow meters may be required.
• Round-trip pigging is possible to minimize flow assurance by timely
removal of wax build-up in the flowline [3] (Figure 6.15).

6.3.3.9 Subsea Monitoring, Control, and Communication System

Subsea monitoring, control, and communication system is the nerve center of oil and
gas production from subsea developments. System architecture is complex due to the
involvement of several variables and measurable parameters. A number of systems/
subsystems and equipment/components is used in subsea control and communica-
tion system. Umbilical consisting of hydraulic hose, optical fiber, and electrical cable
carries all the signals for control from different locations. The main control station is
normally located on the topside facility and/or onshore terminal as per convenience.
Subsea control and communication system is designed to meet operation, safety,
environment, reliability, and flow assurance requirements.
Installation of the complete system requires careful planning and execution.
Long-term maintainability and reliability may be a problem in some cases.
Deep Sea Development 159

FIGURE 6.15 Manifold daisy chain layout for Bonga field development in Gulf of Guinea.

Valves, chokes, and accessories of subsea trees, manifolds, and pipelines are
operated by this system. In addition, this system monitors production status by moni-
toring pressure, flow rate, temperature, and sand. Proper positioning of the control
system results in better economics by reducing piping, cabling, and connections
requirements (Figure 6.16).
Typical elements used in the system are divided into the following:

• Topside: Master/Main control station (MCS) consisting of electrical and

hydraulic power unit with topside umbilical termination assembly, etc.; and
• Subsea: Umbilical along with complete subsea distribution system connecting
to subsea tree/manifold as ultimate control point.

6.3.4 Main Topside Elements

Main Top side elements used in a subsea field development is described in below
sections.

6.3.4.1 MCS
MCS is the heart of complete operations starting from topside to subsea for all
­monitoring, control, and communication between different elements. Human–
Machine Interface (HMI) comprising desktop/laptop computer systems with a
160 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.16 Subsea control system topside and subsea equipment.

suitable operating system is used for interfacing of MCS with the operator. All the
subsea components and subsystems are controlled through programmable communi-
cation/data signaling system. Supervisory control network is used for all the control,
monitoring, and data transmission and acquisition-related jobs. Its function includes
meeting the exigencies in line with predefined parameters.

6.3.4.2 Electrical Power Unit (EPU)

Any electrohydraulic multiplexed subsea control system requires a topside unit to
­control and provide the necessary power to the subsea equipment. The EPU sup-
plies dual, isolated, single-phase power for the subsea system through the compos-
ite service umbilical, together with power supply modules for the MCS and HPU
(Figure 6.17).
The EPU supplies electrical power at the desired voltage and frequency to subsea
users. Power transmission is performed via the electrical umbilical and the subsea
electrical distribution system [6].

6.3.4.3 HPU
The HPU provides a stable and clean supply of hydraulic fluid to the remotely
­operated subsea valves. The fluid is supplied via the umbilical to the subsea hydrau-
lic distribution system, and to the subsea control module (SCM) to operate subsea
valve actuators [7] (Figure 6.18).

6.3.5 Topside Umbilical Termination Assembly (TUTA)

It provides the interface between the topside control equipment and the main
­umbilical system. This fully incorporates electrical junction boxes for the electrical
power and communication cables, as well as tube work, gauges and block and bleed
valves for the appropriate hydraulic and chemical supplies [4] (Figure 6.19).
Deep Sea Development 161

FIGURE 6.17 Electrical power unit (EPU).

FIGURE 6.18 Hydraulic power unit (HPU). (Source: Oceaneering [8].)

162 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.19 Topside umbilical termination assembly (TUTA) [7].

TUTA is typically located at the umbilical J-tube on the host. It includes an

e­ lectrical enclosure in a lockable stainless-steel cabinet. The valves in the TUTA
comply with requirements for valves in flammable services. It is designed for hang-
off and includes a bull-nose suitable for pulling the umbilical up.

6.4 SUBSEA ELEMENTS [9]

• Functions of subsea distribution system (SDS):
1. Hydraulic power distribution
2. Chemical injection distribution
3. Electrical power distribution
4. Communication distribution
• Components of SDS: [9]
• Subsea accumulator module (SAM)
• Subsea umbilical termination assembly (SUTA): It mainly consists of
inboard multiple quick connect plates, mounting steel structures, a lift-
ing device, mud mat, logic cap, long-term cover, field assembled cable
termination, and electrical connectors.
1. Umbilical termination head (UTH)
2. Hydraulic distribution module (HDM)
Deep Sea Development 163

3. Electrical distribution module (EDM)

4. Flying leads
• Subsea distribution assembly (SDA): It mainly consists of HDM and
EDM. The HDM consists of inboard multiple quick connect (MQC)
plates, mounting steel structures, lifting padeyes, a mudmat, logic
cap, and long-term cover. The EDM consists of bulkhead electrical
connectors and cables and, in some cases, an electrical transformer
module.
• Hydraulic flying leads (HFL): It mainly consists of two outboard MQC
plates with holding structures and steel tubes. Electrical flying leads
(EFLs) mainly consist of two electrical connectors and a number of
cables [9].
• EFL
• MQC
• Hydraulic coupler
• Electrical connector
• Logic caps

1. Mudmat: Defined as the structure whose function is as a load-bearing

beam to prevent offshore construction from sinking into soft unconsoli-
dated soil on the seabed.
2. Padeyes: This is a device usually with round opening projection with a
plate. This is used for holding a load on deck of boat in steady condition or
for lifting of items by engaging hooks. It is a kind of fairlead and often is
bolted or welded to the deck or a boat’s hull. It is also used in oil and gas
projects to assist in lifting (Figure 6.20).

SCM: Subsea control manifold

FUTURE: Spare receptors to be used in the future

6.4.1 SDS Components
6.4.1.1 Umbilical
It is composed of tubing, piping, and electrical conductors, as shown in Figure 6.21.
It runs from the host facility to subsea production equipment, and is used to
­transmit control fluids and electricity to subsea safety and production equipment.
Subsea control and monitoring work in this manner.
Dedicated tubes are used to monitor pressure and inject fluids from the host ­facility
to critical areas (subsea production and safety system) [11]. Electronic ­conductors are
used to transmit power to operate subsea electronic devices.

6.4.1.2 Subsea Umbilical Termination Assembly (SUTA) [6]

It works as the subsea interface for the umbilical and may serve as the distribution
center for the hydraulic and chemical services at the seabed. It is connected to subsea
trees via HFL.
164 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.20 Subsea distribution system: block diagram (Source: www.o­ilandgastechnologies.

wordpress.com.)

SUTA is typically composed of umbilical termination head (UTH), flying leads

connect UTH and HDM, mudmat, and MQC plates; and is installed with or without
drilling rig assistance [4].
The umbilical is permanently terminated in the UTH. EFLs are used to connect
electrical power/communication from the UTA to the manifold and tree-mounted
SCM. The UTH, HDM, and EDMs are each independently retrievable from the
UTA’s mudmat. Each of the electrical quads (umbilical cables with four conductors)
is terminated in electrical connectors at the UTH.
The EFL interconnects between these UTH connectors and the EDM connectors,
routing power and communication from the UTH to the EDM. Subsea electrical
distribution is done from the EDM to the subsea trees and production manifolds [4].
Deep Sea Development 165

FIGURE 6.21 Subsea steel umbilical [10].

6.4.1.3 Umbilical Termination Head (UTH)

It consists of a structural frame, hinging stab, MQC plates, super-duplex tubing,
and bulkhead-type ROV electrical connectors. Distribution to production equip-
ment is done by routing the umbilical services to the MQC plates and electrical
connectors.
All tubing in the UTH and HDM is welded to the hydraulic couplers located
within the MQC plates. The number of welded connections between the couplers
and the tubing is kept at a minimum. The design allows for full opening through the
tubing and the welded area [4] (Figure 6.22).
At minimum, the UTH is designed to allow termination of a minimum of
nine umbilical steel tube lines and two electrical quads. The structural frame is
designed to securely attach to and support the umbilical and end termination, as
well as provide mounting locations for the MQC plates and bulkhead electrical
connectors.

6.4.1.4 Subsea Distribution Assembly

This distributes hydraulic supplies, electrical power supplies, signals, and injection
chemicals to the subsea facilities. The facilities can be a subsea template, a satellite
well cluster, or a distribution to satellite wells (Figure 6.23).

6.4.1.5 Hydraulic Distribution Manifold/Module (HDM)

It distributes hydraulic fluid (LP and HP) and chemicals to each of the subsea
trees, ­production manifolds, and future expansions. It consists of multiple inboard
MQC plates on a frame mounted on an umbilical termination assembly mudmat
(Figure 6.24).
166 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.22 Umbilical termination head [4].

FIGURE 6.23 Subsea distribution assembly [8].

Deep Sea Development 167

FIGURE 6.24 Hydraulic distribution unit (EDM and HDM) [12].

FIGURE 6.25 Multiple quick connects [13].

6.4.1.6 Electrical Distribution Manifold/Module

The number of electrical connectors in series is kept to a minimum. Redundant
­routing to the module connectors should follow different paths, if possible. The
cables should be installed into self-pressure compensated fluid-filled hoses, and the
fluid is of dielectric type.

6.4.1.7 Multiple Quick Connects

MQC plates are outfitted with an appropriate number of couplers to match the
­number of tubes in the HFLs. All couplers are energized, and the MQC is capable of
withstanding full coupler pressures (Figure 6.25).
168 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.26 HFL assembly [4].

FIGURE 6.27 Hydraulic couplers [14].

6.4.1.8 Hydraulic Flying Leads (HFL)

The HFL are used for supplying hydraulic and chemical fluid for different purposes
from, SUTA to tree, or, SDA to tree. HFLs are made up of three main components:
the tubing bundle, the steel bracket assembly heads, and the MQCs. The tubing
­bundle is terminated at both ends with MQC plates (Figure 6.26).

6.4.1.9 Hydraulic Couplers
Hydraulic couplers for deepwater applications need a spring strong enough to seal
against the external pressure head to prevent seawater from contaminating the hydrau-
lic fluid, and need to be designed such that only a low-pressure force is required for
makeup. A fully pressure-balanced coupling is preferable. It is important for hydrau-
lic couplers to have adequate flow paths to ensure that adequate hydraulic response
times are achievable [14] (Figure 6.27).
Deep Sea Development 169

FIGURE 6.28 Electrical flying lead assembly.

6.4.1.10 Electrical Flying Leads

The EFL connects the EDU to the SCM on the tree. The EFL assembly is composed
of a pair of electrical wires enclosed in a thermoplastic hose and fitted at both ends
with soldered electrical connectors (Figure 6.28).

6.4.1.11 Logic Caps
Hydraulic and chemical distribution equipment includes dedicated MQC plates,
known as logic caps, which provide the ability to redirect services by replacing
an outboard MQC plate with an ROV. Logic caps provide the flexibility to modify
­distribution of hydraulic or chemical services due to circuit failures or changes in
system requirements.

6.4.1.12 Subsea Accumulator Module

This is a subsea unit that stores hydraulic fluid such that adequate pressure is always
available to the subsea system even when other valves are being operated. SAM is
used to improve the hydraulic performance of the subsea control system in trees
and manifolds. Basically, this will improve hydraulic valve actuation response time
and system hydraulic recovery time, at minimum system supply pressures [15]
(Figure 6.29).

6.4.1.13 Subsea Control Module

The SCM is an independently retrievable unit commonly used to provide well ­control
functions during the production phase of subsea oil and gas production. Typical well
control functions and monitoring provided by the SCM include actuation of fail-safe
170 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.29 Subsea accumulator module [15].

FIGURE 6.30 Typical SCM. (Source: FMC.)

return production tree actuators and downhole safety valves; flow control choke
valves, shutoff valves, manifold diverter valves, shutoff valves, chemical injection
valves; actuation and monitoring of surface-controlled reservoir analysis and moni-
toring systems, sliding sleeve, choke valves; monitoring of downhole pressure, tem-
perature, and flow rates; etc. [4] (Figure 6.30).
Deep Sea Development 171

FIGURE 6.31 Subsea transducers/sensors located on a subsea tree.

6.4.1.14 Transducer/Sensor
Subsea sensors are at multiple locations on the trees, manifold, and flowlines.
Figure 6.31 shows the subsea transducers/sensors (pressure and temperature)
­locations on a subsea tree. Tree-mounted pressure sensors and temperature sensors
measure upstream and downstream of the chokes. Software and electronics in the
SCMs compile sensor data and system status information with unique addresses and
time-stamp validations to transmit to the topside MCS, as requested (Figure 6.31).

6.4.1.15 Subsea Production Control System

SPCS is necessarily designed in an integrated control system that works remotely
(Figure 6.32).
Functions of an SPCS include opening and closing subsea Christmas tree
­production; annulus; subsea production manifold flowline valves, pigging valves,
and crossover valves, operating SCSSVs, chemical injection valve; adjusting sub-
sea production chokes; and monitoring temperature, pressure, flow rate, and some
other data from tree-mounted, manifold-mounted, or downhole instrumentation
(Figure 6.33).

6.4.1.15.1 Electrical Power System and Communication

The following main parameters need to be determined by a system power demand
analysis:

• Voltage at subsea electronic module (SEM) for maximum and minimum

SEM power loads;
• Voltages at each SEM at maximum and minimum numbers of SCMs on the
subsea electrical distribution line;
172 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.32 Subsea production control system topsides. (Source: Vetco Gray.)

FIGURE 6.33 Subsea production control system subsea. (Source: Vetco Gray.)
Deep Sea Development 173

• Voltages at SEM at minimum and maximum designed umbilical lengths;

• Voltages at SEM at cable parameters for dry and wet umbilical insulations;
• Minimum and maximum subsea power requirements;
• Maximum current load.

6.4.1.16 Types of Control Systems

Monitoring, control, and communication systems have multiplex electrohydraulic/
electrical control system with data communication to make it compatible with the
computer operating system. All the latest systems are operated either from local
control station or linked remote stations. The basic function of such a system is flow
control by controlling different types of valves in the system, as well as monitoring
and transmitting data to main station for analysis and diagnostics.
The basic control system types include:

1. Direct hydraulic
2. Piloted hydraulic
3. Sequenced hydraulic
4. Multiplex electrohydraulic
5. All-electric

6.4.1.16.1 Direct Hydraulic Control System

In direct hydraulic control system, each valve is remotely controlled using its own
hydraulic line. Distance becomes a limiting factor.
In this system, control valves are actuated (opened) by directly applying
hydraulic pressure on the valve actuator and deactivated (closed) by removing the
pressure from actuator. In other words, control valve is opened by flooding the
actuator with pressurized control fluid and closed by venting fluid to reservoir/
accumulator from actuator. The principle of a direct hydraulic control system is
explained bellow.

6.4.1.16.1.1  Advantages
• Minimum subsea equipment
• Low cost
• Reliability is high because the critical components are on the surface
• Maintenance access is very good because all critical components are on
the surface

6.4.1.16.1.2  Disadvantages
• Response is slow
• Large number of hoses
• Limited monitoring capabilities and distance limitations due to long
response time and umbilical costs
• Limited operational flexibility [4] (Figure 6.34).
174 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.34 Direct hydraulic control system [4].

6.4.1.16.2 Piloted Hydraulic Control System

This system has dedicated hydraulic pilot supply for each subsea function and
hydraulic supply line to each SCM. The presence of accumulator increases valve
opening response time.
The difference of the system from the direct hydraulic system is that the
umbilical does not include large bore hoses to achieve the performance require-
ments. The pilot system uses a small bore hose for the pilot line and a larger bore
hose for the supply line. The hydraulic pilot volume to actuate the pilot valve
is very small and there is very little volume flow required to energize the pilot
valve and open the subsea valve. As a result, the valve actuation time improves
[4] (Figure 6.35).

6.4.1.16.2.1  Advantages
• Low cost
• Reliability is high because the critical components are on the surface
• Maintenance access is good because the majority of the components are on
the surface
• Proven and simple subsea equipment
Deep Sea Development 175

FIGURE 6.35 Piloted hydraulic control system [4].

6.4.1.16.2.2 Disadvantages
• Response is slow
• Large number of hoses
• Limitation in distance because response is slow
• No subsea monitoring because there are no electrical signals [4]

6.4.1.16.3  Sequenced Hydraulic Control System The sequenced hydraulic

control system consists of several sequence valves and accumulators. Various com-
plicated programs are designed by series-parallel for sequence valves (Figures 6.36
and 6.37).
Valves open at predetermined sequences depending upon the magnitude of the
signal. The system works by adjusting the regulator up at opening pilot pressure
to open valve. As we can see in Figure 6.38, the first valve opens at 1,500 psi and
sequentially remains open at a difference of 500 psi pressure.

6.4.1.16.3.1  Advantages
• Improved system response compared to direct hydraulic control and piloted
hydraulic control systems
• Reduced umbilical compared to direct hydraulic control and piloted hydrau-
lic control systems
• Small number of hydraulic hoses
176 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.36 Sequenced hydraulic control system. (Source: TotalFinaElf.)

FIGURE 6.37 Multiplex electrohydraulic control system. (Source: TotalFinaElf.)

6.4.1.16.3.2  Disadvantage
• Slow operation
• The sequence of valve opening and closing is fixed
• Distances are limited because response is slow
Deep Sea Development 177

FIGURE 6.38 All electric control systems.

• No subsea monitoring because there are no electrical signals

• Increase in the number of surface components
• Increase in the number of subsea components

6.4.1.16.4 Multiplex Electrohydraulic Control System

The multiplex electrohydraulic control system is composed of master control station
(MCS), a subsea electronic module. Subsea electronic module has a microproces-
sor which communicates with the MCS and performs MCS commanded func-
tion. It allows multiple SCM at the same communication electrical and hydraulic
­supply lines, implying that wells can be controlled by single umbilical from a single
location.
Cost is high because of the involvement of SEM, computers, and computer
­software at topside. However, it can be balanced by less umbilical and advanced
technology used for complex fields and long distances (more than 5 km).
When a digital signal is sent to the SEM, it excites the selected solenoid valve,
thereby directing hydraulic fluid from the supply umbilical to the associated actua-
tor. The multiplex electrohydraulic control system is capable of monitoring pressure,
temperature, and valve positions by electrical signals, without further complicating
the electrical connections through the umbilical.

6.4.1.16.4.1  Advantages
• Good response times over long distances
• Smaller umbilical diameter
• Allows control of many valves/wells via a single communication line
178 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Redundancy is easily built in

• Enhanced monitoring of operation and system diagnostics
• Ideal for unmanned platform or complex reservoirs
• Able to supply high volume of data feedback
• No operational limitations

6.4.1.16.4.2  Disadvantages
• High level of system complexity
• Increase in surface components
• Increase in subsea components
• Recharging of the hydraulic supply over a long distance
• Hydraulic fluid cleanliness
• Materials compatibility
• Limitations over long distance tiebacks [3] (Figure 6.39).

6.4.1.16.5 All Electrical Control System

All electrical control system is a fast-response control system without any hydraulic
system. It consists of all electrically operated elements. Elimination of hydraulic
circuits and accumulators helps in increasing the response time. Advent of long-
distance subsea power transmission has made this concept easily acceptable. The
principle of an all-electric control system is shown in Figure 6.40.
All valves including the choke valve are fitted with electrical actuators. SCM
is supplied power from the topside facility, that is, offshore installation or from
onshore facilities. System architecture becomes simpler, and response time
becomes faster. It offers higher degree of flexibility in case of expansion or inclu-
sion of new wells.

FIGURE 6.39 Power supply from onshore to subsea (Source: Vetco Gray.)
Deep Sea Development 179

FIGURE 6.40 Shallow versus deepwater.

6.4.1.16.5.1  Advantage
1. Quick response
2. Hydraulic circuit and hydraulic accumulator eliminated
3. Umbilical without hydraulic line required
4. Easier installation due to elimination of hydraulic circuit and hydraulic
accumulator
5. Adding new well becomes easier

6.4.1.16.5.2  Disadvantage
1. In case of long-distance transmission, introduction of bulky transformer for
supply regulation
2. Limitation due to long transmission distance

6.5 SUBSEA POWER SUPPLY

It is a major component of subsea processing without which operations cannot
­continue. These include:

1. Electrical power unit (EPU)

2. Uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
3. Hydraulic power unit (HPU)

Power system supplies various types of powers to subsea equipment: SCM, SEM,
pumps, motors, and actuators located on trees/manifolds and sensors. Power source
may come from onshore or from the platform.

6.6 FLOW ASSURANCE
Flow assurance can be defined as the ability to produce fluids economically from
the reservoir to the point-of-sale via production facility over the life of a field in
any environment. Flow assurance focuses on the entire engineering and production
180 Offshore Operations and Engineering

lifecycle from the reservoir through refining to ensure, with high confidence, that
the reservoir fluids can be moved from the reservoir to the refinery smoothly and
without interruption. It is a rigorous engineering process that works to maximize
production by ensuring unrestricted production flow path throughout the field’s life
with minimum lifecycle costs.
Main flow assurance driver:

• Ensures sufficient pipeline capacity

• Minimizes the risk of flowline blockages
• hydrates and wax
• asphaltenes, sand, and scale
• Provides the ability to remove blockages
• Minimizes downtime during operations
• pigging
• start-up and ramp-up
• shut-in
• lugging
• Enhances operability

6.6.1 Shallow versus Deep Flow Assurance Scenario

As shown in Figure 6.40, the seabed temperature in deepwater is lower than the
­seabed temperature in shallow environment. Moreover, the riser and tieback lengths
are greater in the case of deepwater, which increases the frictional forces and the
back pressure. This makes the flow assurance scenario very different in shallow and
deepwater.

6.6.2 Flow Assurance Challenges

Flow assurance challenges mainly focuses on the prevention and control of solid
deposits that could potentially block the flow of produced fluid.
These solids have the potential to deposit anywhere from the near wellbore and
perforation to wellbore, topside surface facilities, and pipelines. Depending upon the
specific fluid properties, hydrodynamic, and heat transfer characteristics of a given
field development system, the pressure and temperature PT path may intersect one or
all the three elements of hydrocarbon solid formation, namely, asphaltene, wax, and
hydrate.; Flow path from reservoir to facility is shown Figure 6.41.

6.6.3 Troublemakers
6.6.3.1 Gas Hydrates
Gas hydrates are compounds where gas molecules like methane, ethane, propane,
CO2, H2S are trapped within the crystal lattice structure of ice. High pressure and
low temperature is required for the formation of gas hydrates. Hydrate formation
during normal operations, following shut-ins, and during start-up can lead to large
production losses and tricky and costly intervention problems.
Deep Sea Development 181

FIGURE 6.41 Stability diagram.

6.6.3.2 Paraffin/Wax
Paraffins are high-molecular-weight alkanes (C20+) that can build up as deposits in
the wellbore, feed lines, etc. These organic deposits can act as chokes within the
wellbore, resulting in a gradual decrease in production over time with increase in the
thickness of the deposits. They are very sensitive to temperature.

6.6.3.3 Asphaltene
Asphaltenes are high-molecular weight aromatic organic substances that are soluble
in toluene but are precipitated by alkanes (n-heptane/n-pentane). Asphaltenes remain
dissolved in colloidal suspension under high pressure and temperature conditions of
reservoir, however, are destabilized by changes in temperature and pressure due to
primary depletion and begin precipitating in the reservoir.

6.6.3.4 Scales
Scales are mineral salt deposits that may occur on wellbore tubulars and components
as the saturation of produced water is affected by changing temperature and pressure
conditions in the production conduit. In severe conditions, scales create a significant
restriction, or even a plug, in the production tubing.

6.6.3.5 Erosion
Erosion is the wearing out of the tubing, pipelines, and flowline walls due to solid
particles such as sand or due to liquid impingement at high fluid velocities.

6.6.3.6 Corrosion
Corrosion is the wearing out of flowline thickness due to the chemistry of the
­produced fluids it can be result of erosion also.
182 Offshore Operations and Engineering

6.6.3.7 Slugging
Slugging is caused by instabilities of gas and liquid interface and liquid sweep-out
by gas inertial effects.

6.6.3.8 Severe Slugging
At low gas and liquid flow rates, unsteady-state flow may occur in such two-phase
pipeline-riser systems. The cyclic unsteady-state flow characterized by large-­
amplitude, relatively long-period pressure, and flow rate fluctuations is known as
severe slugging.
At relatively low flow rates, liquid accumulates at the bottom of the riser, blocking
the gas, until sufficient upstream pressure has been built up to surge the liquid slug
out of the riser followed by gas surge. After fluid and gas surge, part of the liquid in
the riser falls back to the riser base to create a new blockage and the cycle repeats.
This transient cyclic phenomenon causes periods of no liquid and gas production
at the riser top followed by very high liquid and gas surges, and is called severe
­slugging [16] (Figure 6.42).

6.6.4 Typical Flow Assurance Processes

The main part of flow assurance should be done before the front-end ­engineering and
design (FEED) process. The requirements for each project are different and, t­ herefore,
project-specific strategies are required for flow assurance problems (Figure 6.43).
Nevertheless, the approach to deal with main flow assurance issues is discussed in
subsequent paragraphs for understanding of the importance of the topic in any project.

