Museum

Revolutions in world history

Julia Breyer (591621),

 Abstract

In this immersive experience into Diamonds work, namely his book “Guns, Germs and
Steel”, this exhibition will set on a journey through six thematic rooms, each delving into a
'revolution' that Diamond discusses. This book has captivated audiences with its exploration
and elaboration of the environmental and geographical factors shaping the course of human
history as well as its societies. Nonetheless, Diamond's work has faced its fair share of
criticism and while Diamond will be praised for his insightful ideas, this exhibition will also
critically evaluate his widely discussed shortcomings. Each room will display three artefacts,
which may elaborate on a topic, or carefully juxtapose Diamond's arguments with scholarly
insights. Items such as Neolithic tools, human remains, Maps, and much more which provide
an intensive experience that conveys the exhibition's narrative. They serve as a testament to
Diamond's thesis while allowing for critical elaboration with new research that both confirms,
as well as challenges his views.
In the first room, we will be looking at some artefacts that surround the Neolithic Revolution.
Some of the first tools for agriculture, artworks that resemble the period of that time and
other instruments will be showcased as a means to back up, or criticise Diamonds
frameworks. The second room will focus on the topics of migration and axis theory. Some
recent discoveries will be reflected on, which will serve as evidence to Diamonds theory, as
well as artefacts and agricultural tendencies which reflect on domestication of plants over
America. The third room will discuss different pandemics and theories on how they emerged
and spread. Not only are the emergence of diseases discussed, but also artefacts will be on
display that explore Diamonds arguments on global consequences of infectious diseases.
Room four will explore the impact of diverse writing systems, as exemplified by Sumerian
Cuneiform tablets will convey Diamonds point. In contrast, the Khipu system of the Inka
Empire and the Indus Valley script challenge Diamond's perspectives, showcasing the varied
forms and functions writing can take in different cultures and contexts.
Moreover, the fifth room will dive into the development of Political organisations and state
building - diving from the origins of what we now know as legal institutions, to questioning
determinants elements Diamonds discusses for societal development.
Finally, the room displays artefacts which tell us a story about how innovation of technology
can be stimulated through a variety of factors such as war, climate and forms of governance.
 Week 1: Neolithic Revolution

Figure 1. Sickles of flint used to harvest corn in the Neolithic Revolution.

The flint sickles on display are more than just a simple artefact of the past; they will set
the tone for this exposition on the Neolithic Revolution. As we go back in time, these tools
can remind us how much technologies developed during this revolutionary era, and led to the
world as we know it today. The shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to communities
based upon agriculture give the fundamental basis for the Neolithic Revolution. “Guns,
Germs, and Steel” by Jared Diamond profoundly explores this transition, showing us how it
changed the path of human history forever.

The introduction of agriculture, as put into evidence by the flint sickles before your
eyes, allowed early humans to settle down in one place as opposed to constantly roaming
around. The cultivation of crops and domestication of animals enabled the change in lifestyle
and social structures, leading eventually to a change in the global human landscape.
However, the tools on display represent more than a mere set of agricultural instruments. The
start of a new epoch, the ability for crops to be harvested in an efficient manner, and
consequently the surplus in production was able to sustain larger and more stable populations.
As argued by Diamond, said agrarian communities were those who set the tone for the
development of stratification within societies, the specialisation of labour, and technological
innovation.

Another argument made by Diamond is that the geographical placement of fertile soil
and climates which suited agriculture heavily affected the uneven development of societies.
The abundance of domesticable plants and animals, in areas like the Fertile Crescent, were
able to develop much faster in terms of societal and technological advancement. On the other
hand, the areas which lacked resources for agriculture were left behind, leading to the
imbalanced distribution of technology and power which has shaped much of human history.
And while Diamond's work has been subject to improvement and refinement over time, he
still managed to encapsulate and highlight the colossal impact agriculture has had on human
history.

Figure 2. Painting of Herdsmen and Cattle, Tassili-n-Ajjer, Algeria.

A painting captured from a cave in Algeria, which displays a few herdsmen surrounded by
cattle is a pictographic representation of the early stages of the domestication of animals. This
will set as a base for Diamonds views on the role of domestication and its effects on human
history. As previously mentioned, not only did fertile soil allow for geographical areas to
develop faster, but also the species who were available to be domesticated heavily affected
the agricultural development in certain regions, such as Eurasia.

Recent work done by a series of scholars, however, have proposed different viewpoints. In
Smith’s (2007) paper regarding the domestication of plants and animals, he argues that
domestication in itself is not as straightforward as Diamond suggests. An interaction between
a variety of factors such as the social, environmental and cultural played their role in shaping
the domestication of animals. This challenges Diamond's straightforward and, arguably,
simplistic perspective which debates in favour of geographical and environmental factors,
whereas Smith suggests cultural practices and human components played the more significant
role in the domestication of plants and animals. Furthermore, to juxtapose Diamond's view
even more, there have been studies in regions such as the Americas and Africa which have
shown that domestication occurred under different circumstances and independently from
Eurasia (Bellwood, 2005). This, once again, opposes the idea of Eurasian focus in Diamonds
work, underlining the different paths taken in global development.