6.6.5 Fluid Characterization and Flow Property Assessments

This ensures the validity of flow assurance by carefully studying the fluid properties
of the crude sample collected from the well or from the analogous sample from a
nearby production well. The key analysis on the sample are:

FIGURE 6.42 Stages of severe slugging [16].

Deep Sea Development 183

FIGURE 6.43 Flow assurance process [4].

• PVT properties: Phase composition, GOR, bubble-point pressure

• Wax properties: Cloud point, pour point, asphaltene stability
• Water salinity, either from the produced water samples or resistivity log

Based on the above analysis, hydrate stability curves are developed and methane
dosing is also calculated [4].

6.6.6 Steady-State Hydraulic and Thermal Performance Analyses

This stage generates steady-state flowline models and determines the following
parameters:

• The relationship between flowrate and the pressure drop along the flowline.
• Check pressure and temperature distribution along the pipeline to avoid
hydrate formation.
184 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Riser base temperature as a function of flow rate and combined insulation

system and prevent the riser temperature to go below the minimum value
for cool down at the maximum range of production ranges.
• Maximum flowrate such that the temperature does not exceed any upper
­limits set by the separation and dehydration processes or by equipment design.

6.6.7 System Design and Operability [4]

In a system design, the entire system from the reservoir to the end user needs to be
considered to determine applicable operating parameters; flow diameters and flow
rates; insulation for tubing, flowlines, and manifolds; chemical injection require-
ments; host facilities; operating strategies and procedures to ensure smooth flow of
produced fluids.

6.6.7.1 System Start-Up
During start-up, as the system is at a lower temperature, hydrate inhibitor needs to
be injected. If start-up rates are higher, then only the tree needs to be treated with
the inhibitor and inhibitor need not to be injected downhole. However, if the start-up
rate is low, the hydrocarbon flow needs to be treated with inhibitors downhole. Once
the tree is outside the hydrate region, hydrate inhibitor can be injected at the tree and
the flow rate can be increased to achieve system warm-up.
The following start-up philosophies are used for cases where well start-up poses
a risk for flowline blockage, particularly if a hydrate blockage is suspected based on
flow assurance studies from the design phase:

• Wells will be started up at a rate that allows minimum warm-up time, while
considering drawdown limitations.
• It may not be possible to fully inhibit hydrates at all water cuts, particularly
in the wellbore. High water-cut wells will be brought online without being
fully inhibited.
• The system is designed to inject hydrate inhibitor (typically methanol) at
the tree during start-up or shutdown. The methanol injected during the ini-
tial start-up will inhibit well jumpers, manifold, and flowline if start-up is
interrupted and blowdown is not yet possible (Figure 6.44).

6.6.7.2 System Shutdown
In general, planned and unplanned shutdowns from the steady state are the same,
with the exception of a planned shutdown; hydrate inhibitors can be injected into the
system prior to shutdown. Well shutdown also poses a significant hydrate risk. The
following philosophies may be adopted during shutdown operations:

• The subsea methanol injection system is capable of treating or displacing

produced fluids with hydrate inhibitor between the manifold and SCSSV
following well shutdown to prevent hydrate formation.
• Hydrate prevention in the flowlines is accomplished by bringing the flow-
line pressure down to less than the hydrate-formation pressure at ambient
seabed temperatures.
Deep Sea Development 185

FIGURE 6.44 Operating logic chart of start-up for a cold well and a cold flowline [4].

• Most well shutdowns will be caused by short-duration host facility

­shutdowns. The subsea trees, jumpers, and flowlines are insulated to slow
the cooling process and allow the wells to be restarted without having to
initiate a full shutdown operation.

6.6.8 Transient Flow Hydraulic and Thermal Performance Analyses

Transient flowline system models have to be constructed to check any flow problems.
Transient flowline analyses generally include the following scenarios:

• Start-up and shutdown

• Emergent interruptions
186 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Blowdown and warm-up

• Ramp up/down
• Oil displacement
• Pigging/slugging

This modeling is done to ensure that the fluid temperature in the system does not
exceed the hydrate dissociation temperature corresponding to the pressure at every
location; otherwise, a combination of an insulated pipeline and the injection of
chemical inhibitors into the fluid must be simulated in the transient processes to
prevent hydrate formation, and the same needs to be done in the field.

6.6.9 Hydrate Prevention Methods

Hydrate prevention techniques for subsea systems are discussed below.

6.6.9.1 Thermodynamic Inhibitors
These inhibit hydrate formation by reducing the temperature at which hydrates are
formed, that is, they shift the stability curve to further lower temperature. Hence,
lower temperature are required to initiate hydrate formation. Methanol and mono-
ethyl glycol (MEG) are the most commonly used inhibitors. Methanol can provide
higher hydrate temperature depression.
The risks of using thermodynamic inhibitors include:

• Inadequate injection of inhibitor, particularly due to not knowing water pro-

duction rates
• Inhibitor not going where intended (operator error or equipment failure)
• Environmental concerns, particularly with methanol discharge limits
• Ensuring remote location supply
• Ensuring chemical/material compatibility
• Safety considerations in handling methanol topside (Table 6.2)

Water production multiplied by the methanol dosage is the inhibitor injection rate,
which changes throughout the field’s operating life due to typically decreasing oper-
ating pressures and increasing water production. Hence, more the water cut, more
will be the inhibitor injection rates.

TABLE 6.2
Hydrate Inhibition Comparison
Inhibitor Advantage Disadvantage
Methanol Less viscous Lower recovery due to gas and
condensate phase loses.
Less likely to cause salt precipitation Impact on downstream processing plants
Regeneration cost is less compared to MEG Low flash point
MEG Easy to recover Higher viscosity
Low gas and condensate solubility Causes salt precipitation
Deep Sea Development 187

6.6.9.2 Low Dosage Inhibitors (LDIs)

LDIs do not change the hydrate formation temperature. They either interfere with
the formation of hydrate crystals or agglomeration of crystals into blockages. Anti-
agglomerates can provide protection at higher subcooling temperatures than kinetic
hydrate inhibitors. However, low-dosage hydrate inhibitors are not recoverable and
are expensive.

6.6.9.3 Kinetic Inhibitors (KIs)

These are low-molecular weight, water-soluble polymers which prevent hydrate
blockage by bonding to the hydrate surface and delaying hydrate nucleation or
growth.
Unlike TDI, these inhibitors work independently of water cuts, but are limited
to relatively low subcooling temperatures (<20°F), which may not be sufficient for
deepwater applications. For greater subcooling, KIs must be blended with a thermo-
dynamic inhibitor. Additionally, the inhibition effect of KIs is time-limited.

6.6.9.4 Anti-Agglomerates (AAs)
They allow hydrate crystals to form but keep the particles small and well dispersed in
the hydrocarbon liquid. Moreover, they inhibit hydrate plugging rather than hydrate
formation. AAs can provide relatively high subcooling up to 40°F, which is sufficient
for deepwater applications. A potentially important advantage of LDIs is that they
may extend field life when water production increases.

6.6.9.5 Low-Pressure Operations
Hydrate formation can be prevented by maintaining operational pressure below the
pressure corresponding to the ambient temperature based on the hydrate stability
curve. So, at ambient temperature of 4°C, pressure should be <300 psia, but this is
highly unpractical.
By using subsea choking and keeping the production flowline at a lower p­ ressure,
the difference between hydrate dissociation and operating temperatures (i.e., sub-
cooling) is reduced. This lower subcooling will decrease the driving force for hydrate
formation and can minimize the inhibitor dosage.

6.6.9.6 Water Removal
For export pipelines, dehydration is a common technique used for hydrate p­ revention.
For subsea, subsea separation system can be employed for reducing the percentage
of water in the subsea flowlines. It will not only control hydrates but will also make
the produced fluids lighter and easier to lift, eventually reducing the topside water
handling, treatment, and disposal. Subsea separation is covered in detail in emerging
technology.

6.6.9.7 Thermal Insulation and Heating

This serves two purposes: prevents hydrate formation control by maintaining
­temperatures above hydrate formation conditions, and extends cooldown time
before reaching the hydrate formation temperature. There are three types of insu-
lation listed in ascending order of cost: coatings applied to pipes; pipe-in-pipe
188 Offshore Operations and Engineering

(PIP) or bundling; and vacuum-insulated pipes or pipes with insulating gases.

Insulation is generally not applied to gas production systems because the produc-
tion fluid has low thermal mass and experiences JT cooling. For gas systems,
insulation is only applicable for high reservoir temperatures and/or short tieback
lengths [17].
One advantage of an insulated production system is that it can allow higher water
production, which would not be economical with continuous inhibitor injection.
However, shutdown and restart operations would be more complicated. For example,
long-term shutdowns will probably require depressurization [18].

6.6.10 Hydrate Remediation
Hydrate remediation is extremely difficult and very costly because of two factors,
namely:

1. It takes large amount of energy to dissociate hydrates, and heat transfer

through the hydrates is slow. Hydrate dissociation is a highly endothermic
process; if the heat transfer through the pipeline insulation layer from the
surrounding is low, then the temperature near the dissociating hydrate can
rapidly reduce.
2. 1 ft3 of methane hydrates can give up 160 ft3 of methane gas. This has safe
implications in depressurization. Increased JT expansion of the evolved gas
can drastically reduce the surrounding temperature.

Therefore, either of the above mechanisms will form additional hydrates. Although
the design of a unit is intended to prevent hydrate blockages, industry operators must
include design and operational provisions for remediation of hydrate blockages.
Some methods are listed in the Table 6.3.

TABLE 6.3
Hydrate Prevention/Remediation
Thermal/Thermodynamic Chemical
Passive For Wax/
System Active System For Hydrates Paraffin Mechanical
Prevention Pipe-in-pipe Electric heating Dehydration Dispersants Pigging
Buried pipe Hot fluid circulation Thermodynamic
External coated Exothermic process inhibitors Crystal
pipe modifiers
Synthetic Kinetic
jacketed pipe inhibitors
Remediation Electric heating Dissociation Solvents Pigging
Hot fluid circulation
Exothermic process Microbes Coiled tubing
Depressurization
Deep Sea Development 189

6.6.11 Selection of Hydrate Control Method

6.6.11.1 Gas System
• Gas systems are generally designed for continued injection of hydrate inhib-
itors because water production is small, typically only condensation water.
Inhibitor requirements are, thus, relatively small, of the order of 1–2 bbl
MeOH/mmscf.
• Pipe insulation is not preferred because of the possibility of JT effect.

6.6.11.2 Oil System
• As oil system produces free water, continuous inhibition would be a costly
affair.
• For normal operations, insulation is preferred.
• For start-up and shutdown, a combination of methanol and blowdown
(depressurization) is employed.

6.6.12 Wax Control Guidelines

• Operate above WAT (wax appearance temperature), and provide thermal
insulation, if necessary.
• Operate at higher production rate to avoid deposition in wellbore and in
tree.
• Pig frequently to ensure pig does not stick.
• Identify and treat high pour point oil continuously.

6.6.13 Wax Management Strategy

Once wax deposition is identified as a flow assurance issue to the production flow
pathway, prevention and/or remediation techniques are investigated to determine
their viability given the project’s design and budget. The following wax management
techniques are commonly examined:

• Prevention – Thermal control and chemical inhibition

• Remediation – Thermal and chemical wax dissolution and physical
removal

6.6.13.1 Thermal Control
This system can assist in keeping the temperature above the cloud point for the entire
flowline, thus eliminating wax deposition. Although these techniques are expensive,
they can become financially attractive if other temperature-related flow assurance
issues are to be mitigated as well, most notably hydrates.

6.6.13.2 Chemical Inhibition
Chemical inhibition is accomplished by deployment of wax inhibitors, also known
as crystal modifiers. These chemicals are designed to affect the WAT and wax
­deposition propensity of the crude by disrupting the ordered aggregation of the
190 Offshore Operations and Engineering

growing crystalline structure. Although complete wax inhibition is rarely achieved

by ­chemical deployment, chemical usage can be a powerful synergistic component
to an optimized wax management strategy.
Unlike wax solvents or dispersants, these chemicals must be deployed before the
bulk temperature of the crude drops below the WAT, hence, they are often injected
downhole.

6.6.13.3 Thermal and Chemical Wax Dissolution

This method uses the injection of heated fluid (e.g., crude oil, water) into the
­production pathway to melt and remove wax deposits. The fluid is heated well above
the melting point of the wax and circulated to remove the deposition. Additives
should also be included to the heated fluid to improve its application (e.g., wax
­dispersants, demulsifiers).

6.6.13.4 Physical Removal
Physical removal of wax deposits is accomplished in the wellbore and flowline by
deploying wax/gauge cutters and pigs, respectively. There are multiple proprietary
designs within the industry for both. To facilitate pigging, a dual-flowline system
must be built with a design that permits pigging. Pigging must be carried out fre-
quently to avoid the build-up of large quantities of wax. If the wax deposit becomes
too thick, there will be insufficient pressure to push the pig through the line as wax
accumulates in front of it. Pigging also requires that the subsea oil system be shut
down, stabilized by a methanol injection and blowdown, and finally restarted after
pigging has been completed [19] (Figure 6.45).

6.6.14 Asphaltene
Asphaltene problems occur infrequently in offshore, but can have serious
­consequences on project economics because asphaltene deposition is most likely to
occur when the produced fluid passes through the bubble point. The deposition often
occurs in the tubing.

FIGURE 6.45 Common pipeline pig [20].

Deep Sea Development 191

• Inject an asphaltene dispersant continuously into the wellbore (injection

must be at the packer to be effective).
• Install equipment to facilitate periodic injection of an aromatic solvent into
the wellbore for a solvent soak.
• Be financially and logistically prepared to intervene with coiled tubing in
the wellbore to remove deposits.
• Control deposition in the flowline with periodic pigging using solvents.

6.6.15 Corrosion
The presence of carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and free water in
the internal production fluid can cause severe corrosion problems in oil and gas
­pipelines. Internal corrosion in wells and pipelines is influenced by temperature,
CO2 and H2S content, water chemistry, flow velocity, oil or water wetting, and the
composition and surface condition of the steel.
Two types of corrosion can occur in oil and gas pipeline systems when CO2
and H2S are present in the hydrocarbon fluid: sweet corrosion and sour corrosion.
Sweet corrosion occurs in systems containing only carbon dioxide or a trace of
hydrogen sulfide (partial pressure <0.05 psi). Sour corrosion occurs in systems
containing hydrogen sulfide above a partial pressure of 0.05 psia and carbon
dioxide.
Normally during the design phase, corrosion margin based on crude property is
provided to all the flow path material.

6.6.16 Internal Corrosion Prevention

6.6.16.1 Internal Coating
An effective coating system provides an effective barrier against corrosion attack.
The type of coating will depend on both environmental conditions and the service
requirements of the line. The major generic coatings used for internal linings include
epoxies, urethanes, and phenolic.

6.6.16.2 Internal Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that can effectively reduce the corrosion
rate of the metal exposed to the corrosive environment when added in small
concentrations. They normally work by adsorbing themselves to form a film on
the metallic surface. Inhibitors are normally distributed from a solution or by
dispersion.
Inhibitors can be generally classified as follows:

• Passivating inhibitors
• Cathodic inhibitors
• Precipitation inhibitors
• Organic inhibitors
• Volatile corrosion inhibitors
192 Offshore Operations and Engineering

6.6.17 External Corrosion Prevention

6.6.17.1 External Coating
Thick coatings are often applied to offshore pipelines to minimize the defects and
resist damage by handling during transport and installation. Coatings must have
good adhesion to the pipe surface to resist wear and tear.
The principal coatings, in rough order of cost, are:

• Tape wrap
• Asphalt
• Coal tar enamel
• Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)
• Cigarette wrap polyethylene (PE)
• Extruded thermoplastic PE and polypropylene (PP) [4]

6.6.18 Scales
Scales are deposits of different chemical composition because of the crystallization
and precipitation of minerals from the produced water. These are generally inorganic
salts such as carbonates and sulfates of metals calcium, strontium, and barium.

Ca 2+ + CO32− → CaCO3

Ca 2+ + 2 ( HCO − ) → CaCO3 + CO 2 + H 2 O

*Presence of CO2 will increase the solubility of carbonates.

Ca 2+ + SO 24− → CaSO4
Ba 2+ + SO 24− → BaSO 4

*BaSO4 is extremely insoluble and almost impossible to remove chemically.

Sr 2+ + SO 24− → SrSO4

*Strontium sulfate solubility increases with salinity.

6.6.19 Scale Management
6.6.19.1 Scale Inhibitors
These chemicals delay or prevent scale formation. Use of these chemicals is ­attractive
because a very low dosage (several ppm) can be sufficient to prevent scale formation
for extended periods. Common classes of scale inhibitors include:

• Inorganic polyphosphates
• Organic phosphates esters
• Organic phosphonates
• Organic polymers [4]
Deep Sea Development 193

6.6.20 Erosion
Erosion is a process of wearing out/loss of material surface due to abrasive/
mechanical action resulting from fast flowing liquid or gas with suspended particles.
Sometimes, it happens even due to the force of impinging liquid in the system.

6.6.21 Mitigation Methods
6.6.21.1 Reduction in Production Rate
Optimum production rate considering erosion, sand production, and economics
should be selected [21].

6.6.21.2 Design of Pipe System

Blind tees are generally perceived as being less prone to erosion than elbows, hence,
the use of fullbore valves and blind tees in place of elbows can reduce erosion
­problems. Minimizing the flow velocity and avoiding sudden changes (e.g., at elbow,
constrictions, and valves) in the flow direction should be given much attention to
reduce the severity of any erosion.

6.6.21.3 Increasing Wall Thickness

Thick-walled pipes are often used to increase the wear life of a pipe system.

6.6.21.4 Erosion-Resistant Material
If erosion problems are suspected, specialized erosion resistant materials such as
tungsten carbide can be used. The primary factor of ductile materials in controlling
erosion is their hardness. Consequently, steels are more resistant than other softer
metals. In vulnerable components, specialized materials such as tungsten carbides,
coatings, and ceramics are often used. These materials are generally hard and brittle
and have a super erosion resistance to steel.

6.7 EMERGING DEEPWATER TECHNOLOGIES

Deepwater play starts in at water depth exceeding 500 m at the edge of ­continental
shelf and beyond. The remote basins may have significant hydrocarbon d­ eposits.
According to the International Energy Agency, there could be approximately
270 ­billion barrels of recoverable oil alone in deepwater worldwide. Developing
­deepwater prospects is challenging and expensive owing to the harsh environments
and complex reservoirs, which necessitates development of innovative technologies.
Some of the emerging deepwater technologies are discussed below.

6.7.1 Dry Tree Semi-Submersibles

Dry tree floating platforms for deepwater offshore developments are typically spars
and tension-leg platforms (TLPs). All production semi-submersibles in operation
support only wet tree systems because the hull motions are not sufficiently small to
allow the use of riser tensioning systems, which connect vertical production risers
194 Offshore Operations and Engineering

from subsea wells directly to the topsides. The wet tree semi-submersible designs
can potentially be improved for dry tree applications.
Beyond 6,000 ft, TLPs become impractical because of the amount of steel needed
for the tendons that moor the platform to the ocean bottom. Spars have virtually no
water depth limit and are designed specifically as a dry tree unit. However, their size
is limited by their cylindrical hulls, which constrain the available deck space, thereby
pushing designers to stack the decks vertically. A conventional s­ emi-submersible
platform offers the optimum amount of deck space for safer operations and payload
flexibility that a spar cannot, however, it has too much vertical motion for a dry tree
to operate safely. Several semi-submersibles operate in depths exceeding 6,000 ft;
however, all of them use subsea trees. Unlike subsea trees that are installed at the
seabed and deliver hydrocarbons to a surface platform through a flexible production
riser or a metallic riser such as a steel catenary riser (SCR), a dry tree uses a rigid
riser system known as a top-tensioned riser (TTR) locked onto the subsea wellhead
at the seafloor and to the dry tree at the platform deck, thereby making it very sensi-
tive to movement. Although the DTS hull is designed to reduce motion caused by
ocean forces, it is the motions that move the platform up and down that are of the
highest concern. To compensate for excessive vertical motion current, DTS concepts
are relying on proven riser tensioner technology [19] (Figures 6.46 and 6.47).

FIGURE 6.46 SBM Offshore’s 35-ft range riser tensioner system allows its dry tree semi-
submersible to move vertically while ensuring the integrity of the dry tree system located on
the tensioner. (Source: SBM Offshore, JPT Sept. 2013.)
Deep Sea Development 195

FIGURE 6.47 The Octabuoy has a deeper draft than a conventional semi-submersible
and can be deployed to multiple fields over its expected 50-year service life. The platform’s
unique column and octagonal buoyancy pontoon minimize the effects of heave, pitch, and
roll [22].

Major Advantages of DTS:

• Minimizes flow assurance issues such as wax and hydrate formation

• Drilling, completion, and workover from single platform, eliminating the
need of MODUs

6.7.2 Hybrid Riser System

The term “hybrid riser” generally refers to a system which incorporates both steel
pipe and flexible pipe technologies. The steel pipe can be a vertical leg or an SCR
connected to a subsurface buoy support and the flexible pipe is used to complete
the fluid flow path from the subsurface buoy to the FPU. Hybrid riser arrangements
have been conceived to meet the challenge of deep waters and minimize the draw-
backs inherent to the steel riser systems, for example, coupling effect with FPU
wave motions and subsequent fatigue issues faced by conventional risers. The hybrid
riser systems provide reduced payload on the FPU and flexibility of field layout by
­permitting the routing of flowline to be independent of the approach lay azimuth
angle of the riser top hang-off porch [23] (Figure 6.48).
196 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.48 General configuration of hybrid risers [23].

Latest evolutions of hybrid riser systems:

• Free-standing flexible riser (FSFR)

• Multi-lines free standing riser
• Deep steep riser (DSR)

6.7.3 Free-Standing Flexible Riser System (FSFR)

The vertical leg of the riser system from seabed to the subsurface buoy is a flexible
pipe instead of a rigid steel pipe. The FSFR is a concept developed to optimize the
riser installation tension and in-situ dynamic behaviors (Figure 6.49).
Benefits include:

• Minimization of total loads applied to FPU

• Decoupling between riser installation and FPU arrival
• Eliminates the requirement of offshore heavy lifting

6.7.4 Multi-Lines Free Standing Riser

Multi-lines free standing riser system is an innovative concept, gathering several
rigid risers to be fully assembled offshore and hung onto a single top riser assembly/
buoyancy tank system.
Deep Sea Development 197

FIGURE 6.49 Free-standing flexible riser [23].

These are developed to provide the following functional requirements:

• Production line combined service line to form an “hybrid loop” for round-trip
pigging.
• Water injection line to maintain reservoir pressure and production.
• Gas lift at the production riser base for produced fluid artificial lift
(Figure 6.50).

6.7.5 Deep Steep Riser

This innovative concept consists of a single leg tensioned riser, which can be either
“full flexible” or “hybrid” riser solutions. The riser system is basically composed of a
flexible jumper at its upper section to decouple from the FPU motions. The lower riser
vertical section can be either a flexible or a rigid steel riser to reach the seabed founda-
tion. Applicable for ultra-deepwater developments (4,000 m+) (Figures 6.51 and 6.52).

6.7.6 Expandable Monobore Liner Extension

The goal of an expandable monobore is to enable the operator to optimize drilling
casing programs by drilling deeper wells with larger hole sizes to the reservoir. As a
contingency plan, the goal is to enable the operator to isolate zones that contain reac-
tive shales, subsalt environments, low-fracture-gradient formations, or other drilling
situations. Utilization of this technology will allow wellbore construction to continue
without having to reduce the casing and subsequent drilled hole size. Expandable
liner system employs a top-down expansion system to extend a casing string while
maintaining the same casing drift. The system provides an optimized, cost-effective
198 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.50 Rigid risers hung to top riser assembly in multiline free standing riser [23].

FIGURE 6.51 Multi-line free standing riser [23].

Deep Sea Development 199

FIGURE 6.52 Deep steep riser [23].

casing configuration without the reduced hole size encountered in typical telescop-
ing casing programs or with other solid expandable drilling liners (Figure 6.53).
Installation of the first monobore expandable liner extension system (MELES)
has proven the feasibility of solid expandable tubulars as an alternative to conven-
tional, telescoping casing designs. MELES could enable drilling deeper wells with
larger hole sizes at the reservoir, and isolating zones with reactive shales, subsalt
environments, low-fracture-gradient formations, or other such situations, and then
drill ahead without having to reduce the casing and subsequent drilled hole size.

6.7.7 Smart Well Technology

A smart well completion system optimizes production by collecting, transmitting,
and analyzing completion, production, and reservoir data, allowing remote selective
zonal control and ultimately maximizing reservoir efficiency by:

• Helping reduce capital expenditure – The ability to produce from multiple

reservoirs through a single wellbore reduces the number of wells required
for field development, thereby lowering drilling and completion costs. Size
and complexity of surface handling facilities are reduced by managing
water through remote zonal control.
200 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.53 Comparison of convention telescopic completion and expandable monobore

liner extension system. (Source: lin EXX – Baker Hughes.)

• Helping reduce operating expenditure – Remote configuration of wells

optimizes production without costly well intervention. In addition, com-
mingling of production from different reservoir zones shortens field life,
thereby reducing operating expenditures.

Smart wells include intelligent completions, with remote ICVs, flow control,
­measurement sensors (flow, pressure, and temperature). The data can be conveyed
wirelessly using satellite communication to the base station [24] (Figure 6.54).

6.7.8 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)

AUVs are programmable, robotic vehicles that, depending on their design, can drift,
drive, or glide through the ocean without real-time control by human operators.
Some AUVs communicate with operators periodically or continuously through
satellite signals or underwater acoustic beacons to permit some level of control.
Compared to remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), AUVs operate without an umbili-
cal and are able to move faster and more quietly, collecting data at a very high data-
to-signal ratio. As a result, surveys are completed sooner and with more accuracy
(Figure 6.55).
Deep Sea Development 201

FIGURE 6.54 Smart wells with intelligent completions [25].

FIGURE 6.55 Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUVs) [26].

Benefits of autonomous inspection:

• Fewer personnel at sea

• Large stand-off distances from the facility being inspected
• No divers or ROV umbilical
• Underwater homing and docking of the marlin
• Controlled launch and recovery
• Reduced weight
• Smaller footprint [26]

6.7.9 Nomad Systems
The nomad system consists of a small floating unit equipped with minimum f­ acilities
to produce subsea wells and to pump the produced effluent in a single multiphase
pipeline, towards an existing platform, for separation, processing, and export. It is
designed to operate in an unmanned mode.
202 Offshore Operations and Engineering

The floating unit is anchored on the seabed by a catenaries’ mooring system.

Its deck supports the pumping and power generation systems. It also contains the
­control and safety systems as well as a survival shelter.

• Lowest development cost

• Lowest OPEX
• Unmanned operations
• Logistics via supply boats
• Self-supporting (wind and solar energy)

6.7.10 Subsea Multiphase Pumps

Multiphase production systems require the transportation of a mixture of oil, water,
and gas, often for many miles from the producing well to a distant processing facil-
ity. This represents a significant departure from conventional production operations
in which fluids are separated before being pumped and compressed through separate
pipelines. By introducing this concept the cost of pumping facility is approximately
70% that of a conventional facility and significantly more savings can be realized if
the need for an offshore structure is eliminated altogether (Figure 6.56).
However, multiphase pumps do operate less efficiently (30%–50%, depending on
gas volume fraction and other factors) than conventional pumps (60%–70%) and
compressors (70%–90%).

6.7.11 Subsea Processing
Subsea processing consists of a range of technologies to allow production from
­offshore wells without needing surface production facilities. Subsea processing
using subsea separation and pumping technologies has the potential to revolutionize

FIGURE 6.56 Multiphase pump. (Source: FMC Technologies.)

Deep Sea Development 203

FIGURE 6.57 Typical subsea processing flow diagram.

offshore oil and gas production. It can reduce development cost, enhance reservoir
productivity, and improve subsea system reliability and operability when combined
with relatively mature subsea production technologies (Figure 6.57).
The benefits of introducing subsea processing in a field development include:

• Increase ultimate recovery by extending economic life.

• Improve well productivity with greater pressure drawdown.
• Avoid gas hydrates with no inhibition or with reduced inhibitor dosage.
• Allow online pigging to control wax deposition in oil pipelines.
• Eliminate fluid surges by use of single-phase pipelines.
• Prevent solids dropout by allowing higher liquid-flow velocities.
• Reduce capital and operating costs by reducing surface processing needs [27].

The two technologies discussed in detail in this analysis are seabed separation and
seabed boosting.

6.7.12 Seabed Separation
Oil, gas, and water separation is essential for further processing of well products.
Seabed separation of the product is being restored with increasing numbers of deep-
sea field. Water production starts increasing in mature fields with corresponding
decline in oil production, resulting in increased cost of production from a declining
reservoir. In such a case, separation of oil, gas, and water at seabed becomes eco-
nomical. This technology can be used in green field technology also starting from
initial production on the basis of long-term production profile or in fields with high
risk of hydrate formation.
The key parameters specifying either oil/water or liquids/gas separation includes
increased water depths and a number of fields tied back to a platform facility. The key
factors involved in oil and water separation in green and brown fields are obviously
204 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 6.58 (a) Oil/water separator (Tordis in North Sea), (b) Gas/liquid separator
(Pazflor in Gulf of Mexico).

not similar. In mature/brown fields, the level of the field’s water production and the
existence of heavy oil are key factors, whereas high gas volume fraction, increased
distance from the host, and low reservoir pressure and temperature are key factors
in green fields [28].
Some examples of seabed separators are shown in Figure 6.58.

6.7.13 Subsea Pressure Boosting

The aim of pressure boosting is to increase the flow pressure in the production ­system
when the reservoir pressure is insufficient to transport produced fluids at an optimum
rate. Seabed pressure boosting is at times deployed to ensure fluid flow from fields
at the required rate after natural reservoir pressure declines. Some key parameters
that lead operators to use seabed booster pumps include the existence of heavy oil,
increased distance from the host, increased water depth, low reservoir pressure, and
a greater number of fields tied back to the host [29].
Another technology that has established itself recently in multi-phase production
is the electrical submersible pump (ESP) used on the seabed instead of downhole.
Pressure boosting may be necessary at any given stage of the project development;
therefore, it is an important consideration in the design stage of the project. Finally,
seabed gas compression involves gas compression at the seabed level instead of
gas compression on a topside facility. Key factors driving the implementation of
subsea gas compression technology are the discovery of distant offshore gas fields,
increased water depths, long step-outs from the host facility, harsh environmental
conditions, and low reservoir pressure and temperature.
Components of a subsea boosting station may include:

• Subsea gas compressor: used for gas re-injection into the reservoir for pres-
sure maintenance;
• Subsea multiphase pump: used to reduce the back-pressure on wellheads,
thus increasing the transport distance;
• Subsea wet gas compressors: used for gas transportation to remote offshore
host facilities or onshore factory (Figure 6.59).
Deep Sea Development 205

FIGURE 6.59 Subsea pressure boosting pump [29].

REFERENCES
1. B. Oyeneyin, Introduction to deepwater field development strategies, Dev. Pet. Sci.
63 (2015), pp. 1–9.
2. ONGC, in Graduates’s Guide to Offshore Operations, 2005.
3. Subsea_(technology). Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsea_(technology).
4. Y. Bai and Q. Bai, Subsea Engineering Handbook, Gulf Professional Publishing,
Houston, TX (2012).
5. E.A. Ageh, O.J. Uzoh, and I. Ituah, Production Technology Challenges in Deepwater
Subsea Tie-Back Developments (2011).
6. Subsea Umbilical Termination Assembly (SUTA). Available at www.oilfieldwiki.com/
wiki/Subsea_Umbilical_Termination_Assembly_(SUTA)
7. Hydraulic_Power_System. Available at http://oilfieldwiki.com/wiki/Hydraulic_Power_​
System
8. “Oceaneering,”. Available at www.oceaneering.com
9. Subsea_distribution_system. Available at www.oilfieldwiki.com/wiki/Subsea_​
distribution_system
10. C.G.J. Nmegbu and L.V. Ohazuruike, Subsea technology : A wholistic view on existing
technologies and operations, Int. J. Appl. Innov. Eng. Manage. 3 (2014), pp. 81–87.
11. subsea-technology-and-equipments. Available at www.oil-gasportal.com/subsea-­
technology-and-equipments/
12. OilField Wiki. Available at www.oilfieldwiki.com
13. Hydroacousticsinc. Available at www.hydroacousticsinc.com
14. Wax_Management. Available at www.oilfieldwiki.com/wiki/Wax_Management
15 Sbsea_Accumulator_Module_(SAM). Available at www.oilfieldwiki.com/wiki/Subsea_​
Accumulator_Module_(SAM)
16. Travaux des élèves. Available at http://hmf.enseeiht.fr/travaux/bei/beiep/book/export/
html/1772
17. D. Denney, Active heating for flow-assurance control in deepwater flowlines, J. Pet.
Tech. 56 (2004), pp. 45–46.
18. R.G.S. Cochran, Hydrate Management: Its Importance to Deepwater Gas Development
Success, World Oil.
206 Offshore Operations and Engineering

19. Wax Management Startegy. Available at www.gateinc.com/gatekeeper/gat2004-​gkp-

2016-10
20. Apache Pipe. Available at www.apachepipe.com/
21. E.S. Venkatesh, Erosion Damage in Oil and Gas Wells (2007).
22. T. Jacobs, Dry tree semisubmersibles: The next deepwater option, J. Pet. Tech.
65 (2013), pp. 1–6.
23. A. Luppi, G. Cousin, and R. O'Sullivan, OTC 24802-MS Deep Water Hybrid Riser
Systems, (2014), pp. 1–13.
24. G.A. Carvajal, I. Boisvert, and S. Knabe, A Smart Flow for SmartWells: Reactive and
Proactive Modes. Society of Petroleum Engineers, Utrecht (2014).
25. Oil-gasportal. Available at www.Oil-gasportal.com
26. D. Mcleod and J. Jacobson, Advances in Autonomous Deepwater Inspection (2014).
27. O.T. McClimans and R. Fantoft, Status and New Developments in Subsea Processing,
(2008), pp. 1–10.
28. R. Perry, Advances in Subsea Recovery, Offshore (2012).
29. Subsea Boosting Offers Field development Solutions. Available at www.hartenergy.
com/exclusives/subsea-boosting-offers-field-development-solutions-176414
 7 Offshore Field
Development

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Different aspects of offshore field operations and development have been discussed
in respective chapters.

1. Normal sequence of field development is collection, collation, and interpre-

tation of primary and secondary geological and geophysical parameters.
2. Preliminary assessment and evaluation of field potential based on point 1
above.
3. Acquisition, collation, and interpretation of additional geological and
­geophysical data to support strategy based on preliminary assessment and
evaluation as per point no 2 above for development.
4. Basic concept of development and primary technoeconomical evaluation
based on the abovementioned points.
5. Concept selection and basic engineering.
6. Detailed engineering.
7. Execution and commissioning.

To demonstrate the different aspects of field development, two examples are dis-
cussed below for better understanding, namely, one for marginal field and another
for giant field.

7.2 OFFSHORE MARGINAL FIELD DEVELOPMENT EXERCISE

There are several approaches to developing an offshore oil field. The best develop-
ment plan is one that ensures viability throughout the life of the field. Adequate
planning is important because we need to commit to a production system right from
the early developmental stages of the field when relatively little is known about the
field as well as its reserves.

7.2.1 Development Example

Offshore marginal fields need to be developed as per the following parameters:

Water depth: 120 m

Distance from shore: 160 km
Production rate: 20,000 bopd (max)
Production per well: 2,500 bopd (max)

207
208 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Production wells: 6
Injection wells: Nil
GOR: 560 scf/bbl
Sulfur content: 230 ppm
Carbon dioxide content: 3%
Field life: 5 years (approx.)

7.2.1.1 Field Development Scenarios: Options/Alternatives

Two probable field development scenarios based on the utilization of floating produc-
tion systems for the field include the following:

Option A: FPSO and subsea well development

Option B: Semi-submersible FPS and subsea template well development

7.2.1.1.1 Option A
FPSO and subsea well development: We may have to fully understand the com-
ponents of field development, as well as the field’s operation, storage, offloading
(of crude oil), as well as mooring and anchoring requirements in the overall subsea
production system.

7.2.1.1.1.1  Field Development Components

• FPSO
• Subsea wells
• Flexible flow lines, annulus lines, and control umbilical connecting the
wells to the tanker
• Shuttle tankers

7.2.1.1.1.2  Understanding Major Components and Operations

• FPSO
• Process facilities
• Emergency shutdown systems (ESD)
• Firefighting and safety systems
• Other utility systems
• Crude oil storage and offloading
• FPSO FPSO are required to store production for a period of time equal to
a round trip of a shuttle tanker (5.5 days).
• Mooring system and tanker motion
A single point mooring system is selected so that the tanker can take up
positions with the least resistance from wind, waves, and currents. In the given
field and sea environment, SBM’s turret mooring column system equipped
with the quick disconnect feature was selected as it is the best option.
• Subsea production system
Because the selected tanker mooring system could support the required
number of production risers, a subsea manifold is not proposed here.

The completion system is a conventional, guideline, subsea wellhead s­ ystem enabling

remote installation and testing without the aid of divers.
Offshore Field Development 209

The tree assembly is a wet tree assembly providing control for production, well
­control, annulus monitoring, flushing of all lines, and pigging capability.

7.2.1.1.2 Option B
Semi-submersible FPS and subsea template wells:

• Field development components

• Semi-submersible vessel with onboard process facilities
• Subsea well template with an integral subsea manifold
• Flexible flow lines/risers connecting the subsea manifold to the FPS
• CALM loading buoy and temporary storage/shuttle tankers

There are definite advantages of semi-submersible-based FPS compared to tanker-

based FPS; when the field is abandoned, the rig can recover the subsea trees and
downhole completion, thus significantly reducing the field’s abandonment costs.
Although the initial cost is high, they are offset against the system’s flexibility for
reuse over a wide range of water depth.
The semi-submersible FPS, subsea template and wells, and flexible riser systems
present no technical concerns, as they have been successfully used in several similar
applications elsewhere.

7.2.2 Offshore Giant Field Development Exercise

The field under study is a giant offshore multilayered reservoir separated by
­impermeable 1–2 m thick shale layers, and appraisal drilling is almost complete.
The required geological, logging, core, PVT, fluid analysis, production testing, and
­pressure transient test data have been generated. Prima facie, the field appears to be
operating under partial edge water drive mechanism.

7.2.2.1 The Salient Data Is

Water depth: 80–100 m
Average reservoir depth, msl: 1,400 m
Initial reservoir pressure: 160 kg/cm2
Initial reservoir temperature: 120°C
Average porosity: 0.20 (range 0.10–0.35)
Permeability: 50–3,000 mD
API gravity: 38° (Sweet crude)
Bubble point pressure: 160 kg/cm2
μo at res temp: 0.45 cP
Boi: 1.35 v/v
Rsi = 110 m3/m3
Resin = 8–12%
Wax content = 15–20%
Pour point = 36–39°C
Salinity of formation water: 23g/l
PI = 20–40 m3/day/kg/cm2
210 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Based on the above information, work out the field development plans considering
the following:

1. Drilling rig type and completion strategy

2. Water injection requirement, if any
3. Artificial lift selection
4. Type of process platform, processing, and transportation facilities

7.2.2.2 Solution Approach
1. Drilling rig type and completion strategy (Figures 7.1–7.3)
2. Water injection requirement, if any
As the field is operating under partial edge water drive, peripheral water
injection scheme shall be required as a void age compensation technique for
pressure maintenance and improved recovery (Figures 7.4 and 7.5).

Offshore rig type and well drilling and completion strategy

The most fundamental requirement for offshore drilling is a platform from which the whole operation
can be run.

FIGURE 7.1 Comparison of different offshore drilling rigs for different water depths.
(source: www.books.google.co.in.)

JACK UP RIG (FIXED PLATFORM)

Selection of offshore rig mainly depends on

 Marine environmental conditions
 Technical characteristics and
 Economic factors

Fixed platform Jack up rig

• Is used for different soil conditions
• Is used for water depth up to 300m
• Is easy to construct
• Has good mobility
• Is economical: Lower cost

FIGURE 7.2 Spudcan foundation and drilling rig source (Lee and Randolph, 2011).
Offshore Field Development 211

DEVELOPMENT & COMPLETION STRATEGY

TAML: Technology Advancements – Multi Laterals

TAML level 4:

Main borehole: Cased & Cemented

Lateral borehole: Cased and cemented at junction

Excellent Pressure integrity at junction pointas

main borehole and lateral section cased and
cemented
.

FIGURE 7.3 TAML level 4 completion configuration. (Source: www.slb.com)

FIGURE 7.4 Schematic of peripheral water injection pattern (top view).

3. Artificial lift selection

Available data suggests continuous gas lift to be the most suitable
­artificial lift technique (Figure 7.6).
4. Type of process platforms, processing, and transportation facilities
Being a giant field, it should be developed with an integrated approach
at the grassroots level:
1. Unmanned well platforms (solar-powered) with testing facilities.
2. Centrally located jacketed process platform with required ­utilities
including living quarter. Only one stage/first stage separation to be done.
Separated gas to be used for power generation and Gas lift. Oil and gas
212 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Injection well Injection well

FIGURE 7.5 Peripheral water injection pattern (cross-sectional view).

Artificial lift selection for future optimum reservoir management

Location: offshore • HIGH PRODUCTIVITY INDEX (PI)

3 2
PI: 20-40 m /day/Kg/cm • GAS CAP VOLUME AND GAS AVAILABILITY
Gas cap: 50% of field • SURFACE FOOTPRINT

FIGURE 7.6 Schematic of gas lift surface and subsurface facility.

to be pumped using MOL pumps for further onshore processing. Until

a pipeline is available, a shuttle tanker to be used to transport oil to
onshore terminals.
3. Water injection and gas compression facilities to be located on separate
platforms and connected with a bridge to the process platform to share
utilities and other requirements.

Entire operation to be controlled and monitored using SCADA.

 8 Health, Safety, and
Environment in Offshore
In petroleum industry, the probability of risk is high. An accident in the industry,
particularly in offshore, can turn into a disaster, resulting in the loss of life and prop-
erty, as well as damage to the environment. Human resources have to be evolved
and upgraded with the view to minimizing the overall risk to human life rather than
containing damage to property and environment as the value of life is incomparable.
This is being achieved by meaningful training [1] focusing on awareness and alert-
ness, which is the key to minimize damage to property and environment.

8.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Safety: Control of accidental loss or hazards is known as safety. It involves
constant awareness to critical work hazards through a constantly improving
system [1].
2. Hazard: The potential to cause harm to people, property, or environment is
known as hazard. Any loss of life, profits, business, reputation, skills, etc. is
known as hazard effect [1].
3. Risk: Risk is a combination of the hazard effect and the probability that
harm to people, property, or environment will actually occur [1].
• Risk = Hazard effect × Probability of occurrence [1].
4. Accidents: Accidents are undesirable events that result in harm to human
beings and damage to property and environment [1].

8.2 HUMAN FACTORS
• The oil and gas industry has a major accident potential. Both exploration
and production rely on advanced human–machine interfaces, and include
activities with a complex organizational structure. Increasingly, the work
is performed by distributed teams and remotely controlled technology.
Human factors have become an important and integral part of the industry’s
approach to safe and efficient operations [2].
• Human factors refer to the application of what we know about human
­capabilities and limitations to maximize overall system performance.
By giving careful consideration to the interactions between humans and
­technological and organizational elements of a system, it is possible to
­significantly increase the system’s productivity and reliability [2].
• Human factors address the interaction of people with other people, with
facilities, and with management systems in the workplace. These fac-
tors have been shown to have an impact on human performance and safe

213
214 Offshore Operations and Engineering

operations. They provide practical solutions to reduce incidents while

improving productivity [2].
• In the oil and gas industry, human factors are an essential component in the
effort to operate in a safe and efficient manner. Areas where human factors
have a key role include [2]:
• Design of tools, equipment, and user interfaces in a way that augments
the user’s work performance
• Human and organizational factors in risk assessment and emergency
preparedness planning
• Human behavior and cognition in accident causation
• Efficient decision making and teamwork in stressful or critical
situations
• Safety culture and safety behavior improvement programs
• Organizational reliability
• Human factors aim to achieve outstanding performance by proactively
identifying risks and improvement opportunities, promoting safety
leadership and designing improvement strategies, applying best prac-
tice tools, and supporting implementation to business and operational
­f unctions [2].
• To achieve efficient and safe operations, the following human factor
­effectiveness (HFE) is considered:
• Establish management commitment to HFE and appoint an HFE
Champion (management commitment is essential; the HFE Champion
promotes HFE issues and provides a link between the HFE practitioner
and the project management team).
• Apply HFE during all phases of a project.
• Provide an early focus on known HFE problem areas and lessons
learned from other facilities.
• Locate HFE personnel within the engineering design team to foster
discussions and trust. It is more effective to act as an integrated part of
the design team rather than an external enforcer of standards.
• Mandate HFE in the project design and mandate accepted HFE design
standards in project specifications.
• Incorporate HFE activities into the program plan.
• Provide management oversight of HFE activities.
• Require close cooperation between HFE, operations/maintenance, and
other engineering disciplines throughout the project lifecycle [3].
• Engage academically educated and experienced HFE professionals.
HFE is a unique engineering discipline that applies specific knowledge
of human capabilities and limitations and should not be assigned to
other engineers from other disciplines, health professionals, or former
operators/maintenance staff.
• As a relatively new discipline, it is important to effectively manage the
integration of HFE on projects. Utilizing suitably qualified personnel to
apply the appropriate tasks in a suitable organizational climate should
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 215

FIGURE 8.1 The human and organizational factors “Triangle of Effectiveness” model for
reduction of human error [4].

maximize the success and impact of HFE on projects. Figure 8.1 displays
the impact caused by various human and organizational factors to reduce
human errors.
• In addition to human factors, a proper lifetime assessment of offshore
­structures is required, which is dealt briefly in this chapter in the section
Life Extension and Assessment.

8.3 HAZARDS ON OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS

Various hazardous incidents may occur on offshore process installations. The
­following are the major hazard possibilities for offshore platforms with their detailed
description [1].

1. Hydrocarbon release:
• Blowout
• Loss of containment or hydrocarbon release due to leakage or equip-
ment or pipeline failures
2. Collision events:
• Passing/drifting vessel collision
• Supply boat collision
• Helicopter crash
• Dropped object
216 Offshore Operations and Engineering

3. Structural collapse:
• Earthquake
• Extreme wind and waves
• Member failure due to any reason

8.4 PROCEDURAL ASPECTS RELATED TO SAFETY

It is essential to develop system, methods, and procedures to perform safe opera-
tions. As an outline, few aspects are mentioned below which needs to be developed
or written by the operating company/personnel:

1. Standard operating procedures

2. Standard maintenance procedures
3. Safety management system
4. Operations-specific safety standards/charts
5. Risk/Hazard analysis
6. Work permit system
7. Safe system for working on an electrical system (including lockout and
tagout system)
8. Management of change system

8.4.1 System Safety
8.4.1.1 Process Safety and Hydrocarbon Release
Process safety and related issues have been discussed in Chapter 4 (Dealing with
Production). Some points are illustrated below regarding the process and hydrocar-
bon leak.

8.4.2 Process Leaks
• The process event includes either gas, well fluids, or oil leaks from pigging
facilities, well fluid heating, separation, gas compression, and gas dehydra-
tion equipment [1].
• To prevent a hazard, leaks should be isolated from ignition sources [1].

8.4.3 Riser Leaks
Risers are a vital part of an offshore oil installation. The threat to installation from
risers is of utmost concern as the means of inventory isolation in such cases are lim-
ited. The leaks through high-pressure gas riser have a relatively high potential for
major hazard risks. Possible alternative protection measures and remedial actions for
minimization of riser hazard include [1]:

• Relocation of the riser to increase its separation from other risers.

• Fire proofing/coating of the riser to increase protection in the event of flame
impingement.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 217

• Subsea isolation valves.

• Upgradation of the fire resistance capability of the firewalls.

8.4.4 Fire and Gas Detection and Safety System

8.4.4.1 Fire Protection
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of poten-
tially destructive fires. It involves the study of the behavior, compartmentalization,
suppression, and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the
research and development, production, testing, and application of mitigating systems.
Protection from fire requires knowledge of fire, fire safety alarm system, and fire
safety equipment. Knowledge of fire gives us an idea about the type of fire and the
type of fire extinguisher to be used. Fire safety alarm system and fire safety equip-
ment are used to detect and prevent fire [1].
Fire protection is of two types:

• Passive fire protection: The installation of firewalls and fire-rated floor

assemblies to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire,
high temperatures, and smoke
• Active fire protection: Manual and automatic detection and suppression of
fires, such as fire sprinkler systems and fire alarm systems.

8.4.4.2 Fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of com-
bustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Figure 8.2 describes the
fire tetrahedron.
The fire tetrahedron is a four-sided geometric representation of the four fac-
tors necessary for fire: fuel (any substance that can undergo combustion), heat

FIGURE 8.2 Fire tetrahedron [5].

218 Offshore Operations and Engineering

(heat energy sufficient to release vapor from the fuel and cause ignition), oxidizing
agent (air containing oxygen), and uninhibited chemical chain reaction (sufficient
exothermic reaction energy to produce ignition). The fuel/air ratio must be within
flammable limits, which describes the amount of vapor in air necessary to propagate
the flame. Removing any of these four factors will prevent, suppress, or control fire.

8.4.4.2.1 Classification of Fire
• Class A: Fires involving ordinary combustible materials, such as wood,
cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics.
• Class B: Fires involving flammable liquids, greases, and gases.
• Class C: Fires involving energized electrical equipment.
• Class D: Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium, and potassium.
• Class K: Fuels in this class are similar to Class B fuels, but involve
­high-temperature cooking oils and therefore have special characteristics.
Class K agents are usually wet chemicals, water-based solutions of potas-
sium carbonate-based chemicals, potassium acetate-based chemicals, or
potassium citrate-based chemicals, or a combination.