Zeder’s (2006) study on the domestication of plants and animals further compliments the
aforementioned views opposing Diamond. Her work emphasises that the process of
domestication was not a mere consequence of the meteorological conditions and geographical
placement but is rooted deeply into the core of the social and cultural characteristics of early
human societies. She further goes on to explore and elaborate on the factors which influenced
domestication, examining the different ways societies managed the natural resources at hand.
Zeder’s perspective, far different to Diamonds, although acknowledging that geographical
factors did certainly play a role, accentuates how different cultures under different conditions
could have developed their own unique practices.

Therefore, the painting on display depicts more than just the interaction between the early
humans and animals: it gives us an insight into the process of domestication and all the
different methods in which it could have been achieved. It further highlights how important
it is to consider more than just one viewpoint, and taking into account the multiple factors
which could have played a role in the early development of these societies.

​
Figure 3. Bowl from Majiayao Culture.
The ceramic bowl on display comes from the Majiayao culture in Neolithic China, and it
represents the early advances in technology certain regions were able to make during this
historic period. As Diamond emphasises in his work, both environmental and geographical
factors played a large role in the development of human history, with regions such as the
Fertile Crescent and East Asia possessing certain natural advantages. These allowed for
earlier agricultural and technological development, highlighting a rate of advancement which
differed among societies around the world. In Neolithic China, for example, the ceramic bowl
demonstrates the areas early advancements and in turn permitted quicker societal
advancement.

As the Neolithic period encompasses, the Majiayao bowl tells the story of a society which
had developed beyond the mere goal of survival, expanding their society into the realms of
art and culture. A ceramic piece like this suggests a few things: first and foremost, the
resource availability which allowed for the engagement in activities beyond the simplistic
endeavours of daily life. Secondly, this also suggests a level of social stability, as Diamond
views lead to an abundance of technological innovation and cultural development, tied with
the aforementioned abundance of resources. Furthermore, the role of specialisation could also
come into play with the intricate design apparent on the bowl. This could reflect a society in
early China that did not only develop the pottery-making techniques to create such a piece
but also a societal structure which allowed for specialisation. Again, this ties into Diamonds
view on technological development, where it was accelerated by effective agricultural
practices and techniques.

It is, however, imperative to take into account the fact that while Diamond does provide a
justified and logical framework, scholars have argued that factors beyond what Diamond
mentions, such as independent innovation and cultural exchanges also played vital roles in
the development of technologies like ceramics (Jaschick, 2005). The factors discussed by
Diamond could just be part of the larger puzzle of factors that influenced the course of human
history, as revealed by critiques and calls attention to the more complex side of historical
development. So, while the bowl is a great representation of early technological
advancements and supports Diamond’s theory, it also allows for a deeper exploration into the
factors that go beyond what is mentioned in Diamond’s work, reminding us once again of
how complex human history is.
 Week 2: Axis theory and early Human migration

In the image above, we are able to see a Neolithic settlement of La Draga, an

archaeological marvel submerged beneath a Catalonian lake, offering a
7,000-year-old glimpse into the agricultural and livestock-rearing practices of our
ancestors. The exceptional and rare preservation of wooden tools at La Grada
provides us with concrete evidence that supports Diamond assertion that
technological advancements, such as those seen in the agricultural toolkit, played a
critical role in shaping early complex societies (Diamond, 1998). The discovery of
these artefacts underscore the interdependent relationship between humans and
their environment, where natural resources were a vital tool for human evolution.

However, Diamond has faced scrutiny, as new academic insights were

developed over time. Some scholars argue that although his theory is compelling, it
overshadows the nuanced interplay of human agency, cultural exchange, and
random chance by tilting towards environmental determinism. La Draga can serve as
an example to back up these scholars, as it shows not only an adaptation to the
environment through the development of tools, but also innovation beyond it. This
suggests that while geography had significant influence on human development, it
was human creativity that painted the picture of history

Moreover, the axis theory stated by Diamond is reflected in the dissemination of

agricultural practices from the Fertile Crescent to regions like Catalonia. Diamond
argues that Eurasia's primary axis is east-west, unlike the Americas and Africa,
which are oriented more north-south (Diamond, 1998). La Draga thus represents this
transmission of technology across Eurasia, supporting Diamond's argument about
the facilitative role of geography in cultural diffusion.
 In Sum, La Draga serves not only as an archeological discovery that offers
insights into the Neolithic times, but also as an illustration of Diamond's theory.
Moreover, it makes us reflect on the influence of environmental factors in human
history, while acknowledging the transformative power of human action. As we
ponder on the insights provided by La Draga's tools, we are reminded of the complex
tapestry of factors that have shaped the world as we know it - a narrative that
continues to evolve with each archaeological discovery.
Figure 3. A map of the American continent, showing the different shapes and forms
of corn domestication. The figure shows how different they are in size, shape and
colour, showing its adaptations to the environment. The map can back up Diamond's
theory of domestication of plants, and show an example of how one of the most
predominant domesticated plants in America was able to spread over the Americas,
but to some extent counter it.