8.4.4.2.2 Fire Detection Systems

1. UV Detection System
UV detectors are utilized to give the earliest possible detection of rap-
idly developing gas and oil fires. Detectors are sensitive to radiation over
the range of 1,850–2,450 Å and insensitive to light. UV detectors are not
affected by wind, rain, humidity, or extremes of temperature or pressure
and are suitable for both indoors and outdoors [1].
2. Thermal and Smoke Detection System
Thermal detection systems detect an increase in temperature caused
by a fire, initiate an alarm signal, and actuate the automatic extinguishing
system for that particular area. When thermal detectors are located in an
enclosed room protected with a Halon 1,301 system, the signal is transmit-
ted to the fire and gas panel, which in turn produces audible and visible
alarms, sends a shutdown signal to the HVAC unit, and actuates the Halon
system [1].
3. Gas Detection System
A gas detection system is provided to detect flammable and combustible
gases before they reach a concentration that would cause a fire or explo-
sion. They are the first line of defense in prevention of human injury and
equipment damage. The layout of gas detectors on offshore facilities is
­determined by two philosophies [1]:
1. Gas detectors shall be located where leaks are most likely to occur.
2. Gas detectors shall also be located where the consequences of gas
­accumulation is the greatest.
Gas detectors are calibrated for methane and hydrogen as the gases. Gas
detectors calibrated for hydrogen only are installed in the battery rooms.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 219

4. Fusible Plug Loops

Firewater header is always maintained at a pressure of 10 KSC, and all
open deck areas in the complex are covered with a spray system. Fusible
plug loop is a ring of pressurized air tubing, which contains fusible plugs
at fixed intervals. This loop covers all the open deck process areas. When
these plugs are in contact with heat, they melt down, and the pressure of this
loop is vented to the atmosphere [1].

8.4.4.2.3 Fire Suppression Systems

1. Fire Water System:
The fire water system primarily consists of equipment to pump and
distribute water for firefighting purposes. The water for this system is salt
water taken from the sea. The pump takes suction from the sea and starts
automatically upon the command of FSD from the fire and gas panel. Fire
water sprinkler/deluge loops (Figure 8.3) located all over the open areas
spray water over the equipment and vessels [1].
2. Spray System (Figure 8.4):
Water is the most effective firefighting medium. The main use is to pro-
vide cooling, control the fire, and reduce the risk of explosion. The com-
bustible and flammable liquids are cooled to below their flashpoint, and
hence the combustion cannot be sustained. A spray deluge system consists
of a deluge valve, open-type spray nozzles, fusible plugs, and fire shutdown
valves. The spray system is actuated automatically or manually [1].
3. Sprinkler System
Sprinkler systems are installed to extinguish Class A fires, which are
likely to occur in living quarters, workshops, and storerooms. The sprin-
kler system includes manually operated isolation valves, which normally
are locked open. If a fire occurs in a room of the living quarters, the
smoke detector will be actuated by combustion gas and particles, and
fusible metal of the sprinkler head will be melted by the heat generated
by fire [1].

FIGURE 8.3 Spray system [1].

220 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.4 Spray system [1].

FIGURE 8.5 Firefighting vessels and fire extinguishers [1].

4. Dry Chemical Fire Fighting System:

Dry chemical powder is important because it is the most powerful three-
dimensional medium available. Powder is effective as an airborne cloud of
small particles, which inhibits the chemical reaction of fire. Dry chemical
extinguishing systems are considered satisfactory protection for flammable
or combustible liquids, combustible gases, and electrical hazards [1].
5. Other fire suppression system:
Halon system, firefighting vessels, fire extinguishers, etc. [1] (Figure 8.5).
Now a days, due to environmental concerns, any Ozone depleting suste-
nance is not used as fire suppression agent.

8.4.5 Safety in Logistics Operations Related to Offshore Installation

Logistic operations in offshore are very risky and hazardous, involving transfer
of man and material from sea or air to platform and vice versa. These operations
involve the risk of collision, drowning in sea, dropping of object, etc.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 221

FIGURE 8.6 Showing offshore production platform before and after collision with the ship
(left: previous and right: after) [6].

8.4.5.1 Vessel Collisions
Normally, offshore facilities are installed away from sea traffic route to minimize
any serious incident/accident with big ships. Nonetheless, the chances of collision
with isolated drifting ship/vessel cannot be ruled out. Every company has a con-
tingency plan for avoiding or mitigating such incidents or otherwise coastal state
provides support in such an eventuality. Nowadays, with the availability of satellite
communication, the level of preparedness has increased.
At the same time, collision/touching or hitting of platform by supply boat or support
boat or loading tanker cannot be ruled out. Every company has their own approved
standard operating procedures to avoid and minimize such incidents. Loading tank-
ers are normally assisted by tugboats of adequate capacity to avoid such occurrences
while loading crude from offshore platform; nonetheless, it has become more impor-
tant with the advent of FPSO [1]. These collisions sometimes can damage the entire
platform and can cause heavy economic losses, as shown in Figure 8.6.

8.4.5.2 Helicopter Incidents
Transportation of crew members and amenities is very difficult in offshore. A heli-
copter is used to transfer manpower from the shore to the offshore. Helipad of ade-
quate size and approved type is normally provided on offshore facilities/installations
to receive helicopters in favorable weather conditions. Offshore-going helicopters
are normally fitted with flotation mechanism to avoid immediate submergence in
water in case of crashing in sea.
In addition, it has been made mandatory for every personnel working on offshore
platcorm or visting an offshore platform to undergo helicopter underwater escape
training (HUET) (Figure 8.7).

8.4.5.3 Dropped Object
Involuntary dropping of any object in sea or deck during material handling may
have very severe consequences. It may lead even to fatalities in addition to damage
to above water or under water assets. Normally, handling of heavy objects by crane
222 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.7 Recovered crashed helicopter [1].

or other lifting equipment is done in safe areas to minimize any damage. Moreover,
most of the assets, either under water or above water, are designed with dropped
object protection to a greater degree.
Dropped objects can be can be caused by some of the following events:

1. Failure associated with lifting equipment

2. Load mismatch
3. Human failure related to handling
4. Unfavorable weather condition

8.4.6 Evacuation, Escape, and Rescue (EER)

Evacuation, escape, and rescue (EER) is the immediate evacuation from a place or
escape of people away from an area that contains an imminent threat, an ongoing
threat, or a hazard to lives or property. Examples range from small-scale evacua-
tion of a building due to a storm or fire to the large-scale evacuation because of a
storm, accident, or approaching weather system. In situations involving hazardous
materials or possible contamination, evacuees may be decontaminated prior to being
transported out of the contaminated area [1].

8.4.6.1 Reasons for EER

• Natural disasters
• Fires
• Accidents
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 223

8.4.6.2 Evacuation Sequence
The sequence of an evacuation can be divided into the following phases:

• Detection, decision, alarm, reaction, movement to an area of refuge or an

assembly station, and transportation.
• The time for the first four phases is usually called premovement time.
• The particular phases are different for different objects, for example,
for ships, a distinction between assembly and embarkation (to boats
or rafts) is made. These are separate from each other. The decision
whether to enter the boats or rafts is usually made after assembly is
completed [1].

8.4.6.3 Life-Saving Equipment in EER

1. Life boats: These are used for emergency evacuation from the platform
fire retardant, self-righting lifeboats are provided on all installations. Their
location is supposed to be known to each individual on board the installa-
tion. In case of any emergency, the instruction of boat supervisor/captain
must be followed without any delay/hesitation (Figure 8.8).
2. Life raft: Inflatable life rafts are provided on platforms as a backup for
­lifeboats. These are also placed at well platforms where there is no lifeboat.
Life rafts are positioned strategically and are easy to operate. Life rafts are
inflated automatically when thrown into the sea by an automatic mechanism.
3. Life buoys: These are round floatation rings fitted with an automatic light.
These rings are used for saving life when somebody accidentally goes
overboard.

FIGURE 8.8 EER equipment [1].

224 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.9 EER equipment [1].

4. Life jackets: These are floatation jackets worn for floatation.

5. Personnel baskets: These are specially designed and certified baskets for
personnel transfer from boat to platform or boat to boat using crane.
6. Scramble nets: These are specially designed nets placed strategically on
various decks and used for climbing down in an emergency.
7. Fire blankets: These are used for escaping a blaze.
8. Breathing air apparatus: Breathing apparatus is used to escape smoke or
H2S emergencies (Figure 8.9).
9. Fire suits: These are specially designed suits used for firefighting. The
operating instructions and the maintenance procedures are always attached
with these items. All personnel on board must be familiar with such equip-
ment, and location should be easily accessible and prominent.
10. Thermal protective aid: It is a bag or suit made of waterproof material
with low thermal conductance.
11. Immersion suit: It is a protective suit which reduces body heat loss of a
person wearing it in cold water.
12. Totally enclosed lifeboats:
a. Float-free launching: Launching a survival craft whereby the craft is
automatically released from sinking ship.
b. Free fall launching: Launching a survival craft whereby the craft with its
complement of persons and equipment on board is released and allowed
to fall into the sea without any restraining apparatus [1] (Figure 8.10).

• Lifeboats with self-contained air support systems must have a supply of safe
and breathable air, provided at slightly above atmospheric pressure to keep
out fumes, for a shutdown period of not <10 minutes. Air bottles are placed
beneath the seats at the bottom of the boat to meet this requirement.
• Fire-protected lifeboats must protect their occupants from the effects of
a continuous oil fire that envelopes the boat for a period not <8 minutes.
Protection for the hull is normally provided by water spray systems which
is supplied with water by a self-priming, motor-driven pump connected to
the main engine. An “on-off” valve is provided on the pump’s suction pipe
to ensure that the water spray can be turned off when not required.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 225

FIGURE 8.10 Free-fall launching [1].

• Propulsion: Completely enclosed lifeboats must be capable of a speed

of at least 6 knots and have sufficient fuel to maintain this speed for not
<24 hours. They must also be able to tow a loaded 25 people life raft at a
speed of at least 2 knots, if required [1].

8.5 NAVIGATION AIDS
A navigational aid is a marker that aids the traveler in navigation, usually nautical
or aviation travel. Common navigation aids include lighthouses, buoys, fog signals,
and day beacons. Figure 8.11 displays the different types of navigational aids utilized
during offshore operation and engineering.
To avoid potential hazards caused by to and fro movements of ship navigation aids
are utilized. Navigational aids are used to:

a. avoid dangerous zones like offshore production risers/gas pipelines

b. locate ports during night and bad weather condition
c. follow proper vessel approaches

The different types of navigational aids include:

1. Fixed-type
a. Lighthouse: It is a tower structure built of masonry or reinforced con-
crete. Beacon light is provided. Tower is divided into a number of floors
and is made strong enough to withstand heavy wave motion. Usually, it
is designed in such a way that the lights are visible up till 30 km.
226 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.11 Different navigational aids on an offshore structure (Tideland Offshore

Systems) [7].

b. Beacon lights: Beacon light is fixed or flashing for easy identification by

vessels. It is used in groups for alignment or change in direction.
2. Floating type:
a. Buoys: These are small-sized floating structures, generally in the form
of large cylindrical cans and drums.
– Different types of buoys are:
1. Luminous boys
2. Audible buoys or bell buoys
3. Mooring buoys
b. Lightships are used in locations where it is not practical to build light-
houses, small ships are used for the purpose. The bulls of lightships are
generally painted with red color. They are generally held in position by
anchoring or mooring.

8.5.1 Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB)/

Search and Rescue Transponder (SART)
• These are present on all ships, other than those operating within vhf range
of coast stations and equipped with vhf EPIRB (currently operating on
121.5 MHz, a float-free satellite EPIRB.) This operates in the 406-MHz
band, which allows for its location by polar orbiting satellites of the
COSPAS-SARSAT systems. The position of beacon can be determined by
analyzing the Doppler shift of radiofrequency which occurs when satellite
passes within its transmitting range [8].
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 227

• The EPIRB signal includes a short-coded message which provides SAR

authorities information concerning the type of beacon, the manufac-
turer’s serial, and whether it has any extra homing devices fitted to it,
such as a radar transponder (9 GHz) or VHF transmitter (121.5 MHz or
VHF 16) [8].
• Information on 406 MHz can be stored and processed aboard the satellite
and then transmitted down to the next receiving ground station. Although in
some areas this may mean a delay of 2 or 3 hours before the rescue authori-
ties are made aware of a beacon alert, it does give the system virtual world-
wide coverage. An EPIRB must be capable of being manually operated or
of operating automatically after breaking free of the vessel after immersion
to a depth of not more than 4 m [8].
• It is capable of transmitting continuously for a period of not <48 hours and
has batteries that do not need replacement at more than yearly intervals. It
is of a highly visible color, fitted with reflecting material, and is capable of
floating upright in calm water. An indicating light is incorporated in it to
show the user that the EPIRB is transmitting signals [8].
• Recent advancement in navigation aids include [7]:
1. Lighted beacons and floating aids.
2. Radio aids and automatic identification system (AIS)
3. Audible aids and power sources
4. Support structures

In addition, pyrotechnics with the help of parachutes are utilized for navigation and
safety purposes.

8.5.2 Pyrotechnics
• All pyrotechnics have a storage life of 3 years and display their date of
manufacture and expiry date. Out-of-date pyrotechnics should never be
used for testing or practice purposes, as there is a possibility that the chemi-
cals may have deteriorated with age. If expired, pyrotechnics have to be
disposed off at sea; they must be weighted and dumped in deepwater well
away from land. If this is not done, there is always a possibility that they
will be washed away ashore and cause injury to the members of the public,
especially children, who may tamper with them [8].
• At least 12 should be present on passenger and cargo ships, in addition
to those required aboard survival craft. Four are carried in most life-
boats and two are carried in life rafts. Single red flare suspended on a
­parachute. Luminous intensity not <30,000 candelas. Burn time at least
40 ­seconds. Altitude attained at least 300 m. Descend rate not more than
5 m/s. Approximate range 20–25 miles [1] (Figure 8.12).
228 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.12 Rocket parachute flares used in navigation aids [8].

8.6 WELL INTEGRITY
Well integrity is one of the factors that play a major role in preventing any kind
of hazard on offshore or even on onshore platforms. Well integrity depends on the
­following features, which include well barriers and operational decisions during
an event:

• Design flaws when long-term effects are not sufficiently considered.

• Improper selection of tubing, casing, or any other well equipment during
drilling and well completions.
• Inadequate use of most updated techniques during well completions.
• Operational decisions during abnormal situations often lead to well failure.

The challenge is to account for rare events that may lead to major incidents.
The ­normal approach is to focus on frequent and low-consequence incidents.
Well barriers are equipment that are utilized during drilling and well completions.
These prevent the uncontrolled flow of HC’s into the well. The clear-cut definition
and description of each well barrier is made before commencement of an activity
or operation as per the specific acceptance criteria of well barrier elements (WBE).
Well barrier acceptance criteria are technical, and operational requirements need to
be fulfilled to certify the well barrier or WBE for its intended use [9].

• Most integrity problems are within barrier elements such as tubing, annu-
lus safety valves (ASVs), casing, cement, and wellhead. Some of the well
integrity problems faced and the category of barrier element failure are
listed below [9].
• Some tubing problems are leakage in production tubing above the
downhole safety valve (DHSV), tubing-to-annulus leakage, or internal
leak in tubing-hanger neck seal.
• Some of the problems with ASVs are ASV leakage or ASV failure.
• Casing problems such as casing leakage (connections that are not
gas-tight) or collapsed casing.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 229

• Cement problems such as no cement behind the casing and above the
production packer, leaks likely along cement bonds, or leak through
cement microannulus.
• Wellhead problems include leakage in wellhead from Annulus A to
Annulus B because of a wrong seal type in the wellhead [9].
• Tubing leakage is a dominant factor in failure (39%) in wells aged 0
to 19 years. Wells aged 0 to 14 years have barrier element issues such
as tubing, ASV, and cement. Wells aged 15 to 29 years have barrier
­element issues such as tubing, casing, and pack-offs [9].

Thus, well integrity deteriorates as well barrier deteriorates with time, and there-
fore, caution should be taken during designing and installation of each well barrier,
­otherwise the following well failures can occur.

8.6.1 Well Failure: Example 1

During workover of a well on a production platform, the load-bearing surface casing
collapsed, resulting in a wellhead that dropped onto the platform structure. The root
cause was severe corrosion near the top of the surface-casing annulus. Corrosive
seawater gained access through a cement port that was left open during the drill-
ing phase. Temperature and tidal variations through platform shaft leaks were
accompanying factors. The particular well was shut for approximately 1 year before
­production commenced [9].

8.6.2 Well Failure: Example 2

The operator had installed a specially designed “slim” wellhead in a field. The cas-
ing hanger had only 8° taper as opposed to the usual 40°. During pressure testing,
the casing hanger was pulled through the wellhead. Later, the operating company
experienced a similar incident with a tubing hanger. The root cause of the failures
was axial overload because the slim wellhead tapers had limited capacity. The
wellhead capacity had been uprated from 350 tons to 600 tons. The investigation
report, however, showed that the manufacturer test had failed, leaving it incorrect
to allow such an uprating. After these incidents, the operating company limited the
load to the initial design value. Another finding in this case was that the ­operator
did not have in place an updated well design manual. This was corrected after
the audit [9].
Figure 8.13 explains the severity of incident which occurred due to well integrity
failure in 2010. This is one of the biggest incident which resulted in a huge loss of
lives and money, as well as environmental damage. This also raised the question
about the seriousness of companies during offshore operations.
Thus, we need to ensure best practices and update techniques of design, installa-
tion, and operational decisions during offshore operations. The failure to do so can
result in costliest and deadliest incidents. The next section discusses the costliest and
deadliest incidents which have occurred in the world during offshore operations and
engineering.
230 Offshore Operations and Engineering

FIGURE 8.13 Well integrity problems resulting in the Macondo blowout (Deepwater
Horizon Incident) [10].

8.7 L IFE EXTENSION AND ASSESSMENT

OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
It is essential to conduct assessment of offshore structures to avoid untoward
­incidents like failure of member of structure or structural collapse or any such
incident in offshore.

8.7.1 Structural Collapse
Structural collapse can also pose a major hazard, and thus, extreme caution is taken
during its design and selection of the materials for the structure. Extreme care is taken
during installation to avoid any mishandling as it may have a bigger ­consequential
effect. To ensure strength of the structures, simulation of 100 years is conducted
under assumptions of extreme conditions of offshore environment. If proper caution
is not taken, then structures can collapse, as shown in Figure 8.14. It is essential to
assess integrity of structure to avoid any such incident.
An increasing number of offshore platforms are reaching their design life. For
various reasons, these platforms will require an assessment of their structural integ-
rity. For example, one may experience operational changes of the platform that may
lead to increased loads or there may be damages that reduce the structural capacity.
Consequently, the design premises may have changed significantly and may result in
increased uncertainty about the safety of the structure. In such cases, the assessment
process focuses on reassuring that the structure has adequate safety [4].
Design standards are based on theories, methods, and experience for structures in
a given design life (e.g. fatigue design and corrosion protection design). Sound meth-
ods are required for better understanding the life and strength of structures. Such
methods can normally be “operating condition-based design”, where inspection,
maintenance, and repairs are included in the assessment in an integrated manner [4].
Figure 8.15 illustrates the assessment process during life execution of the
structures.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 231

FIGURE 8.14 Offshore structure collapse [11].

FIGURE 8.15 Assessment for life execution of offshore structures [4].

8.8 ASSESSMENT PROCESS
The process for assessment of an existing offshore structure is described in ISO
19902 (2007), and may be illustrated as shown in Figure 8.15. It illustrates how
inspection and assessment play a major role in checking the status of various safety
barriers [4]. The following challenges are encountered in reliable assessment:

• Quality of data
• Proof of structural integrity with increased loads
• Capacity and performance of damaged structures
• Extended life
232 Offshore Operations and Engineering

8.8.1 Quality of Data
• Lack of documents, lack of reliable updation of data during the lifecycle
of operations and structures, lack of information, lack of awareness, and
sometimes data manipulation results in unreliable and incorrect assessment.
• Compared with ordinary design work, the task of assessing an existing
structure is often followed by uncertainties about important structural
parameters. Even if design documents were produced during the construc-
tion phase, often there are cases where not all of the required documents are
available and their questions about their correctness. As built documents
are not always produced, there are cases where important information is
missing in the documents.
• Most structures used by the oil industry undergo small or large modifica-
tions during the service life of the installation, and therefore, it is often
necessary to consult a change register to check what documents comprise
relevant information about the current structure. Depending upon the com-
plexity of the installation and the completeness of the change register, it can
prove difficult to read correct structural information from documents with-
out performing on-site inspections. Measurements may be required both for
geometry and material properties.
• The condition of the structure is another source of uncertainty for the
structural assessment. Structural surveys may be insufficient for the prob-
lem at hand or survey reports, especially older reports, may not be easily
available. In some cases, the accuracy of the surveys is questioned as they
may have been performed with a different focus than needed for structural
assessments.
• For complex installations having a long operational life, it will prove most
efficient to use a product-based data storage system for swift access and
storage of all data relevant for the structural assessment. An example is ses-
ame structure integrity system where data is systematically stored to assist
the operator with all aspects of the information handling when o­ perating
offshore structures [4].

8.8.2 Proof of Structural Integrity with Increased Loads

• The consequences of a structure failing a check for structural integrity at
the design stage will often mean a change in the dimensions on the draw-
ing and marginal increase in material and fabrication cost. Even during
the construction phase, there are possibilities to perform reasonable large
reinforcements without considerable cost or schedule impacts. During
­operation, even small structural modifications may be of significant cost,
especially if it involves production shutdown or underwater work.
• Therefore, there are strong incitements to remove unnecessary conservatism
in checking the structural integrity of existing structures. Detailed knowl-
edge of all topics is relevant for the assessment of offshore structures from
consideration of the environmental parameters and their combinations,
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 233

load calculations, and the determination of structural resistance represent

a resource to avoid costly reinforcements or premature shutdown of the
installation. This means that traditionally adopted design methods, as pre-
sented in design codes, need to be supplemented by more refined methods
to achieve optimum operations of the structure [4]. Thus, periodic updation
of the design methods with technology advancement is required for a reli-
able assessment process.

8.8.3 Capacity and Performance of Damaged Structures

• Structures that are damaged due to ship collisions, dropped objects, extreme
temperatures from fires, or from degrading processes like corrosion and
fatigue will loose their structural load-carrying capacity. Similarly, as for
the situation with increased loads, it is always beneficial to check if the
requirements regarding structural integrity are met without performing
repair work. Thus, we need to be more careful and meticulous during selec-
tion of methods for the best assessment of damaged structures.

8.8.4 Extended Life
• The time-dependent degrading processes such as corrosion and fatigue
may result in threat against the structural integrity of a structure. Structural
integrity may need to be reviewed for extended life due to modification/
changes carried out during the lifetime on account of change in process
parameters and/or environmental conditions. Consequently, the structure
has to be designed to maintain its integrity for a certain time called the
design life. Within the design life, the degrading processes is assumed not
to impair the structural integrity provided that the design presumptions are
fulfilled. The presumption includes maintenance of corrosion protection
systems and inspections to detect possible fatigue cracks. The structural
integrity of the structure needs to be revisited to extend the designed life of
offshore process facilities for continued operation.
• In the simplest case of assessment, one may find that the corrosion protec-
tion system is adequately protecting the structure, and that any material
loss or additional loads put up due to modification is within the originally
defined limits, and that a new calculated fatigue life is sufficient for an
extended period. However, in other cases, it may be necessary to consider
larger material loss than planned due to corrosion, and that the calculated
fatigue life is less than required. In these cases, it will be possible to prove
adequate structural integrity by using more refined methods for assessing
the structural capacity. This is valid both for the presence of corrosion out-
side the original limits and for structures with cracks. More refined meth-
ods can also change the conclusions about the remaining fatigue life.
• However, even without proving a theoretical fatigue life, safe operations of
the structure can be achieved by the knowledge gained from the in-service
experience of the structure. The information of the behavior of a platform
234 Offshore Operations and Engineering

that for a long time has been regularly inspected is of large value to prove
that a structure may have a practical fatigue life that surpasses the theoreti-
cal fatigue life. By conducting adequate and carefully planned inspection, a
structure may be safely operated considerably longer than what is predicted
by theoretical fatigue analyses [4].

8.9 IMO RESOLUTIONS
• The IMO has adopted a number of resolutions in relation to the safety and
protection of offshore oil installations, particularly with respect to safety
zones around such installations. Resolution A.341 (IX) contains recom-
mendations on the dissemination of information, charting, and manning
of drilling rigs, production platforms, and other similar structures [12].
Resolution A.379(X) provides a recommendation for the establishment
of safety zones in offshore exploration areas. Resolutions A.621 (15) and
A.671 (16) contain certain provisions in relation to safety zones and to
­prevent the ­infringement of safety zones. These two resolutions will be
­discussed below [13].

8.9.1 Resolution A. 621(15)
• The Resolution recommends that vessels which are passing close to offshore
installations or structures navigate with care when passing near offshore
installations, take early and substantial avoidance action when approaching
such installations, use any designated routing systems established in the area,
and maintain a continuous listening watch on the navigation bridge on VHF
channel 16 when navigating near-offshore installations to allow radio contact
to be established between installations, vessel traffic services, and vessels [12].
• The Resolution further recommends that the coastal state which has author-
ity and jurisdiction to regulate the use and operation of offshore installa-
tions issue early notices to mariners by appropriate means to advise vessels
of the location or intended location of offshore installations or structures,
the breadth of any safety zones, and the rules which apply therein. It is
also recommended that the coastal state require operators of offshore
­installations to take adequate measures, such as effective lights and sound
signals, to prevent the infringement of safety zones around such offshore
installations or structures. Finally, it is recommended that the coastal state
request operators of offshore installations to report actions by vessels which
jeopardize safety, including the infringement of safety zones [13].

8.9.2 Resolution A. 671(16)
• The Resolution recommends that governments consider where traffic
­patterns warrant the establishment of safety zones around offshore instal-
lations or structures [14]. It is recommended that governments take all the
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 235

necessary steps to ensure that, unless specifically authorized, ships flying

their flags do not enter or pass through duly established safety zones. The
Annex of the Resolution further provides certain recommendations with
respect to the dissemination of information related to offshore installations
and structures. For example, the coastal state should be responsible for the
dissemination of information essential for the safety of navigation or any
other legitimate activities within the area in which, in accordance with
international law, it has sovereign rights and jurisdiction [12]. Details of
any safety zone around the installation or structure and any fairways and
routing systems established in its vicinity including, where relevant, their
marking [12], should be taken into account to deal with the dissemination
of information. Any features of a sufficiently permanent nature, such as
permanent installations or structures, bottom obstructions, pipelines, navi-
gational mark sand prohibited areas, should be shown on all appropriate
navigational charts [13].

8.10 OFFSHORE FACILITIES INTERFERENCE

8.10.1 Protection of Offshore Facilities/Rigs
• Offshore oil rigs/facilities may collide with ships and other sea-going
­structures. This may lead to loss of life, sea pollution, and economic dam-
age. For example, during 1973 to July 1995, a total of 463 incidents of
vessels colliding with offshore oil installations were recorded on the UK
continental shelf. Offshore oil installations may also be damaged by the
acts of other users of the sea [15]. They further may be subject to military
and/or terrorist attack. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has
adopted certain regulations to ensure the safety of oil rigs/facilities and
to prevent the infringement of safety zones around offshore installations
or structures. The establishment of a safety zone around oil rigs/facilities
is one of most effective ways to protect them from collision and/or other
dangers.
• A limit of 500 m for safety zones around oil rigs/facilities was concluded
at UNCLOS III because different states could not agree on anything else.
Although, according to the LOSC, a wider safety zone, as authorized by
generally accepted international standards or as recommended by the com-
petent international organization, can be established, no recommendation
on the extenuation of safety zones beyond 500 m has been made by the
competent IMO. Safety zones may be established around both mobile and
fixed oil platforms.
• It seems that the establishment of safety zones around oil rigs/facilities is
not a sufficient measure to prevent collision between oil installations and
ships. The statistics for collisions between oil rigs and ships in the North
Sea indicate that the 500 m safety zones have not been effective enough to
prevent collisions [13].
236 Offshore Operations and Engineering

8.11 COSTLIEST AND DEADLIEST EVENTS

IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
8.11.1 Bohai 2 Oil Rig Disaster, China (1979)
• The Bohai 2 oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Bohai off the coast of China in
November 1979 is the sixth most fatal offshore oil rig disaster. It caused the
death of 72 out of 76 people on board as the Bohai 2 jackup rig capsized
and toppled in sea.
• The accident was caused by a storm which occurred while the rig was being
towed. Fierce winds broke the ventilator pump of the platform causing a
puncture hole in the deck resulting in extensive flooding.
• The loss of stability due to flooding coupled with severe weather conditions
eventually led to the capsizing of the jackup. The accompanying tow boat could
not rescue the crew members, who were also believed to lack proper training
on emergency evacuation procedures and the use of lifesaving equipment.
• The post-disaster investigations reported a failure in correctly stowing the
deck equipment prior to towing. It was also reported that standard tow pro-
cedures were not followed given the bad weather conditions. The sunken
jackup rig was eventually salvaged with explosives by the Yantai Salvage
Company in April 1981 [13,15].

8.11.2 Alexander L. Kielland, North Sea, Norway (1980)

• The Alexander L. Kielland was a semi-submersible platform accommodat-
ing the workers of the bridge-linked Edda oil rig in the Ekofisk field, about
235 miles east of Dundee, Scotland, in the Norwegian continental shelf.
The platform, operated by Phillips Petroleum, capsized in March 1980,
killing 123 people.
• Only 89 out of the 212 workers survived the accident and most died by
drowning as the platform turned upside down in deep waters. The platform
capsized after the failure of one of the bracings attached to one leg of the
five-legged platform structure after strong winds created waves of up to
12 m high on the day of the accident.
• Once the first broke, all bracings attached to the leg failed in succession, the
platform lost one of its five legs, and the entire structure tilted 30°. Five of
the six anchor cables snapped but the platform was stabilized for some time
by the remaining single cable, which ultimately snapped.
• Official investigation concluded that the root cause of the accident was an unde-
tected fatigue crack in the weld of an instrument connection on the bracing [13].

8.11.3 Ocean Ranger Oil Rig Disaster, Canada (1982)

• The Ocean Ranger oil drilling rig disaster which occurred in the North
Atlantic Sea off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada, on 15 February 1982
is one of the deadliest offshore oil rig accidents in history. The offshore oil
drilling capsized and sank, killing 84 crew members on board.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 237

• The semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling rig owned by Ocean Drilling

and Exploration Company (ODECO) was hired by Mobil Oil, Canada for
drilling exploration well at Hibernia field at the time of the accident. One of
the biggest rigs built by then, the 25,000 ft rig was 396 ft long, 262 ft wide,
and 337 ft tall, with the capacity to operate 1,500 ft beneath water and drill
up to a depth of 25,000 ft below the seabed.
• The rig capsized due to a very strong storm which produced 190 km/h winds
and up to 65 ft (20 m) high waves. On February 14, 1982, it was reported
that a port hole window had broken and water had entered into the ballast
control room of the Ocean Ranger. The ballast control panel was noticed to
be malfunctioning 2 hours later.
• Crew workers abandoned the rig and moved into lifeboat stations but only
one lifeboat with 36 crew members inside could be launched successfully.
At least 20 crew were reported to be in the water before the rig sank between
3:07 am and 3:13 am after staying afloat for about one and half hours [13].

8.11.4 Glomar Java Sea Drillship Disaster, South China Sea (1983)

• The Glomar Java Sea Drillship disaster which occurred on 25 October 1983
in the South China Sea caused the death of 81 people when the drillship
capsized and sank at a depth of 317 ft about 63 nautical miles south-west of
Hainan Island, China, 80 nautical miles east of Vietnam.
• The 5,930 ft Glomar Java Sea drillship was built by the Levingston
Shipbuilding Company of Orange, Texas, in 1975 and delivered to Global
Marine. The 400 ft long drillship was contracted to ARCO China at the time
of the disaster. The vessel had performed drilling for ARCO in the Gulf of
Mexico between 1975 and 1881 and operated off the coast of California
for some time before its arrival in the South China Sea in January 1983.
Operations ceased prior to the arrival of tropical Storm Lex as it approached
from the east of the drilling site. Global Marine’s office in Houston, Texas
reported that the drillship was experiencing 75 kt (138.9 km/h) winds over
the bow, but the contact was abruptly lost.
• No survivors were found in the extensive search operation conducted there-
after. The wrecked drillship was found in an inverted position 1,600 ft
southwest of the drilling site. Only 36 bodies were found and the remaining
45 crew members were presumed dead [13].

8.11.5 Enchova Central Platform Disaster, Brazil (1984)

• The Enchova Central Platform disaster in the Campos Basin near Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, killed 42 people in August 1984. The accident occurred
due to a blowout which caused a fire and explosion at the central platform
of the Enchova field operated by Petrobras.
• Most workers were evacuated from the platform by lifeboats and heli-
copter except for 42 workers who lost their lives during the evacuation
­process. Malfunctioning of the lowering mechanism of a lifeboat caused
238 Offshore Operations and Engineering

the death of 36, while 6 died as they jumped from the platform into the
sea. The lifeboat remained vertically suspended because of the failure of
the bow hook and eventually fell 20 m deep into the sea as its supporting
cables snapped.
• Another disaster struck the Enchova platform on April 24, 1988 as one of its
21 wells blew out and eventually ignited. The well suffered a blowout while
undergoing a workover to convert it from oil production to gas production.
The fire caused by the blowout on the platform led to massive damage top-
side, however, all the workers were safely evacuated to the nearby floating
accommodation ship without a single casualty.
• The platform remained on fire for a month and Petrobras eventually drilled
two relief wells to control the blowout. The platform was declared a total
loss and replaced by a new facility that commenced production nearly
18 months after the accident [13].

8.11.6 Piper Alpha, North Sea, United Kingdom (1988)

• The Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea, UK, which killed 167 people in
July 1988, is the deadliest offshore oil rig accident in history. Discovered
in 1973 and brought on-stream in 1976, Piper Alpha was one of the biggest
offshore oil platforms in the UK producing more than 300,000 barrels of
crude a day (about 10% of the country’s total crude production). The off-
shore platform started producing gas in the early 1980s and had three main
gas transport risers and an oil export riser before disaster struck, destroying
the entire facility causing an estimated loss of $1.4 bn.
• The Piper Alpha disaster occurred due to gas leakage from one of the con-
densate pipes at the platform on July 6, 1988. The pressure safety valve of
the corresponding condensate-injection pump was removed during the day
as part of the routine pump maintenance. The open condensate pipe was
temporarily sealed with two blind flanges. The temporary disc cover, how-
ever, remained in place during shift change in the evening as maintenance
work was not complete. The condensate-injection pump was not supposed
to be switched on under any circumstances.
• Communication errors, however, led the night crew staff at the platform to
turn on the pump after the other pump tripped. It resulted in leakage of gas
condensate from the two blind flanges causing gas ignition and serial explo-
sions on the platform. Only 61 out of the 226 workers survived the disaster
and it took close to 3 weeks to control the fire.
• At the time of the disaster, the platform was managed by Occidental
in block 15 of the UK Continental Shelf about 120 miles northeast of
Aberdeen [13].
• A committee was formed to understand the reasons of the incidents and
following were their findings [16]:
• Failure of permit to work system.
• No formal handover from day shift to night shift.
• Non-compliance to company procedures.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 239

• Company management was easily satisfied with the safety system (lack
of control).
• No proper training; safety policies were in place but not practiced.
• Emergency induction was not provided or inconsistently given.
• No drills or exercises were conducted to test emergency preparedness.
• No emergency response training was provided.
• Failure to conduct risk assessment.
• Inadequate guidance or means to assess the effectiveness of the safety
management system.
• Poor management system [16].

8.11.7 Seacrest Drillship Disaster, South China Sea, Thailand (1989)

• The Seacrest Drillship disaster in the South China Sea 430 km south of
Bangkok, Thailand killed 91 crew men on the November 3, 1989. The
4,400 ft drillship was anchored for drilling at the Platong gas field, owned
and operated by Unocal. The drillship was capsized by the Typhoon Gay
which produced 40 ft high waves on the day of the accident.
• The Seacrest drillship, also known as The Scan Queen, had been operational
in the Gulf of Thailand since 1981 as a drillship for Unocal. The drillship
was reported missing on November 4, 1989, and was found floating upside-
down by a search helicopter the next day. The capsize was believed to be so
quick that there was no distress signal and no time for the crew members to
respond to the disaster.
• Just 6 out of the 97 crew members on board were rescued by fishing boats
and the Thai Navy. Apart from the severe weather conditions, the seawor-
thiness of the drillship was questioned as the likely cause for the tragedy.
• The ship also had 12,500 ft of drillpipe in its derrick, which was believed to
have resulted in an unstable high center of gravity [13].

8.11.8 Mumbai High North Disaster, Indian Ocean (2005)

• The Mumbai High North disaster on 27 July 2005 in the Arabian Sea,
around 160 km west of the Mumbai coast, killed 22 people. Mumbai High
North, one of the producing platforms of the Mumbai High field owned and
operated by India-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) caught
fire after a collision with the multipurpose support vessel (MSV), Samudra
Suraksha.
• Strong swells pushed the MSV toward the platform hitting the rear part of
the vessel causing rupture of one or more of the platform’s gas export risers.
The resultant gas leakage led to ignition that set the platform on fire. Heat
radiation also caused damage to the MSV and the Noble Charlie Yester
jackup rig engaged in drilling operation near the platform.
• The accident caused significant oil spill and a production loss of about
120,000 barrels of oil and about 4.4 million cubic meters of gas a day.
ONGC opened a new platform at Mumbai High North in October 2012 [13].
240 Offshore Operations and Engineering

8.11.9 Usumacinta Jackup Disaster, Gulf of Mexico (2007)

• The Usumacinta Jackup disaster on October 23, 2007 in the Gulf of Mexico
claimed 22 lives after a collision with the PEMEX-operated Kab-101 plat-
form in the Bay of Campeche.
• The Usumacinta Jackup was positioned alongside the Kab-101 platform to
complete drilling of the Kab-103 well. A storm with winds of 130 km/h
and up to 8 m of waves created an oscillating movement, which eventually
caused its cantilever deck to hit the production valve tree on the Kab-101
platform.
• The collision resulted in oil and gas leakage leading to the closure of the safety
valves of two production wells at the platform. The crew members were,
however, unable to seal the valves completely, which resulted in ­continued
leakage of oil and gas, which eventually ignited causing fires on the plat-
form. Twenty-one people were declared to have died ­during the ­evacuation,
and one worker missing in the rescue operation was presumed dead.
• The Usumacinta Jackup also suffered two more fire breakouts in the fol-
lowing month during well control operations. The fire was, however,
­extinguished without any loss of life, and complete control of the well was
achieved by the middle of December 2007. Approximately 5,000 barrels of
oil were reported to have lost from the well without being recovered [13].

8.11.10 Deepwater Horizon, Gulf of Mexico (2010)

• On April 20, 2010 the Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit, The Deepwater
Horizon was completing drilling operations at the Macondo Well located
50 miles off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico.
• During the drilling operations aiming to temporarily abandon the well (for
subsequent completion as a subsea producer), there was a loss in well con-
trol resulting in an influx of formation fluids known as a kick, which even-
tually resulted in the release of voluminous amounts of liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons.
• The culmination of the hazardous volume of the same resulted in explosion
claiming the loss of 11 lives. The rig eventually sank and leading to the
loss of the Deepwater Horizon and resulting in continuous oil spill for the
next 87 days. This incident is popularly known now as the British Oil Spill
owing to a huge environmental catastrophe in the history of oil and gas.
• The event occurred due to lack of best practices followed by BP during well
completions, and finally BP was heavily penalized for this negligibility by
the court of law in United States.

8.12 OFFSHORE SECURITY THREATS

Attacking offshore oil and gas installations is not a new phenomenon. In fact, the
first attack on an offshore oil installation took place more than 100 years ago on
August 2, 1899 off the shores of Santa Barbara, California. In the last 25 years
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 241

there have been about 50 attacks and security incidents involving offshore instal-
lations. These were carried out by various perpetrators with different motivations,
objectives, tactics, and capabilities. These include terrorists, insurgents, pirates,
criminal syndicates, environmental activists, anti-oil activists and other types of
protesters, hostile nation-states, and sometimes other unknown groups and individu-
als [17]. Any unlawful interference with offshore oil and gas operations or an act of
­violence directed toward offshore installations is considered an “offshore security
threat:. Offshore security threats may be classified in several ways based on differ-
ent ­criteria. One such classification is based on geographical criteria, such as local
or global, national or transnational. The attacks may come from various sources:
individuals or groups, internal or external to a state, or a combination of both. This
article categorizes threats faced by offshore oil and gas installations based on the
type of activity [18].

8.12.1 Piracy
• Piracy is one of the most visible security threats to offshore oil and gas
installations, as exemplified by activities in the Gulf of Guinea. In the last
7 years at least six pirate attacks have been reported worldwide. Four of
these took place in the Gulf of Guinea (the April 1, 2007 attack on Bulford
Dolphin mobile offshore drilling rig; May 3, 2007 attack on FPSO (floating
production, storage, and offloading vessel) Mystras; May 5, 2007 attack
on Trident VIII offshore rig; January 5, 2010 attack on FSO Westaf). One
attack took place near India in 2007 (the March 22, 2007 attack on Aban
VII jackup rig) and one near Tanzania in 2011 (the October 3, 2011 attack
on Ocean Rig Poseidon drill ship). Apparently, there was another attack
off Tanzania on a drillship contracted to Ophir Energy in September 2010;
however, that attack is not reported in the IMO reports on piracy [18].

8.12.2 Terrorism
• Terrorism is another security threat to offshore oil and gas installations.
To date, there have been only two terrorist attacks against offshore instal-
lations. On April 24, 2004, in Iraq, Iraq’s Al Basrah Oil Terminal (ABOT)
and the Khawr Al Amaya Oil Terminal (KAAOT) in the Persian Gulf were
attacked nearly simultaneously by suicide boats; these attacks were alleg-
edly carried out by the Al-Qaeda-affiliated Zarqawi network based in Iraq.
Although largely unsuccessful from a physical asset standpoint, they did
result in three fatalities and closure of the terminals for about a day, conse-
quently resulting in loss of revenue due to a production shutdown [18].

8.12.3 Insurgency
• Insurgency is motivated by political struggle and insurgents often causing
destruction, damage, and casualties to offshore installations. Insurgency
groups are responsible for about one-third of attacks and security incidents
242 Offshore Operations and Engineering

involving offshore installations, most of which occurred in the Gulf

of Guinea. For example, between 2006 and 2010, the Movement for the
Emancipation of Niger Delta (MEND) insurgency group carried out at least
13 attacks on offshore oil and gas installations in the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria as part of their campaign against the oil and gas industry to achieve
fair distribution of oil profits and compensation from oil companies. These
include the attack on the Bonga FPSO by militants about 90 nautical miles
offshore on June 19, 2008 and the bombing of Forcados offshore oil loading
terminal on June 29, 2009 [18].

8.12.4 Organized Crime
• Organized crime can also interfere with offshore oil and gas opera-
tions. The types of crimes relevant to the oil and gas industry include
oil theft, extortion, armed robbery, theft of property, and other forms of
­criminal profiteering. There have been at least two reported attacks on
offshore installations involving organized criminal groups. These are the
attack on the mobile offshore drilling rig Allied Centurion in Malaysia
on December 26, 2008, where a group of armed robbers boarded the
drilling rig and stole stores of goods and property. Another incident
that can be attributed to organized crime is the attack on the offshore
Moudi oil terminal in Cameroon on November 17, 2010 by a “hybrid
criminal/­separatist” group called Africa Marine Commando (AMC),
apparently for failure to pay a “security tax” previously demanded by the
­perpetrators [18].

8.12.5 Civil Protest
• Civil protest also poses a security threat to offshore oil and gas installations.
Interferences with offshore operations can be caused by non-violent envi-
ronmental activists, indigenous activists, labor activists, striking workers,
and anti-government protesters. Greenpeace activists have caused interfer-
ences with operations of offshore installations on several occasions, includ-
ing an attempt to board an oil rig about 170 nautical miles off the coast of
Massachusetts in the United States on July 25, 1981, unauthorized boarding
and occupation of Shell’s Brent Spar floating offshore oil storage facility
in the North Sea on April 30, 1995, an unauthorized boarding of the Stena
Don offshore drilling rig off the coast of Greenland on August 31, 2010,
interference with operations of the Stena Carron drillship in the waters off
the Shetland Islands northeast of mainland Britain in the UK on September
21, 2010, and the unauthorized boarding of LeivEiriksson offshore drilling
rig in Turkish waters. There have been other offshore security incidents
caused by civil protest such as an unauthorized boarding of Parabe off-
shore oil production platform by protesters in Nigeria on May 25, 1998, and
the seizure of offshore installations by striking oil workers off the coast of
Nigeria in April 2003 [18].
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 243

8.12.6 Interstate Hostilities
• Certain conduct or actions of nation-states may also represent a security
threat to offshore installations. These can be in the form of interstate armed
conflicts and wars, maritime boundary disputes, and state terrorism. There
have been at least six security incidents involving actions of hostile states
including the attack in March 1983 by Iraqi planes on the Iranian offshore
platform at the Nowruz oil field; the October 19, 1987 attack on the Iranian
R-7 and R-4 offshore oil platforms in Reshadat and the April 18, 1988 attack
on Iranian offshore oil complexes, Salman (aka Sassan) and Nasr (aka Sirri)
by US military. Other examples are the June 3, 2000 incident where the
Suriname Navy ordered American-owned and operated offshore oil drill-
ing rig, CE Thornton, to stop drilling and leave the area and threatened to
use force if its demands were not complied [18].

8.12.7 Vandalism
• Vandalism is another security threat to offshore oil and gas installations.
Vandalism can be referred to as “damaging cargo, support equipment, infra-
structure, systems or facilities” (Australian Government, Department of
Transport and Regional Services, Offshore Security Assessment Guidance
Paper (2005): 15). This category of threat can include violent actions of rad-
ical environmental and animal rights groups and acts by members of local
populations intended to cause damage to company property. For example,
on August 2, 1899, in the United States, when an oil company began to con-
struct an oil derrick off the shores of Montecito, an affluent suburb of Santa
Barbara, California, a local mob attacked the rig and demolished it (Harvey
Molotch, William Freudenberg and Krista Paulsen, “History Repeats Itself,
But How? City Character, Urban Tradition, and the Accomplishment of
Place” American Sociological Review 65 (2000): 804) [18].

8.12.8 Internal Sabotage
• Internal sabotage is also a potential security threat to offshore oil and gas
installations. Sabotage can be defined as “the deliberate destruction, disrup-
tion or damage of equipment” by dissatisfied employees. The threat of inter-
nal sabotage comes from “insiders” such as current and former employees
of oil companies, contractors, offshore service providers, and other trusted
persons affiliated with the offshore oil and gas industry. For the purposes of
this analysis, intentional disclosure of sensitive/confidential information to
third parties is also considered to be a form of internal sabotage. Malicious
actions of disgruntled, dishonest, or terminated employees or other insid-
ers, including collusion between insiders and external adversaries, in car-
rying out or planning an attack can cause serious disruption to oil and gas
installations and operations. There have been several reported instances of
participation of insiders in attacks against the oil and gas industry, however,
none of those specifically involved offshore installations [18].
244 Offshore Operations and Engineering

8.13 TRAININGS
As offshore operation is prone to hazard, it is advisable that offshore personnel have
some basic training in safety and sea survival.

8.14 SUMMARY
• Health, safety, and environmental management is an integral part of any
business and is considered to be extremely essential when it comes to man-
aging business in oil and gas sectors. The major risk groups in offshore
oil industry are blowouts, hydrocarbon leaks on installations, hydrocarbon
leaks from pipelines/risers, and structural failures.
• The first step in all risk assessment or quantitative risk assessment (QRA)
studies is hazard identification (HAZID). HAZOP studies are generally
carried out to identify potential hazards and operability problems caused
by deviations that arise from the design intent.
• Safety measures can be adopted in both design and operational stages to
avoid catastrophic incidents. One of the major events that can result in seri-
ous consequences in oil and gas industries is fire and explosion. There are
many preventive measures for fire and explosion.
• Environmental pollution in the marine ecosystems creates complexi-
ties and a variety of emerging problems in environmental management.
Environmental management policies are framed by the local and global
regulatory authorities, which takes into account the factors of current and
future interest.
• Safety saves and safety is everyone’s domain. Lack of knowledge can
magnify safety hazards at any offshore installation. It is advised to read
the safety procedures, operating manuals, and standard work procedures
before getting on to actual work. Offshore environments are largely com-
plex, interdependent, and hazardous; hence, your safety and the safety of
others is dependent mainly on job knowledge.

REFERENCES
1. E. ONGC, Offshore Safety Manual, ONGC.
2. Human factors. Available at www.iogp.org/oil-and-gas-safety/human-factors/
3. ASTM, Standard Practice for Human Engineering Program Requirements for Ships
and Marine Systems, Equipment, and Facilities, American Society for Testing and
Materials International (1991).
4. Tidewater Supply Vessel Heavily Damaged After Hitting Production Platform.
Available at https://gcaptain.com/tidewater-supply-vessel-heavily-damaged-hitting-
production-platform/
5. Enggcyclopedia. (2011). Combustion basics: The Fire Triangle/Fire Tetrahedron.
Retrieved April 24, 2019, from www.enggcyclopedia.com/2011/10/combustion-basics-
fire-triangle-tetrahedron
6. OFFSHORE SYSTEMS. Available at www.tidelandsignal.com/applications/offshore-­
systems
7. E. ONGC, ONGC Sea Survival Training Manual, ONGC Sea Surviv. Train. Man.
Offshore Health, Safety, and Environment 245

8. B. Vignes and B.S. Aadnøy, Well-integrity issues offshore Norway, SPE Prod. Oper.
25 (2010), pp. 145–150.
9. New York Times, Picture of the day the deepwater horizon explosion, New York
Times, (2012).
10. Off-Shore Drilling Rigs Eyeball. Available at https://cryptome.org/2015-info/off-shore-
rigs/off-shore-rigs.htm
11. Life Extension and Assessment of Existing Offshore Structures. Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Doha, Qatar (2011).
12. 671 (16) Safety zones and safety of navigation around offshore installations and
­structures. Available at https://puc.overheid.nl/nsi/doc/PUC_1400_14/1/
13. H. Esmaeili, The Legal Regime of Offshore Oil Rigs in International Law, Taylor &
Francis Group, London (2001).
14. Safety zones and precautionary areas. Available at www.maritimenz.govt.nz/­
commercial/environment/offshore-industry/safety-zones.asp.
15. H. Esmaeili, The protection of offshore oil rigs in international law (Part I), Aust. Min.
Pet. Law J. 18 (1999), pp. 241–252.
16. Piper Alpha. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piper_
Alpha&oldid=889832453
17. Oil Rigs, Gas pipelines & Offshore Facilities protection. Available at www.avista-­
ventures.com/oilandgas.php
18. M. Kashubsky, Protecting offshore oil and gas installations: security threats and
­countervailing measures, J. Energy Secur. 2007 (2013), pp. 1–7.
 9 Legislations and
Regulations in
Offshore Operations
around the World

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, the gap between the demand and production of oil and gas and energy has
been ever increasing since the 1950s. The global energy demand has been challeng-
ing the produced/generated amount ever since. This makes it imperative for the oil
and gas industry to look for sources and reservoirs which have not yet been discov-
ered. This led to a new revolution in the oil and gas industry – offshore exploration
and production.
According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
[1], countries have the right to water up to several nautical miles from the shore,
namely, territorial seas. Beyond that, the waters fall under international waters
category and no country has an individual right over them. Majority of the
­countries have accepted 12 nautical miles as the standard extent for territorial
waters [2].
Every country has the right to explore for petroleum and minerals within their
territorial water, contiguous water, continental shelf, and exclusive economic zone.
Most Indian offshore hydrocarbon operations are outside terrotorial water.
Moreover, each country can rightly set up its own unique set of rules and legisla-
tions regarding the health, safety, and environment in offshore oil and gas extraction
operations.
With many different rules being common globally, there does exist several differ-
ences as well. The differences are obvious due to both regulatory authorities as well
as country-wise differences in offshore environments.
It is also worth noting that, as drilling companies move into deeper waters, drill-
ing becomes more complex and costly. In addition, offshore drilling can bear greater
risks and hazards such as marine weather and pollution that can be very expensive
over time.
One reason for this increased danger is the complex equipment needed to drill at
such depths. As offshore drilling continues to be pushed to new depths, with oil com-
panies continuously drilling in deeper waters and penetrating further underground,
the technology needed to achieve these feats is extremely complex and not entirely
invincible [2].

247
248 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Equipment and steel are strung out over a long piece of geography starting at the
surface and terminating 18,000 ft below the sea floor. Thus, it has many potential
weak points.
Another reason for the danger is the harsh offshore environments that pose engi-
neering challenges to offshore drilling equipment. Severe weather, ice, and storms
pose risks to the functionality of the rigs. In addition, their distance from land makes
it harder for additional rescue personnel to promptly reach these areas in emergency
situations [3].
According to Menendez, “The bottom line is that during offshore operations,
there is always a risk that not only puts lives on the line, but a risk that puts miles of
coastline and the economy on the line as well”.
This is not just limited to the Gulf but extends to almost every single offshore
facility in the oil and gas industry. As risk is more than one can imagine, rules have
to be more stringent.
Thus, it is mandatory to know the laws related to offshore operations which varies
from country to country. Hence, we have tried to consolidate the laws of the follow-
ing major offshore operational countries:

• Europe
• Norway
• Kuwait
• Australia
• Egypt
• Qatar
• Russia
• India
• United States
• Canada
• Saudi Arabia

9.2 EUROPE
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union passed a treaty
on the functioning of European Union related to offshore oil and gas exploration,
­drilling, and production [4].
The major points covered in the treaty are listed below:

• Article 191 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

­establishes the objectives of preserving, protecting, and improving the
­quality of the environment, and the prudent and rational utilization of
­natural resources [5].
• The objective of this Directive is to reduce as far as possible the occurrence
of major accidents relating to offshore oil and gas operations and to limit
their consequences, thus increasing the protection of the marine environ-
ment and coastal economies against pollution [6].
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 249

• This Directive should apply not only to future offshore oil and gas instal-
lations and operations but, subject to transitional arrangements, also to
­existing installations.
• Major accidents relating to offshore oil and gas operations are likely to
have devastating and irreversible consequences on the marine and coastal
environment as well as significant negative impacts on coastal economies.
• Accidents relating to offshore oil and gas operations, in particular the acci-
dent in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, have raised public awareness of the risks
involved in offshore oil and gas operations, and have prompted a review of
policies aimed at ensuring the safety of such operations. The Commission
launched a review of offshore oil and gas operations and expressed its i­ nitial
views on the safety thereof in its Communication “Facing the challenge of
the safety of offshore oil and gas activities” on October 13, 2010 [6,7].
• The risks relating to major offshore oil or gas accidents are significant.
By reducing the risk of pollution of offshore waters, this Directive should,
therefore, contribute to ensuring the protection of the marine environment
and, in particular, to achieving or maintaining good environmental status
by 2020 at the latest.
• Offshore oil and gas industries are established in a number of regions of
the Union, and there are prospects for new regional developments in off-
shore waters of Member States, with technological developments allowing
for drilling in more challenging environments. Production of offshore oil
and gas is a significant element in the security of the Union’s energy supply.
• There is a need to clarify that holders of authorizations for offshore oil and
gas operations pursuant to Directive 94/22/EC are also the liable “operators”
within the meaning of Directive 2004/35/EC of the European Parliament and
the Council of April 21, 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the
prevention and remedying of environmental damage, and should not delegate
their responsibilities in this regard to third parties c­ ontracted by them [7].
• While general authorizations pursuant to Directive 94/22/EC guarantee to
the licensees exclusive rights for exploring for or producing oil or gas within
a given licensed area, offshore oil and gas operations within that area should
be subject to continuous expert regulatory oversight by Member States.
• Offshore oil and gas operations should be conducted only by operators
appointed by licensees or licensing authorities. The operator can be a third
party or the licensee or one of the licensees depending on commercial
arrangements or national administrative requirements.
• Operators should reduce the risk of a major accident as low as reasonably
practicable to the point where the cost of further risk reduction would be
grossly disproportionate to the benefits of such reduction. The reasonable
practicability of risk reduction measures should be kept under review in the
light of new knowledge and technology developments.
• It is important to ensure that the public is given early and effective oppor-
tunity to participate in the decision making relating to operations that can
potentially have significant effects on the environment in the Union.
250 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• In accordance with Council Directive 92/91/EEC of November 3, 1992 con-

cerning the minimum requirements for improving the safety and health
protection of workers in the mineral-extracting industries through drilling
(11th individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive
89/391/EEC), workers and/or their representatives should be consulted on
matters relating to safety and health at work and be allowed to take part in
discussions on all questions relating to safety and health at work [8].
• Member States should ensure that the competent authority is legally
empowered and adequately resourced to be capable of taking effective,
proportionate, and transparent enforcement action, including where appro-
priate cessation of operations is required, in cases of unsatisfactory safety
performance and environmental protection by operators and owners.
• The independence and objectivity of the competent authority should be
ensured. In this regard, experience gained from major accidents shows
clearly that the organization of administrative competences within a
Member State can prevent conflicts of interest by a clear separation between
regulatory functions and associated decisions relating to offshore safety
and the environment [9].
• However, complete separation of the competent authority from economic
development of offshore natural resources may be disproportionate where
there is a low level of offshore oil and gas operations in a Member State. In
such a case, the Member State concerned would be expected to make the
best alternative arrangements to secure the independence and objectivity of
the competent authority.
• Specific legislation is needed to address the major hazards relating to the
offshore oil and gas industry, specifically in process safety, safe contain-
ment of hydrocarbons, structural integrity, prevention of fire and explosion,
evacuation, escape and rescue, and limiting environmental effect.
• This Directive should apply without prejudice to any requirements under any
other Union legal acts, especially in the field of safety and health of workers
at work, in particular, Council Directive 89/391/EEC of June 12, 1989 on
the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and
health of workers at work and Directive 92/91/EEC. Environmental impact
following a major accident.
• An offshore regime needs to apply both to operations carried out on fixed
installations and to those on mobile installations, as well as to the lifecycle
of exploration and production activities from design to decommissioning
and permanent abandonment.
• The best practices currently available for major accident prevention in off-
shore oil and gas operations are based on a goal-setting approach and on
achieving desirable outcomes through thorough risk assessment and reli-
able management systems.
• To maintain the effectiveness of major hazard controls in offshore waters
of Member States, the report on major hazards should be prepared and,
as necessary, amended in respect of any significant aspect of the lifecycle
of a production installation, including design, operation, operations when
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 251

combined with other installations, relocation of such installation within the

offshore waters of the Member State in question, major modifications, and
final abandonment.
• Well operations should be undertaken only by an installation technically
capable of controlling all the foreseeable hazards at the well location, and
in respect of which a report on major hazards has been accepted.
• In addition to using a suitable installation, the operator should prepare a
detailed design plan and an operating plan pertinent to the particular cir-
cumstances and hazards of each well operation. In accordance with best
practices in the Union, the operator should provide for independent expert
examination of the well design.
• To ensure safety in design and continuous safe operations, the industry is
required to follow the best practices defined in authoritative standards and
guidance. Such standards and guidance should be updated based on new
knowledge and invention to ensure continuous improvement.
• In view of the complexity of offshore oil and gas operations, the imple-
mentation of the best practices by the operators and owners requires a
scheme of independent verification of safety and environmental critical ele-
ments throughout the lifecycle of the installation, including, in the case of
­production installations, the design stage.
• In so far as mobile offshore drilling units are in transit and are to be con-
sidered as ships, they are subject to international maritime conventions, in
­particular, SOLAS, MARPOL, or the equivalent standards of the ­applicable
version of the Code for the construction and equipment of mobile offshore
drilling units (MODU Code).
• The report on major hazards should, inter alia, take into account risks to
the environment, including the impact of climatic conditions and climate
change on the long-term resilience of the installations. Given that offshore
oil and gas operations in one Member State can have significant adverse
environmental effects in another Member State, it is necessary to establish
and apply specific provisions in accordance with the UN/ECE Convention
on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Trans boundary Context done at
Espoo (Finland), on February 25, 1991 [10].
• Operators should notify Member States without delay if a major accident
occurs, or may be about to occur, so that the Member State can initiate a
response, as appropriate.
• To ensure effective response to emergencies, operators should prepare
internal emergency response plans that are site-specific and based on risks
and hazard scenarios identified in the report on major hazards, submit them
to their competent authority, and maintain such resources as are necessary
for the prompt execution of those plans, when needed.
• Best global practice requires licensees, operators, and owners to take pri-
mary responsibility for controlling the risks they create by their operations,
including operations conducted by contractors on their behalf, and therefore
to establish, within a corporate major accident prevention policy, the mecha-
nisms and highest level of corporate ownership to implement that policy.
252 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Responsible operators and owners should be expected to conduct their

operations worldwide in accordance with best practices and standards.
Consistent application of such best practices and standards should become
mandatory within the Union.
• While recognizing that it may not be possible to enforce application of the
corporate major accident prevention policy outside of the Union, Member
States should ensure that operators and owners include their offshore oil
and gas operations outside of the Union in their corporate major accident
prevention policy documents.
• Information on major accidents in offshore oil and gas operations outside the
Union can help in further understanding their potential causes in promoting
learning key lessons and in further developing the regulatory framework.
• Member States should expect operators and owners, in following best prac-
tices, to establish effective cooperative relationships with the competent
authority, supporting best regulatory practice by the competent authority
and to proactively ensure the highest levels of safety, including, where nec-
essary, suspending operations, without the competent authority needing to
intervene [1,11].

9.3 NORWAY
Since the beginning of the petroleum exploration and production on the Norwegian
Continental Shelf, the need for safe operations had been pointed out, both by the
industry and the state authorities. In an industry like this, the protection of people
and the environment always stays at the forefront. Continuously improving the level
of safety in offshore petroleum operations aims to avoid accidents which would
cause significant harm to health, environment, and installations [1,12].
As a starting point, the use of advanced technological materials on offshore
and onshore installations plays a very important role in safety – the more recent
­technological developments are used, the higher are the levels of safety. Therefore,
safety regulations oblige operators/licensees to continuously upgrade their equip-
ment standards, often following the advice of experienced scientists. They have to
remain updated with the latest developments and incorporate them into the industry.
As the industry is organized in a rather complicated manner, with several d­ ifferent
people and companies involved, other important factors should also be taken into
consideration.
For all the above reasons, it is evident that a set of political, organizational,
­economic, and even psychological aspects intervene and determine safety in
­offshore activities. All these should be taken into account when trying to reduce the
­possibility of an accident [1].

9.3.1 Applicable Legislation
• The most important and basic legislation is the Royal Decree which formed
the Regulations relating to health, safety, and the environment in petroleum
activities and in certain onshore facilities (the Framework Regulations).
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 253

These Regulations give the basic rules in offshore petroleum activities.

Pursuant to them, there are four supplementary Regulations relating to
Management, Facilities, Activities, and Technical and Operational matters
that complete the picture of safety [1,13].
• The Act which is widely applicable on offshore operations is the Petroleum
Act and describes a variety of oil activities, stipulating that “the petro-
leum activities shall be conducted in such manner as to enable a high level
of safety to be maintained and further developed in accordance with the
technological development”. This constitutes the basic and general safety
requirement in petroleum operations in Norway.
• The Working Environment Act of 2005 regulates a variety of working con-
ditions such as working hours and how working life shall be protected.
Therefore, it also applies to offshore personnel [1, 14].
• In addition to this, the Ship Safety and Security Act of 2007 safeguards “life,
health, property and the environment by facilitating a high level of ship
safety and safety management ensuring a good working e­ nvironment and
safe working conditions on board ships”. Therefore, this Act is ­applicable
for personnel resting on board a ship or in a floating device, which usually
stands by the oil installations to carry out various supporting tasks [1, 15].

9.4 KUWAIT
The law has been promulgated by the state of Kuwait to assure:

• Maximum ultimate recovery of its hydrocarbon resources

• To prevent waste or pollution
• To achieve safe and efficient practices
• To acquire useful information regarding petroleum operations

The Regulations are set out for general application within the state of Kuwait and
those land and offshore areas under the jurisdiction and administration of the state of
Kuwait. The Regulations shall apply to every well drilled within the state of Kuwait
and to any product obtained or obtainable therefrom; to every production or injection
operation; to every petroleum processing and refining operations and the productions
derived therefrom; and to the transportation and marketing of crude oil, natural gas,
and products derived therefrom. These Regulations shall be implemented by the
Technical Affairs (TA) of the Ministry of Oil of the state of Kuwait.

9.4.1 Article 1
In the implementation of the provisions of this law, the term “Petroleum” shall mean
all natural hydrocarbons, whether in solid, liquid, or gaseous state, which are or can
be produced from the surface of the ground or from underground and all hydrocar-
bons or other kinds of fuels derived therefrom.
The term “Petroleum operation” or “Petroleum operations” shall mean recon-
naissance and exploration for petroleum; the development of fields, the drilling of
254 Offshore Operations and Engineering

wells; the production of petroleum, its treatment, refining, processing, storing, trans-
porting, loading, and shipping; constructing, installing, and operating facilities for
water, power, housing, and camps or any other facilities or installations or equipment
necessary for accomplishing the aforementioned purposes, and all administrative
activities relating thereto.
The term “Authorized operator” shall mean any person, either an individual or a
corporate body, legally authorized to carry out any petroleum operation.

9.4.2 Article 2
All petroleum operations shall be subject to the provisions of this law and its imple-
menting regulations.
Petroleum operations must be carried out in the best manner using efficient and
reasonable methods and good techniques as would be expected from a person fully
experienced in such operations under similar circumstances and conditions.

9.4.3 Article 3
Authorized operators shall take all measures and precautions necessary to prevent
any damage or danger which might result from petroleum to human life, public
health, properties, natural resources, cemeteries or archaeological, religious and
tourist sites. They must also take all necessary precautions to prevent pollution of air
and surface and underground waters.

9.4.4 Article 4
All machinery, equipment, and materials used in petroleum operations must con-
form to recognized internationally acceptable specifications, meet safety require-
ments, and serve its purpose in accordance with the best techniques in practice.

9.4.5 Article 5
Authorized operators shall submit periodically to the Minister of Finance and
Oil the programs, reports, statements, and information relating to their petroleum
­operations. Officials designated by the Minister of Finance and Oil shall have the
right to inspect the offices of an authorized operator and the sites of his operations,
and to examine his documents and records to ascertain that the reports’ statements
and information submitted under the preceding paragraph are in conformity with
the facts.

9.4.6 Article 6
Before starting to carry out any project relating to petroleum operations, an autho-
rized operator shall submit to the Minister of Finance and Oil a description of the
project, including the plans relating thereto its location, capacity, estimated costs,
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 255

the operating methods to be used, engineering data and any other information.
The Minister shall have the right to approve the project, reject it, or request that it be
further studied, clarified, or modified.
In the event of approval of the project, the authorized operator must notify the
Minister of the completion of each of its stages to enable the Minister to ascertain
that each stage has been carried out in accordance with the description and plans on
the basis of which the project was approved.

9.4.7 Article 7
The Regulations necessary for implementing this law shall be issued by the Minister
of Finance and Oil. These Regulations shall cover all aspects of petroleum opera-
tions with a view to ensuring the exploitation of petroleum resources in accordance
with sound practices and efficient methods, the prevention of loss or waste of such
resources, and the maximum possible yield therefrom. These Regulations shall also
include the necessary measures for regulating the production of petroleum, provi-
sions for safety precautions, and cover statements, information, and documents,
which the authorized operator is required to Submit. The procedures to be adopted
in this respect and the methods and procedures for carrying out all petroleum opera-
tions include the following:

• All activities relating to reconnaissance and exploration operations.

• All activities relating to drilling operations, including permission to drill,
well spacing and location, equipping of well, electrical logging, coring and
testing, plugging, use, abandonment or suspension of wells, and completion
and re-completion of wells.
• All activities relating to production operations including well performance
testing and in-hole surveys, workover and maintenance of wells, reser-
voir behavior studies, enhanced recovery projects, underground storage of
petroleum, separation of gas from oil, utilization of gas, and disposal of
salt water and reservoir unitization. In relation to the carrying out of these
activities, the Minister of Finance and Oil may notify an authorized opera-
tor of the actions to be taken and specify for him a time limit for taking
them. If the authorized operator does not comply with such notice or if
he has complied but failed to achieve the required effect, the Minister of
Finance and Oil may issue an order to shutdown production from one well,
several wells, or from the reservoir.
• All activities relating to the treatment of petroleum, its refining, process-
ing, storing, transporting, loading, and shipping, which activities include
measurements, Calibration and laboratory analyses and their evaluation.
• All activities relating to installations, facilities, and equipment for all
­petroleum operations.

These regulations shall also cover the measures necessary for the implementation of
Article 3 of this law.
256 Offshore Operations and Engineering

9.4.8 Article 8
An authorized operator shall render, free of charge, to the officials of the Ministry of
Finance and Oil who are designated by the Minister of Finance and Oil to implement
the provisions of this law, all necessary services including furnished offices, suit-
able living accommodation, means of transportation, necessary facilities to conduct
laboratory tests, and any other necessary services.

9.4.9 Article 9
The Minister of Finance and Oil may, in certain special cases, entrust any person,
individual, or corporate, with the exercise of all or some of the powers vested in him
under the provisions of this law and its implementing regulations. Whoever is so
entrusted shall have the same rights and privileges as are granted to the officials of
the Ministry of Finance and Oil designated by the Minister to implement the provi-
sions of the law and its regulations.

9.4.10 Article 10
An administrative penalty of not <10,000 dinars shall be impost for a contraven-
tion of the provisions of this law or its implementing regulations. In the event of a
similar contravention being committed within 3 years from the date of the previous
contravention, the administrative penalty shall be doubled. Appropriate compensa-
tion shall be imposed in addition to the aforementioned penalty in all cases in which
the contravention results in damage to petroleum resources. The imposition of an
administrative penalty or compensation shall have no effect on any other sanctions
or penalties mentioned in any other laws or regulations or provided for in contractual
or international agreements.

9.4.11 Article 11
An administrative penalty and compensation shall be imposed by a reasoned
Decision of the Minister of Finance and Oil on the basis of a report by the competent
administrative authority. The Decision shall contain:

• A description of the contravention.

• The provision that is contravened.
• The person responsible for the contravention.
• The amount of the administrative penalty and compensation, if any.

The authorized operator shall be notified of the Decision within 1 week of the issue
thereof by a letter by registered post with acknowledgement.
The authorized operator may appeal against this Decision within 21 days from
the date on which he is notified thereof, and the appeal shall be made by a written
submission to the High Court of Appeal. The Decision shall become enforceable if it
is not appealed against, or if it is appealed against and is confirmed, or if the Minister
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 257

issues a decision for the temporary enforcement thereof pending a decision on the
appeal. In cases referred to in the preceding paragraph, the Decision shall have the
authority of a court writ and shall be enforced by the same procedures followed in
the enforcement of court judgments.

9.4.12 Article 12
The Ministers, each within their jurisdiction, shall implement this law, which shall
come into effect on the date of its publication in the official gazette [16,17].

9.5 AUSTRALIA
Offshore Exploration and Production (E&P) to maintain uniformity activities in oil
and gas industry involve various activities including lease from government, explo-
ration activities, petroleum production licenses, infrastructure licenses, pipeline
licenses, and renewal of permits along with standard procedures in each stage of E&P
activities. With regard to legislative aspects, these activities incorporate petroleum
prospecting and access authorities; variation, suspension, and exemption of permits;
Surrender and cancellation of titles; and other provisions. Australian Commonwealth
government has compiled legislation related to offshore E&P activities, which incor-
porates following acts and amendment acts.

• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006

• This act incorporates the agreement between the Commonwealth and
State, simplified maps describing offshore areas of states and territories,
joint authorities for different states and territories, royalty, petroleum
exploration permits, petroleum retention permits, petroleum production
licenses, infrastructure license, pipeline license, standard procedures,
exemption, title related decisions, jurisdiction of courts, liability for
act omissions, personal property securities, Commonwealth reserves,
scheduled area of states and territories, and occupational health and
safety [18].
• Additionally, National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental
Management Authority (NOPSEMA) has a power to inspect compa-
nies. Petroleum environmental inspection is carried out by NOPSEMA
to monitor compliance with petroleum environmental laws.
• Offshore Petroleum (Royalty) Act 2006
• Main aspects of this act are imposition of royalty in different, rate of
royalty, reduction, and exemption in royalty. Rate of royalty without any
exemption is 10% of the production at wellhead [19].
• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Regulatory Levies)
Act 2003
• In this act, levies for various conditions are described in reference with
regulation which are in force. Levies include safety investigation levy,
safety case levy, well investigation levy, annual well levy, well activity
levy, annual titles administration levy, and environmental plan levy.
258 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Registration Fees)

Act 2006
• The OPGGS (Registration Fees) Act, 2006 describes fees imposed on
titleholder to transfer the title. It also gives insight about dealings done
in reference to petroleum title.
• Offshore Petroleum (Repeals and Consequential Amendments) Act 2006
• Petroleum (Timor Sea Treaty) Act 2003
• The Ministerial Council, the Joint Commission, and the Designated
Authority exercise the rights and responsibilities of Australia, in relation to
the exploration, development, and exploitation of the petroleum resources
of the JPDA in accordance with this Treaty.
• Petroleum (Timor Sea Treaty) (Consequential Amendments) Act 2003
• The amendments done under this act include Crimes at Sea Act 2000,
Customs Act 1901, Fringe Benefits Tax Assessment Act 1986, Income
Tax Assessment Act 1936, International Organizations (Privileges
and Immunities) Act 1963, Migration Act 1958, Passenger Movement
Charge Collection Act 1978, Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1967,
Petroleum (Timor Gap Zone of Cooperation) Act 1990, Quarantine Act
1908, Superannuation Guarantee (Administration) Act 1992, Taxation
Administration Act 1953, and Workplace Relations Act 1996 [20].
• Offshore Petroleum Amendment (Greater Sunrise) Act 2007
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Legislation Amendment Act 2001

The regulations enforced by federal legislation, which regulates the offshore

­activities related to oil and gas industry, are listed below.

• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Safety) Regulations 2009

• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Resource Management
and Administration) Regulations 2011
• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Environment)
Regulations 2009
• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage (Regulatory Levies)
Regulations 2004 [21].

Titleholders have to follow these regulations to form title condition. Breach of this
leads to compliance action by federal government. However, titleholders can apply
for exemption or variation of a title under section 264 of the OPGGSA, which is
judged by the Joint authority and Commonwealth.
The National Offshore Petroleum Titles Administrator (NOPTA) and the National
Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority (NOPSEMA)
are bodies that have reviewed, and revised, the administrative guidelines for offshore
petroleum activities. The required changes are included to ensure the ease of new-
comers to acquaint with the Joint authority. The updates also bring the guidelines in
line with the current Joint Authority expectations in relation to the content of appli-
cations for acreage release areas, exploration permit renewals, work programs, the
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 259

declaration of locations, petroleum retention leases, petroleum production and infra-

structure licenses, and pipeline licenses. The designated authorities were a­ bolished
to carry out such work by NOPTA from January 1, 2012. NOPTA also takes care of
environmental integrity with industry [22].
States and territories have included some acts related to offshore activities in their
legislation, which are listed below.

• Petroleum (Offshore) Act 1982—New South Wales

An Act relating to the exploration for, and the exploitation of, the
petroleum resources, and certain other resources, of certain submerged
lands adjacent to the coasts of New South Wales; to repeal the Petroleum
(Submerged Lands) Act 1967 and the Petroleum (Submerged Lands)
Taxation Act 1967; to amend the Petroleum Act 1955 and the Pipelines Act
1967; and for other purposes.
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1981—Northern Territory
The Act was made for provision with respect to the exploration for, and
the exploitation of, petroleum resources, and certain other resources, of
­certain submerged lands adjacent to the coasts of the Northern Territory,
and for other purposes.
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982—Queensland
An Act to make provision with respect to the exploration for, and the
exploitation of, the petroleum resources, and certain other resources of, and to
convey petroleum resources (wherever recovered) across ­certain ­submerged
lands adjacent to the coasts of Queensland, and for other purposes.
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982—South Australia
An Act to make provision with respect to the exploration for, and the
exploitation of, the petroleum resources, and certain other resources, of
certain submerged lands adjacent to the coasts of South Australia, and for
other purposes.
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982—Tasmania
An Act to make provision with respect to the exploration for, and the
exploitation of, the petroleum resources, and certain other resources, of
­certain submerged lands adjacent to the coast of the State of Tasmania, and
to provide for related matters (Royal Assent June 30, 1982) Preamble.
• Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2010—Victoria
The purpose of this Act is to (a) re-enact (with modifications) provisions
regulating petroleum exploration and recovery activities and petroleum
facilities; and (b) provide for the regulation of geological storage of carbon
dioxide in the Victorian offshore area.
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982—Western Australia
An Act to make provision with respect to the exploration for, and the
exploitation of, the petroleum resources, and certain other resources, of cer-
tain submerged lands adjacent to the coast of Western Australia, to repeal
the Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1967, and for incidental and other
purposes.
260 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Regulations 1990—Western Australia

The act was made to describe prescribed fees, rate, and sums; from of
instrument transfer; royalty value and deducible imposts; and regarding
geocentric and geodetic datum.

9.6 EGYPT
Egypt is considered a significant oil and gas producer in North Africa. The Egyptian
Ministry of Petroleum is the governmental authority responsible for the regulation
and development of the oil and gas industry in Egypt.
The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum acts mainly through two major entities in the
oil and gas fields. The first is the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC),
which is a public entity regulating the petroleum industry in Egypt. The second is the
Egyptian Natural Gas Holding Company (EGAS), which is a private entity owned
by the EGPC responsible for regulating the gas industry in Egypt. The EGPC and
EGAS focus on oil and gas activities, adapting an effective action plan to organize
and handle the activities of oil and gas resources in Egypt [23].
The EGPC and EGAS are engaged in a wide range of activities, including
upstream (exploration and exploitation [drilling and production of oil and gas]) and
downstream (processing, transmission, distribution of oil and gas in the domestic
market, and marketing thereof).
Under the Egyptian Constitution, all oil and gas resources are under the control
of the state. Accordingly, only the state can grant rights for exploration and exploi-
tation of oil and gas resources for interested investors. Rights of exploration and
exploitation of the oil and gas resources are granted under the form of a concession
agreement. The concession agreement is issued by virtue of a law. The law issuing
the concession agreement authorizes the Minister of Petroleum to enter into the con-
cession agreement between Egypt, the EGAS, or EGPC (as the case may be) from
one side, and the contractor company willing to undertake the exploration and the
exploitation activities from the other side. All concession agreements are published
in the Egyptian Official Gazette and generally follow a standard format, with slight
deviation in each agreement.

9.6.1 Regulation
The extraction of oil and gas is regulated by the Egyptian Mining and Quarries
Law 86 of 1956 and the terms and conditions set out under the relevant concession
agreements.
The Ministry of Petroleum is the sole body with regulatory responsibility for the
petroleum sector in Egypt through two principal public companies.

• Egyptian General Petroleum Company (EGPC).

• Egyptian Natural Gas Holding Company (EGAS).

Permission must be obtained first from the Ministry of Petroleum by the entity propos-
ing to extract oil or gas. Permission usually takes the form of a concession agreement.
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 261

Certain principal laws regulate the oil and gas sector, and include:

• Law No. 86 of 1958 organizing Mines and Quarries and executive

regulations.
• Law No. 20 of 1987 organizing the Egyptian General Petroleum Company
(EGPC).
• Law No. 217 of 1980 organizing Natural Gas and executive regulations.
• Law No. 4 of 1988 regarding Oil Pipelines.

Regulation is mainly achieved by standard terms and provisions in the conces-

sion agreement signed by the Egyptian Minister of Petroleum and the Contractor.
However, projects can differ from case to case [24].
EGAS is managed by a board of directors appointed by its General Assembly on
the advice of the Minister of Petroleum. The Chairman of the General Assembly is
the Minister of Petroleum.
In practice, EGAS has two major responsibilities:

• Exclusive off-taker of gas for the local market.

• Party beneficiary of the concession agreements for all new gas concessions.
It receives the government’s production share, which is usually 70%–80%
of revenue after the deduction of costs by the contractor.

9.6.2 Directive on Offshore Safety

The key objectives of the Directive are:

• To reduce the occurrence of major accidents relating to offshore oil and gas
operations;
• To establish a framework for the safe exploration and production of oil and
gas, thereby increasing the protection of the marine environments against
pollution;
• If prevention fails, to ensure that clean-up and mitigation are carried out to
limit the consequences; and
• To improve the response in the event of an incident.

9.7 QATAR
Qatar is a major hydrocarbon province and a net exporter of oil, gas, liquid fuels,
and petroleum products. Qatar’s reign as a major oil producer began in 1935 with the
discovery of the Dukhan onshore field. It has been a member of the Organization of
the Petroleum Exporter Countries (OPEC) since 1961. The country ranks 13th in the
world for crude oil reserves, estimated as of January 2014 at 25.2 billion barrels [25].
In the past few decades, Qatar’s economy has shifted from being based p­ rimarily
on production of conventional oil to production of natural gas and non-crude liquids.
Qatar holds about 13% of the world’s conventional reserves of natural gas, placing
it third in the global rankings, with estimated reserves as of January 2014 at 885
262 Offshore Operations and Engineering

trillion ft3. Most of Qatar’s natural gas reserves are located in the giant offshore
North Field, which spans an area that is roughly equivalent to Qatar itself. The North
Field is considered the world’s largest non-associated natural gas field, and traverses
Qatar’s and Iran’s maritime territories.
In terms of production, Qatar is currently ranked as the world’s fourth largest
dry natural gas producer (after the United States, Russia, and Iran). Gas production
in 2012 was 5.5 trillion cf. According to the recent statements by the Minister of
Energy and Industry, Qatar’s natural gas production exceeded 7 trillion ft3 in 2013.

9.7.1 Government Policy Objectives

The Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016 (Development Strategy) is
the first national development strategy for Qatar prepared within the framework of
Qatar’s National Vision 2030. The plan affirms the state’s commitment to respon-
sible exploitation of Qatar’s hydrocarbon resources, and the judicious investment of
the proceeds for the benefit of current and future generations. It pledges to c­ ontinue
investments in infrastructure, people, and institutions, and to implement a concerted
drive toward greater economic efficiency and improved competitiveness for advances
in productivity and economic diversification [26].
Specifically, the Development Strategy outlines plans for investments by
Qatar Petroleum and related companies of about QAR88 billion from 2011 to
2016, ­including QAR7 billion in expanded capacity of Qatar companies in the
­petrochemical ­sector, including producers of low-density polyethylene, ammonia,
and urea. The Government also plans more than US$65 billion in infrastructure
spending through 2016, including improvements in the power and water sectors and
a new Doha port.

9.7.2 Regulation
The Ministry of Energy and Industry regulates Qatar’s oil and natural gas policy,
which is subject to the ultimate control of the Emir of Qatar. Under the Qatar
Petroleum Law, Qatar Petroleum manages upstream, midstream, and downstream
oil and gas operations on behalf of the Government. Qatar Petroleum acts as the
state’s investment arm in the oil and gas sector [27].

9.7.3 The Regulatory Regime

The oil and gas industry (including LNG) is overall regulated by the Natural
Resources Law (Law No. 3) of 2007 regarding the Exploitation of Natural Resources
and its Sources (Natural Resources Law). Oil and natural gas, as well as other
­mineral resources, are the property of the state. Qatar Petroleum is entrusted with
management and development of all of Qatar’s hydrocarbon resources. There is little
detail in the Natural Resources Law as to how this is to be implemented.
The right to explore, develop, and produce petroleum is typically granted by way
of development and production sharing agreements (DPSAs), and exploration and
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 263

production sharing agreements (EPSAs) with Qatar Petroleum. Qatar Petroleum

(and, through it, the Government), therefore, determines the basis on which an entity
participates in the Qatari oil and gas (including LNG) industry. LNG projects are
usually integrated with the corresponding upstream development. The key legisla-
tion in relation to oil and gas exploration and production include:

• Decree-Law No. (4) Of 1977 on Preserving Oil Wealth.

• Decree-Law No. (10) Of 1974 concerning the Establishment of Qatar
Petroleum (and its amendments).
• Decree-Law No. (30) Of 2002 issuing the Environmental Protection Law.
• Law No. (8) Of 2004 concerning Protection of the Maritime Facilities of
Petrol and Gas.
• Decision No. (4) of 2005 of the President of the Supreme Council of
Environment and Natural Protection concerning the issuance of the
Executive Regulations of the Environmental Protection Law issued by
Decree-Law No. (30) Of 2002.
• Law No. (3) Of 2007 regarding the Exploitation of Natural Resources and
its Sources.
• Decree- Law No. (15) Of 2007 concerning the Organization of Marketing
and Sale of Regulated Products outside the State of Qatar (Tasweeq
Law) [28].
• Rights to oil and gas [27].

9.8 RUSSIA
Russia is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of both oil and gas. Its
proven oil reserves total approximately 109.5 billion barrels, which equates to nearly
6.4% of the total global reserves.
The Russian domestic oil and gas sector has been facing more challenging times
in recent years due to low oil prices and limited access to financing due to interna-
tional sanctions. The state policy for oil and gas has been focused on maintaining the
current production levels and supporting state companies.

9.8.1 Regulatory Bodies
9.8.1.1 Oil and Natural Gas
The licensing regime is administered by the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Ecology of the Russian Federation and federal agencies under its jurisdiction.
Subordinate to that Ministry, the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use (Rosnedra) is the
administrative agency primarily responsible for the regulation of oil and gas extrac-
tion. Rosnedra is responsible for:

• Issuing, suspending, and revoking subsoil use licenses.

• Approving deposit development plans.
• Transferring and storing geological information.
264 Offshore Operations and Engineering

The Federal Service for Supervision of Nature Use (Rosprirodnadzor) oversees

compliance with legislation regulating subsoil use and protection of the environ-
ment. Additionally, the Federal Environmental, Industrial and Nuclear Supervision
Service (Rostekhnadzor) issues mining allotments that determine deposit boundar-
ies, safety certificates, and operating licenses [29].
There are two kinds of regimes provided for under Russian law:

• Tax-royalty regime. This is, by far, the dominant regime governing oil
and gas extraction in Russia. The main body of legislation is contained in
the Federal Law on Subsoil dated February 21, 1992 (Subsoil Law), and
relevant regulations.
• Production sharing regime. The provisions governing production sharing
regimes are set out in the Federal Law on Production Sharing Agreements
dated December 30, 1995 (PSA Law), which has been substantially
amended. All existing production sharing agreements in Russia, however,
were concluded before the entry into force of the PSA Law, and therefore
predate many of its provisions.

Normally, subsoil licenses terminate on expiration of their designated term, but

they can also be revoked by state authorities before expiration of their term for the
­following reasons:

• Appearance of immediate danger to the health of the people working or

living in the areas affected by operations related to subsoil use.
• Violation by the subsoil user of material terms of the license.
• Systematic violation by the subsoil user of the established rules for subsoil
use.
• Occurrence of emergency situations (natural disasters, war, and others).
• Subsoil user’s failure to commence operations in accordance with the
­established scope and term of the license.
• Liquidation of an enterprise or other subject of economic activities that
holds the license for subsoil use.
• Subsoil user’s failure to file the reports required by Russian law.
• At the initiative of a subsoil user on submission of the appropriate
application.

In situations involving the appearance of immediate danger or occurrence of

­emergency situations, the subsoil use rights are terminated immediately after the
authorities decide that it is necessary, provided that the subsoil user has been served
a written notice of the decision. Where there is violation of material terms, system-
atic violations or failure to commence operations within the established scope, the
subsoil use rights can be terminated if the subsoil user fails to remedy the violations
within 3 months of receiving a written notice of them.
When subsoil use rights are terminated, the subsoil user must decommission the
operations in the field at its own cost.
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 265

9.8.2 Russian Legislation Regulating Foreign Investments

In July 2017, Russian legislation regulating foreign investments was modified through
two sets of amendments. The first set of amendments relates to the limitations of so-
called “offshore companies” when investing in Russian strategic companies and par-
ticipating in the privatization of Russian state assets. The second set of amendments
extended the application of the Law “On Foreign Investments” to certain Russian
entities, which means that the Governmental Commission for Control over Foreign
Investments (Governmental Commission) will have wider control over investments
made in “strategic companies” [30].

9.8.3 Rules for Offshore Companies

On July 1, 2017 the following amendments to the Law “On Foreign Investments in
Strategic Companies” and the Privatisation Law were adopted and entered into force
with immediate effect:

• Investments made by so-called “offshore companies” in Russian strategic

companies are now treated in the same way as foreign states or interna-
tional organizations that invest in Russian strategic companies, meaning
that such investments are subject to stricter rules. Before the amendments,
investments through “offshore companies” in strategic companies were not
specifically regulated and subject to ordinary foreign strategic investment
control mechanism applicable to any other foreign investor.
• “Offshore companies” are companies registered in particular jurisdictions
or offshore zones, a list of which has been approved by the Ministry of
Finance of the Russian Federation. At present, offshore zones include 40
territories, including the British Virgin Islands, the United Arab Emirates,
the Principality of Monaco, Gibraltar, the Special Administrative District of
Hong Kong (Xianggang), and others. Typical foreign holding jurisdictions
for Russian investments, such as Cyprus, Luxembourg, or the Netherlands,
are not included in the list, and therefore, companies incorporated in these
jurisdictions are not considered “offshore companies”.
• Restrictions in relation to offshore companies also extend to companies
controlled by offshore companies, including Russian companies.
• The following restrictions for “offshore companies” have been introduced
with the recent legislative amendments:
• An unconditional prohibition on “offshore companies” (and entities
­controlled by an “offshore company”) acquiring more than 50% of the
shares in a strategic company or otherwise acquiring control over a strate-
gic company.
• An unconditional prohibition on “offshore companies” (and on entities con-
trolled by an “offshore company”) acquiring 25% or more of the shares in
a strategic mining company operating subsoil plots of federal importance
(subsoil user).
266 Offshore Operations and Engineering

• An unconditional prohibition on “offshore companies” (and on entities con-

trolled by an “offshore company”) acquiring 25% or more of the book value
of the main production assets of a strategic company.
• “Offshore companies” (or entities controlled by an offshore company or a
group of persons which includes an offshore company) will no longer be
able to act as buyers of state-owned or municipal-owned property.
• The acquisition by an “offshore company” (or an entity controlled by an
“offshore company”) of more than 25% of the shares in a strategic com-
pany now requires approval by the Governmental Commission (the same
applies to the acquisition of other rights to block decisions of strategic
companies).
• The acquisition by an “offshore company” (or an entity controlled by an
“offshore company”) of more than 5% of the shares in a strategic com-
pany that is a subsoil user now requires approval by the Governmental
Commission (the same applies to the acquisition of other rights to block the
decisions of strategic subsoil user companies) [31].

These rules do not extend to transactions of “offshore companies”, where the

­beneficial owner is a citizen and a tax resident of the Russian Federation, or where
the Russian Federation itself or its constituent entity is the ultimate owner of
the ­“offshore entity”.

9.9 INDIA
The oil and gas sector is one of the core industries in India and contributes
­approximately 15% to its total gross domestic product (GDP). The industry was
approximately worth US$139.8 billion in 2015, and has tremendous growth potential
owing to recent government policies aimed at increasing highway and road infra-
structure, promoting Indian manufacturing, creating dedicated freight corridors,
establishing smart cities, and so on [32].

9.9.1 Domestic Production
In 2015, India was the fourth largest consumer of crude oil and petroleum
­products after the United States, China, and Japan. Despite having good fossil
fuel resources, India increasingly relies on crude oil imports to meet its domes-
tic energy demands. Currently, about 80% of India’s crude oil is imported from
overseas.
India produced 41.2 million tonnes of crude oil in 2015 (0.9 million barrels a
day). The share of offshore crude oil production for 2015 was around 50.2% and the
­balance was from six onshore states:

• Andhra Pradesh
• Arunachal Pradesh
• Assam
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 267

• Gujarat
• Rajasthan
• Tamil Nadu

National oil companies account for 70% of the total oil produced in India, with the
remaining 30% coming from private/joint venture companies.

9.9.2 Government Policy Objectives

The Integrated Energy Policy was adopted by the government in 2008, providing
a collective policy regime covering all sources of energy. The broad vision behind
this policy has been to create a regime to reduce dependence on imports and reliably
meet energy demands with safe, clean, and convenient energy at minimum cost. To
supplement this, the government and several states have adopted policies promoting
clean and renewable energy.

9.9.3 Regulation
The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas manages and oversees upstream oil and
natural gas exploration and production.
The Directorate General of Hydrocarbons is the agency vested with the responsi-
bility of promoting sound management of Indian petroleum and natural gas resources
with due regard to environmental, safety, technological, and economical aspects of
petroleum activities.
India has a quasi-federal constitution where both the federal and the state govern-
ments have legislative powers. However, under the Indian constitution, only the fed-
eral government is empowered to make laws relating to regulation and development
of oil fields and mineral oil resources, petroleum, and petroleum products.
From time to time, the government formulates policies under which concessions
for exploration of oil and gas are awarded through a transparent competitive bidding
system to private/foreign investors and national oil companies on the same fiscal and
contractual terms [33].

9.9.4 Legal Framework on Minerals Mining in India

The Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act (MMDR), 1957 is the
principal legislation that governs the mineral and mining sector in India. The Act is
a central legislation in force for regulation of mining operations in India. Under the
act, minerals are grouped under two broad heads, major minerals and minor miner-
als. The list is lucid [34].
The power to frame policy and legislation on minor minerals are entirely sub-
jected and delegated to the state governments while policy and legislation relating
to the major minerals are dealt by the Ministry of Mines under the Union/Central
Government of India. The central government has the power to notify “minor
­minerals” under Section 3 (e) of the MMDR Act, 1957. On the other hand, as per
Section 15 of the MMDR Act, 1957, state governments have complete powers for
268 Offshore Operations and Engineering

making Rules for grant of concessions in respect of extraction of minor minerals, as

well as levy and collection of royalty on minor minerals.
Whereas in case of offshore areas (territorial waters, continental shelf, exclusive
economic zone, and other maritime zones of India), the ownership of minerals vests
exclusively with the Central Government. To regulate the mining and development
of minerals in the offshore area, the Parliament has enacted the “Offshore Areas
Minerals (Development and Regulation Act, 2002”. The Act empowers the Central
Government to grant mineral concessions for offshore areas and collect royalty.
The Indian Bureau of Mines has been notified as the administrative authority for
­concession management of offshore areas.

9.9.5 Offshore Areas Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 2002

The Act is applicable to all minerals in offshore areas including minerals prescribed
under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, but excludes oils and related hydrocarbons
as there is separate legislation for them in force. The Act came into effect from
15.1.2010 vide S.O.338 (E), dated 11.2.2010 notified by the Central Government.
Indian Bureau of Mines has been notified as the “administering authority” and
“authorized officer” under Section 4 and Clause (i) of Section 22 of the Act vide
S.O.339 (E) and 340(E) dated 11.2.2010. The Secretary, Ministry of Mines has been
notified as the “Authorized Officer” to hear and decide cases relating to Clauses (a)
and (b) of Section 28(1) vide S.O.341 (E) dated 11.2.2010.
The Act empowers the Central Government to make rules for the purpose of the
Act including terms and conditions under the reconnaissance permit, exploration
license, production lease, etc.
The Government of India announced the New Exploration Licensing Policy
(NELP) in 2000 under which blocks for exploration of oil and gas were on offer for
bidding. The NELP provides an international class fiscal and contract framework for
exploration and production of hydrocarbons [35].

9.9.6 Offshore Areas Mineral Concession Rules, 2006

1. The Offshore Areas Mineral Concession Rules, 2006 lay down the process
for the grant and renewal of reconnaissance permits, exploration licenses
and production leases as per provisions of Section 35 of the Offshore Areas
Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002.
2. The rules prescribe measures for protecting the marine environment and
safety measures to be followed in the leased area.
3. The rules also define the operational guidelines for each concession granted
under the Act [36].

9.9.7 Other Regulatory Requirements

1. Oilfield (Regulation and Development) Act 1948
2. Petroleum and Natural Gas (Safety in Offshore Operations) Rules 2008
3. Oil mines Regulation 1984
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 269

9.10 UNITED STATES
The United States is now the largest producer of oil and natural gas in the world. It
is also the second-largest producer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), and is expected to
become the top producer within the next decade. As a result of increasing ­production
rates driven by technological advances in onshore horizontal drilling and high-­
volume hydraulic fracturing, the United States now produces nearly 10,000,000
­barrels per day (Bpd) of crude oil, up from an average of just over 5,000,000 Bpd
during 2005–2010. The oil and natural gas production sector is a staple of the US
economy, employing approximately 200,000 people in 2014 [37].

9.10.1 Government Policy Objectives

The US government does not have a national energy policy. However, the oil and gas
industry can be affected by tangential government energy and environmental poli-
cies, such as automotive fuel efficiency standards.
Individual states within the United States have developed specific policy objectives,
most commonly stated as a policy to prevent waste and protect the environment while
promoting the greatest ultimate recovery of indigenous oil and gas from within the state.
The United States has both federal and individual state agencies that regulate
certain aspects of oil and gas production. Neither the US federal government nor the
individual states have established a comprehensive energy policy to manage their
energy resources. For example, domestic onshore oil and gas development is regu-
lated by individual states under mandates to prevent waste and protect human health
and the environment, while encouraging the greatest ultimate use of domestic oil
and gas production. Oil and gas production occurring offshore in the Gulf of Mexico
is managed by various US federal government agencies to ensure safe and environ-
mentally responsible development, as well as the payment of production royalties
and taxes for the public benefit.

9.10.2 Regulation
Domestic onshore oil and gas development is regulated by individual states in which
the activity will take place. Each state has its own regulatory agency or agencies that
control the following:

• The distance between oil wells and property lines to protect the rights of
adjacent landowners.
• Prevention of waste.
• Health and safety issues.

However, local government control over oil and gas production is generally not
­permitted by state law, except for local zoning input that in some states allows local
government control over where and when oil and gas production activities can take
place (to prevent, for example, residential neighborhoods from noise pollution,
­industrial traffic, or perceived health hazards).
270 Offshore Operations and Engineering

Individual states also have authority over the taxation of oil and gas production
that occurs within the state. Oil and/or gas were produced in 33 of the 50 states
within the United States in 2014. Additionally, various agencies of the US federal
government regulate oil and gas production in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, as
well as the exploration of oil and gas on federal lands, for example:

• The Department of the Interior regulates the extraction of oil and gas from
federal lands.
• The Bureau of Land Management regulates oil development, exploration,
and production on federal onshore properties.
• The Office of Natural Resources Revenue collects royalties owed to the
government for onshore and offshore production [38].

9.10.3 Lease/License/Concession Term
Oil and gas leases in the United States are usually subject to two separate durations:

• A term of years during which the lessee can explore and develop the prop-
erty without paying royalties on production.
• If and when oil and/or gas is discovered in producible quantities sufficient
to generate royalty payments to the lessor/owner (known as producing in
paying quantities), the lease will continue for so long as oil and/or gas is
produced from the leased property.

9.11 CANADA
Canada has a set of four principal Acts which govern oil and gas activities in the
offshore:
The Canada Petroleum Resources Act governs the lease of federally owned
oil and gas rights on “frontier lands” to oil and gas companies that wish to find
and produce oil and gas. “Frontier lands” include the “territorial sea” (12 nautical
miles beyond the low water mark of the outer coastline), and the “continental shelf”
(beyond the territorial sea). It is the statute under which the federal government must
first give permission for oil and gas exploration to occur on frontier lands, and pro-
vides opportunity for the federal government to protect the environment by attach-
ing exploration restrictions when leasing rights or by stopping work if there is an
environmental problem.
Under the Act, subsurface oil and gas rights in unexplored areas are issued
­during a “public call for bids” and the Minister may attach conditions to the
transfer of rights (including conditions for protecting the environment). For each
right issued, the successful oil and gas company must pay a royalty to the federal
government [39].
The Canada Oil and Gas Operations Act governs the exploration, production,
processing, and transportation of oil and gas in marine areas controlled by the fed-
eral government. These areas include the “territorial sea” (12 nautical miles beyond
the low water mark of the outer coastline), and the “continental shelf” (beyond the
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 271

t­ erritorial sea). They do not include areas controlled by the provincial government.
The purpose of the Act is to promote safety, protection of the environment, the con-
servation of oil and gas resources, and joint production agreements [40].
The Canada-Newfoundland Atlantic Accord Implementation Act and the
­Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Resources Accord Implementation Act,
otherwise known as the Accord Acts, implement agreements between the federal
and provincial governments relating to offshore petroleum resources. The Accord
Acts mirror both the COGOA and CPRA and outline the shared management of oil
and gas resources in the offshore, revenue sharing, and establishes the respective
offshore regulatory boards [41].

9.11.1 Regulation
The primary legislation governing oil and natural gas activities offshore
Newfoundland and Labrador and Nova Scotia is the Atlantic Accord and the
Atlantic Accord Implementation Acts. Offshore oil and natural gas operations in
Newfoundland and Labrador are regulated by the Canada-Newfoundland and
Labrador Offshore Petroleum Board (C-NLOPB), an independent administrative
board jointly appointed by the federal and provincial governments, whose mandate is
to interpret and apply the provisions of the Atlantic Accord and the Atlantic Accord
Implementation Acts to all activities of operators in the Newfoundland and Labrador
Offshore Area, as well as to oversee operator compliance with those statutory provi-
sions. Similarly, in Nova Scotia, the Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board
(C-NSOP) regulates the industry [42].
Operators are required to submit a variety of plans and meet specific require-
ments to receive authorization from the C-NLOPB or C-NSOPB to conduct work
offshore. This includes developing and submitting the following:

• A Safety Plan which sets out the procedures, practices, resources, sequence
of key safety-related activities, and monitoring measures necessary to
ensure the safety of the proposed work or activity;
• An Environmental Protection Plan that sets out the procedures, practices,
resources, and monitoring necessary to manage potential hazards and to
protect the environment from the proposed work or activity;
• A Contingency Plan (including emergency response procedures such as oil
spill response plans) that sets out how to mitigate the effects of any poten-
tial event that might compromise safety or environmental protection and
includes territorial or federal emergency response plan, and where oil is
reasonably expected to be encountered, identify the scope and frequency of
the field practice exercise of oil spill countermeasures; and
• A Benefits Plan that describes a plan for the employment of Canadians and,
in particular, members of the labor force of the province in which the activ-
ity is occurring; and for providing manufacturers, consultants, contractors,
and service companies in the province and other parts of Canada with a full
and fair opportunity to participate on a competitive basis in the supply of
goods and services.
272 Offshore Operations and Engineering

All plans are reviewed by the C-NLOPB or C-NSOPB and are accepted as part of the
authorization process prior to initiating the activity. Companies conducting activity
offshore additionally follow other federal legislation and regulation including, but
not necessarily limited to:

• Canadian Environmental Protection Act

• Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA)
• Species at Risk Act (SARA)
• Fisheries Act
• Migratory Birds Conservation Act
• Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act
• Occupational Health and Safety Transitional Regulations [42].

9.12 SAUDI ARABIA
Offshore oil and gas legislations mainly pertain to the drilling and workover
­operations as the offshore environment and the rig and personnel are exposed to a
majority of risks and hazards during these operations.
These regulations are corporate, regional, national, and global in nature.
All ­operators, like Saudi Aramco, must adhere to these regulations.
Considerations:

• Discharge to marine environment from drilling operations

• Wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal
• Protection of marine life
• Pollution control and environment protection

Corporate regulations:
Saudi Aramco has strong corporate standards regarding guidelines to environ-
mental protection policy, the major aim being to manage the operations without any
adverse effects to the surrounding environment.
The standards are as follows:

• Sewage disposal: A sewage treatment plant is required for any facility

located less than 4 nautical miles from land. Moreover, the disposed matter
must meet the specified guidelines.
• Industrial drainage: All types of water flows and oil drainage must be
­collected in slop tanks or caissons.
• Trash/Rubbish: Can’t be disposed to the sea and has to be hauled back to an
approved onshore disposal site.
• Oil-based mud/toxic fluids/cuttings: These must be hauled back to an
approved onshore disposal site.
• Drilled cuttings from OBM: These must be cleaned using the best ­practical
technology, and should be disposed as close to the sea floor as possible.
• Contingency plans: All contractors are required to recognize the company’s
requirements in the contingency plans related to disaster and oil spill prevention.
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 273

• Water-based mud/cuttings: These shall not be discharged if they contains

persistent systematic toxins. Toxicity tests (e.g. LC-50) must be run, and
appropriate disposal sites must be chosen.
• Ambient air quality: The facilities must comply with the pollutant concen-
trations mentioned by the Meteorological and Environmental Protection
Administration (MEPA).
• Noise: Noise level should not exceed 85 dBa, and personnel should not be
exposed to high noise levels for more than a specified time duration.
• Flaring: Flaring must be done only in necessary conditions like in pressure
testing and kill operations. Prior permissions must be taken and notified.
It should begin in daylight and can continue after sunset as well.

Applicable agreements for drilling operations in the Arabian Gulf

These agreements contain all the material and information related to the safety
regulations and specifications offshore in the Arabian Gulf. They come under
Regional Organization for Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME).

• ROPME protocol concerning marine pollution resulting from the explora-

tion and exploitation of continental shelf.
• ROPME protocol concerning regional cooperation combating pollution by
oil and other harmful substances in case of emergency.
• ROPME protocol for protection of marine environment from land-based
sources [43].

REFERENCES
1. Mette Gravdahl-Agerup, Offshore Safety Regulations the European Perspective, 933
(2012), pp. 1–62.
2. TERRITORIAL SEA AND CONTIGUOUS ZONE. Available at www.un.org/depts/los/
convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part2.htm
3. Why Is Offshore Drilling So Dangerous. Available at www.livescience.com/32614-
why-is-offshore-drilling-so-dangerous-.html
4. Offshore oil and gas safety. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/
energy-security/offshore-oil-and-gas-safety
5. European Commission, The precautionary principle: decision-making under uncer-
tainty, Eur. Comm. DG Environ. by Sci. Commun. Unit (2017), p. 24.
6. Offshore Directive - the safety of offshore oil and gas operations. Available at http://
www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/directive.htm
7. European Union, Directive 2013/30/EU of the european parliament and of the council of
12 June 2013 on safety of offshore oil and gas operations and amending Directive 2004/35/
EC, Off. J. Eur. Official Journal of the European Union (L178/66-L178/106) (2013), p. 41.
8. Directive 92/91/EEC - mineral-extracting industries - drilling. Available at https://
osha.europa.eu/en/legislation/directives/11
9. European Parliament. Available at www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//
EP//TEXT+REPORT+A7-2013-0121+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN.
10. European Commission, REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND
OF THE COUNCIL on safety of offshore oil and gas prospection, exploration and
production activities, 0309 (2011).
274 Offshore Operations and Engineering

11. C. Frank, D.R. Eddy, G. Richard, I. Alexey and W.-O. Gerhard, Safety Guidelines
and Good Industry Practices for Oil Terminals (2013) by United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on the Transboundary Effects of
Industrial Accidents, p. 72.
12. Storting White Paper, An industry for the future – Norway’s petroleum activities 1
Objective and summary, 28 (2011).
13. PSA, Regulations relating to health, safety and the environment in the petroleum activ-
ities and at certain onshore facilities (The Framework Regulations) (Last amended
17 June 2016, cf. page 4) Petroleum Safety Authority Norway Norwegian Environment
Age, (2016), pp. 1–24.
14. Directorate of Labour Inspection, Act relating to working environment, working hours
and employment protection, etc. (Working Environment Act). Arbeidslivets lover,
64 (2012), pp. 1–64.
15. Norwegian Maritime Directorate, Act of 16 February 2007 No. 9 relating to ship safety
and security (Ship Safety and Security Act), 65 (2015).
16. A. Srivastava, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas Notification (Gazette of India)
(2004).
17. R. Of, I. Hydrocarbon, R. To, P. Waste, O. Pollution, T. Achieve, Ministry of Oil -
Regulations for the Conservation of Petroliam Resources Regulations for the
Conservation of Petroliam Resources Ministry of Oil - Regulations for the Conservation
of Petroliam Resources, (2016).
18. A. Act, Offshore Petroleum Act 2006 (2006).
19. C. No, Offshore Petroleum (Royalty) Act 2006, (2016).
20. TG.O.A. The Government of East Timor, Timor Sea Treaty.
21. Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act, Offshore Petroleum and
Greenhouse Gas Storage (Safety) Regulations, (2010).
22. 2015 Operational Review of the National Offshore Petroleum (2015).
23. The Oil and Gas Law Review.
24. Oil and gas regulation in Egypt: Overview. Available at https://uk.practicallaw.­
thomsonreuters.com/7-565-7867?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&f
irstPage=true&comp=pluk&bhcp=1
25. Oil and gas regulation in Qatar: Overview. Available at https://content.next.
westlaw.com/Document/Id4af1a841cb511e38578f7ccc38dcbee/View/FullText.
html?contextData=(sc.Default)&transitionType=Default&firstPage=true&bhcp=1
26. Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016 (2016).
27. Qatar’s Legal System Governance and Business. Available at www.nyulawglobal.org/
globalex/Qatar1.html
28. Decree Law No. 4 of 1977 on Preserving Petroleum Resources. Available at www.
almeezan.qa/LawView.aspx?opt&LawID=2716&language=en
29. Oil and gas regulation in the Russian Federation: overview. Available at https://
uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/0-527-3028?transitionType=Default&contextDat
a=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true&bhcp=1&comp=pluk
30. Russia amends foreign investments regulations. Available at www.dlapiper.com/en/
russia/insights/publications/2017/08/russia-amends-foreign-investments-regulations
31. D.K. Espinosat, Environmental Regulation of Russia’S Offshore Oil & Gas Industry
and Its Implications for the International Petroleum Market. One of the most signifi-
cant events in the evolution of the petroleum-producing countries of the former Soviet
Union. 2 With the, 191 (1997).
32. Oil & Gas Industry in India. Available at www.ibef.org/industry/oil-gas-india.aspx
33. A.C. Anmol Soni, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi (2014).
34. Development and Regulation, Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation)
ACT, 1957, Development and Regulation ACT (1957), pp. 1–36.
Global Offshore Legislations and Regulations 275

35. Development and Regulation, The Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and
Regulation) ACT, 2002, The Offshore Areas Mineral ACT (2002), pp. 1–17.
36. OffshoreMCR(1).pdf.
37. S. Ladislaw, J. Nakano, A. Sieminski and A. Stanley, U.S. Natural Gas in the Global
Economy, Retrieved April 30 from www.csis.org/features/us-natural-gas-global-­
economy/2018
38. Oil Regulation. Available at https://gettingthedealthrough.com/area/24/jurisdiction/23/
oil-regulation-2017-united-states/
39. Canada Petroleum Resources Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. 36 (2nd Supp.)). Available at https://
laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-8.5/
40. Canada Oil and Gas Operations Act. Available at www.neb-one.gc.ca/bts/ctrg/gnthr/
cndlgsprtnct/index-eng.html
41. Legislation and Regulations - Offshore Oil and Gas. Available at www.nrcan.gc.ca/
energy/offshore-oil-gas/5837
42. The Atlantic Canadian Offshore. Available at http://atlanticcanadaoffshore.ca/
regulation/
43. Health Safety and Environment Prtotecting Resources. Available at www.­
saudiaramco.com.sa/content/dam/Publications/annual-review/2015/English/AR-2015-
SaudiAramco-English-HSE.pdf
Index
A Completion equipment, 89
Compliant tower and guyed tower, 27
Additional loads during installation and Compliant towers, 16, 27
construction, 19, 22 Concrete gravity structure, 22
Air compressors, 132 Constant loads, 19
Air logistics, 139 Corrosion, 17, 181, 191, 192
All electrical control system, 178 Corrugated plate interceptor (CPI) separators, 121
Anchors, 35, 37, 38 Costliest and deadliest events in oil and gas
Anode, 17–19 industry, 236
Anti agglomerates, 187 CPI separators, see Corrugated plate interceptor
Artificial lift completion, 80 (CPI) separators
Asphaltene, 181, 190 Crude oil heater, 133
Assessment process, 231
Australia, 257
Automated gas lift optimization in offshore, 114 D
Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), 200 Data Management and data transmission, 112
Azimuth, 59 Dead weight, 35
Deep sea development options, 145
B Deep steep riser, 197
Diesel system, 137
Baseline, 1 Direct access wells, 153
Basic protection concepts, 105 Direct hydraulic control system, 173
Bathymetry, 3, 31 Directional drilling, 64
Bit, 46 Drag embedment Anchor, 37
Blowout prevention (BOP), 46, 69 Drain header and sump caisson, 135
Bottom hole assembly (BHA) & drill string, 46 Drilling, 8, 9, 11, 41, 43, 44, 46, 48, 50, 57, 59,
Burst, 53, 54, 90 62, 64, 65–70, 88, 124, 129, 130, 151,
153, 210
C Drop-off section, 59
Dropped object, 221
Canada, 270 Dry tree semisubmersibles, 193
Capacity and performance of damaged Dry tree systems, 151
structure, 233 Dual gradient drilling, 68
Casing, 44–46, 51–58, 73, 76, 80, 82, 85, 86, 89, Dual zone–parallel string completion, 76
90, 197, 199, 228, 229 Dual zone dual packer completion, 76
Catenaries mooring system, 38
Cathode, 17
E
Challenges in subsea due to water depth, 147
Chemical inhibition, 189 Earthquake load, 19, 21
Chemical tank, 133 EER, see Evacuation, escape & rescue (EER)
Christmas tree (X-mas tree), 89, 151 EEZ, see Exclusive economiczone (EEZ)
Circulating valves, 95 Egypt, 260
Classification of completions, 73 Electrical distribution manifold/module, 167
Classification of fire, 218 Electrical flying leads, 169
Classification of mooring systems, 38 Electrical power system and communication, 171
Clustered well system, 157 Electrolyte, 17, 18
Collapse calculations for individual casing Emergency position indicating radio beacon, 226
strings, 56 Emergency position indicating radio beacon
Collision events, 215 (EPIRB), 226
Communication system, 136, 158 Emerging deepwater technologies, 193
Completion, 45, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79–83, 86, 87, 211 Entertainment and recreation, 129

277
278 Index

Environment dependent loads, 19, 20 H

EPIRB, see Emergency position indicating radio
beacon (EPIRB) Hazards on oil and gas installations, 215
Erosion, 90, 181, 193 Hazardous operability (HAZOP), 107
Europe, 248 Heating, ventilation & air conditioning
Evacuation, escape & rescue (EER), 222 equipment, 136
Exclusive economiczone (EEZ), 1, 2 Helicopter incidents, 221
Expandable monobore liner extension, 197 HDM, see Hydraulic distribution manifold/
Export pipelines, 102 module (HDM)
Export pipelines/tankers for evacuation of oil HFL, see Hydraulic flying leads (HFL)
and gas, 143 High integrity protection system (HIPS), 107
Extended life, 233 Hole cleaning & hydraulics, 46
External corrosion prevention, 192 Horizontal well completions, 80
Hot oil system, 133
HPU, see Hydraulic power unit (HPU)
F Human factors, 213
Hybrid riser system, 195
Factors driving deep sea development, 145 Hydrate prevention methods, 186
FDPSOs, see Floating drilling production storage Hydrate remediation, 188
and offloading systems (FDPSOs) Hydraulic couplers, 168
Field development scenarios: options/ Hydraulic distribution manifold/module
alternatives, 208 (HDM), 165
Fire, 106, 217 Hydraulic flying leads (HFL), 168
Fire & gas detection & safety system, 217 Hydraulic power unit (HPU), 134, 160, 179
Fire and gas leakage protection system, 107 Hydrocarbon releases, 215, 216
Fire detection systems, 218
Fire protection, 217
Fire suppression systems, 219 I
Fixed structures, 16, 23 Ice and snow-induced load, 21
Flash vessel, 121 IGF unit, 121
Floating drilling production storage and IMO resolutions, see International Maritime
offloading systems (FDPSOs), 16 Organization (IMO) resolutions
Floating platform, 35 Impressed current cathodic protection
Floating platform systems, 16 systems, 18
Floating production, storage, and offloading Inclination (or) drift, 59
systems (FPSOs), 16, 100, 124, 125, India, 266
148, 149, 153, 208, 221 International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Floating production systems (FPS), 16 resolutions, 234
Flow assurance, 148, 158, 179 Infield pipelines, 101
Flow assurance challenges, 180 Instrument air and utility air systems, 132
Fluid characterization and flow property Instrumentation, remote sensing, and telemetry
assessments, 182 of real-time processes, 111
Food, 127 Intelligent well systems, 83
FPS, see Floating production systems (FPS) Internal corrosion inhibitors, 191
Fresh water cooling system, 134 Internal corrosion prevention, 191
Fuel gas system, 129

J
G
Jacketed platforms, 16, 22, 30, 33
Galvanic action, 18 Jack-up platform/rig, 33
Gas dehydration, 119 Jackup rigs, 43
Gas detection system, 218
Gas hydrates, 180 K
Gas treatment, 118
Gas turbine generator, 130 Kick-off point and build-up rate, 58
Glycol reboiler, 133 Kinetic inhibitors, 187
Gravity platforms, 16 Kuwait, 253
Index 279

L P
Lead angle, 62 Packers, 90
LDI, see Low dosage inhibitors (LDI) Padeyes, 163
Life extension & assessment of offshore Paraffin/wax, 181
structures, 230 Perforated casing completions, 75
Life-saving equipment in EER, 223 Permanent packer, 91
Living accommodation, 127 Pile, 38
Load cases, 55 Piloted hydraulic control system, 174
Loading of tankers, 118 Pipelines, 124
Logic caps, 169 Platform wells/dry trees, 100
Low dosage inhibitors (LDI), 187 Potable water system, 133
Low pressure operations, 187 Power generation, 129
Pressure testing conditions, 56
Procedural aspects related to safety, 216
M Process leaks, 216
Main top side elements, 159 Process safety & hydrocarbon releases, 216
Marine growth, 21 Processing in offshore, 116
Master/main control station (MCS), 159 Processing platforms, 101
Material handling, 138 Produced water treatment, 120
MCS, see Master/main control station Production, 4–6, 52–54, 57, 67, 75, 99, 100, 103,
(MCS) 106, 116, 145, 147–149, 157, 171, 193,
Measurement while drilling (MWD), 65 208, 248, 264, 266
Medical, 128 Production tubing, 89
Metallic path, 17 Production well templates, 157
Meteorology, 3 Proof of structural integrity with increased
Metocean, 2, 4 loads, 232
Mooring & anchoring, 35 Protection of offshore facilities/rigs, 235
Mud weight, 49 Proximity (anti-collision) analysis, 64
Mudmat, 163 Pyrotechnics, 227
Multilateral completions, 83
Multi-lines free standing riser, 196 Q
Multiple quick connects, 167
Multiple zone completion, 75 Qatar, 261
Multiple zones single string completion, 79
Multiplex electro hydraulic control system, 177 R
MWD, see Measurement while drilling
(MWD) Recoverable reserves, 145
Reservoir production characteristics, 148
N Reservoir structure, 148
Retrievable packer, 90
Naturally flowing completions, 79 Rig equipment, 46
Navigation aids, 225 Riser leaks, 216
Nomad systems, 201 Risks, 145
Norway, 252 Russia, 263
Nudging, 63
S
O
Sacrificial anodes, 18
Offshore giant field development exercise, 209 Safety in logistics operations related to offshore
Offshore marginal field development exercise, installation, 220
207 Safety valves, 93
Offshore pipelines, 101 Sand production, 51
Offshore security threats, 240 SART, see Search and rescue transponder
Offshore storage, 122 (SART)
Oil tankers, 123 Satellite well system, 155
Oil treatment, 116 Saudi Arabia, 272
280 Index

SCADA, see Supervisory control and data Surface facility protection, 107
acquisition system (SCADA) SUTA, see Subsea umbilical termination
Scale management, 192 assembly (SUTA)
Scales, 181 System design and operability, 184
SDS components, see Subsea distribution system System safety, 216
(SDS) components System shut down, 184
Sea logistics, 139 System start up, 184
Sea water injection, 121
Seabed separation, 203
Search and rescue transponder (SART), 226 T
Selection of hydrate control method, 189 Tangent section, 59
Sequenced hydraulic control system, 175 Technology development, 107
Severe slugging, 182 Temperature induced load, 19, 21
Sewage treatment system, 138 Template well system, 156
Shallow vs. deep flow assurance scenario, 180 Tension leg platforms (TLP), 16, 193
Ship-shaped floating production, storage, & Thermal & chemical wax dissolution, 190
offloading systems, 16 Thermal control, 189
Shut down panel, 105 Thermal insulation and heating, 187
Shut in, 107 Thermodynamic inhibitors, 186
Single buoy mooring, 125 TLP, see Tension leg platforms (TLP)
Single point mooring system, 39 Topside umbilical termination assembly
Single zone completion, 75 (TUTA), 160
Skimmer vessel, 133 Total horizontal deviation, 62
Slugging, 182 Trainings, 244
Smart well technology, 199 Trajectory, 45, 57, 59, 61, 62
Smoking and alcohol, 129 Transducer/sensor, 171
Spar platforms, 16 Transient flow hydraulic and thermal
Stand-alone development, 155 performance analyses, 185
Steady-state hydraulic and thermal performance Transmission/cross country pipelines, 101
analyses, 183 Transportation of oil and gas, 123
Structural collapse, 230 Tubing connections, 90
Subsea accumulator module, 169 Tubing grade, 89
Subsea completion, 86 Tubing size, 89
Subsea control module (SCM), 169 Tubing weight, 90
Subsea distribution assembly, 165 TUTA, see Topside umbilical termination
Subsea distribution system (SDS) assembly (TUTA)
components, 163 Types of control systems, 173
Subsea elements, 162 Types of directional patterns, 61
Subsea field development, 149 Types of directional wells, 64
Subsea monitoring, control & communication Types of dual gradient drilling, 70
system, 158 Types of subsea completions, 87
Subsea multiphase pumps, 202 Typical flow assurance processes, 182
Subsea power supply, 179
Subsea pressure boosting, 204
Subsea processing, 202 U
Subsea production control system, 171
Subsea tie-back development, 153 Umbilical, 163
Subsea umbilical termination assembly Umbilical termination head (UTH), 165
(SUTA), 163 UNCLOS, see United Nations Convention on the
Subsea well completion, 151 Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Subsea wells clusters, 153 Unforeseen loads, 19, 22
Subsea wells/wet trees, 100 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Suction anchor, 38 (UNCLOS), 247
Sump caisson, 135 USA, 269
Supervisory control and data acquisition system UTH, see Umbilical termination head (UTH)
(SCADA), 95, 100, 109, 111, 112, 114, Utility water system, 135
116, 212 Utility/diesel generators, 130
Index 281

V Wax management strategy, 189

Well automation, 114
Variable loads, 19 Well control& protection, 109
Vertical load anchor, 38 Well groupings, 155
Vessel collisions, 221 Well integrity, 228
Wellbore, 46–48
W Wellhead, 46, 112, 150
Wells (subsea/platform wells), 100
Water depth, 147 Wet tree systems, 100
Water removal, 187 Wind, 20, 21
Wave, 3, 19, 20 Workflow automation, 11
Wax control guidelines, 189
 Taylor & Francis eBooks
www.taylorfrancis.com

A single destination for eBooks from Taylor & Francis

with increased functionality and an improved user
experience to meet the needs of our customers.

90,000+ eBooks of award-winning academic content in

Humanities, Social Science, Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Medical written by a global network of editors and authors.

TA YLOR & FRANCIS EBOOKS OFFERS:

Improved
A streamlined A single point search and
experience for of discovery discovery of
our library for all of our content at both
customers eBook content book and
chapter level

REQUEST A FREE TRIAL

support@taylorfrancis.com