The final item in this room exhibit is a map of the American continent illustrating
the staggering variety in corn domestication. The map represents a kaleidoscope of
diversity of corn, reflecting not only the ingenuity of ancient American societies, but
also the intricate selection humans were able to make on corn in order to adapt to
different environments. It is a testament to one of Jared Diamond's core arguments:
the power of plant domestication as a cornerstone in the foundation of complex
societies.

As displayed in the map, corn reveals to have an astonishing range of sizes,

shapes and colours, indicating its genetic plasticity and adaptability. This adaptation
showcases the crop's evolution in response to the selective pressures exerted by
indigenous peoples across different areas of South America.

However, the map also subtly counters Diamond's theory by showcasing that
the axis of domestication does not solely dictate the success of crops and, by
extension, the civilizations that cultivate them. Diamond states that the east-west
axis of Eurasia facilitated the transfer of crops and agricultural practices across
similar latitudes, while the north-south orientation of the Americas presented
challenges, which affected the development of agriculture in the region. However,
despite the challenges claimed by Diamond, corn became highly present across
diverse climatic regions along South America. From the arid valleys of Mexico to the
cooler highlands of the Andes, corn became a predominant staple on the continent.
This spread signifies a complex narrative of human adaptation and ingenuity that
diverges from Diamond's geographical determinism.

Moreover, it is important to note that corn was a vital tool for societal
development in the region, being one of the most produced crops along the region. It
influences the increase of population density, as well as technological advancements
(CITE). Diamond's thesis on the domestication of plants aligns with this narrative,
emphasising the significance of such agricultural innovations in giving rise to dense
populations and stratified societies (Diamond, 1998).

By integrating this map into the exhibition, we therefore present a dual

narrative: while it affirms the transformative role of plant domestication in human
history, it also invites us to reflect on the nuances that escape broadly-agreed
theories. It highlights the point that while geography provides a stage, the human
element is the one who choreographs a diverse agricultural ballet.

In sum, the map can be considered an item that provides critical viewpoints to
Diamonds axis theory, while providing evidence for other theories from the same
scholar. It showcases the colourful development of the sophisticated agricultural
systems developed by Native Americans, as well as their ability to overcome the
challenges posed by the environment.
 Week 3 Pandemics

Figure 1: Mass grave in London

In 1986, a mass burial site was uncovered near the Tower of London. In this grave, people
were buried that died of the black plague. This plague, also known as the Black Death,
arrived in Europe first in Crimea in 1347. Later, it spread throughout the rest of Europe
before arriving in England a year later. Interestingly, Diamond (2003) argued that Black
Death first emerged in Europe in 1346 as a result of new trade routes between China and
Europe. These trade routes allowed for rapid transport overland of products like furs that had
fleas in them. It is widely known that fleas can spread the black plague to humans. By
November 1348, the plague arrived in London. Researchers found that about 200 people were
buried per day in the peak days of the epidemic. Figure 1 depicts an example of a mass grave
used at that time. Since the Black Death was so destructive, the city could not cope with all
death. The cemetery next to the Tower of London was one of many emergency burial sites in
the densely populated city of London. In his book Germs, Guns and Steel, Diamond (2003)
discussed the effect that a densely populated area can have on the spread of a disease. He
argues that ever since the rise of agriculture we are more prone to pandemics. This is largely
due to the fact that disease could spread easily from person to person. Another factor that
contributed according to Diamond, is that the sanitation in cities was not good. Most cities
had a large sewage system where microbes could thrive. Even in the time before cities,
infectious diseases were more prevalent than in the time period of hunter and gatherers.
Human faeces play a role in this, because the hunter-gatherers moved from place to place
often, there was never time for microbes to grow out of the faeces and infect humans. This all
changed when humans started to stay at one place and began farming. Faeces were even used
as fertiliser for the crops, this also helped the spread. The artefact shows us that, indeed in
densely populated areas death rates were extremely high.
Figure 2: In tombstone in Kyrgyzstan
Researchers have a long history of trying to find the origins of plagues, specifically the Black
Death. A recent discovery in the now-called Kyrgyzstan, has shown potential to guide it in a
new direction. Interestingly, these researchers found two important things that indicate that
the theory that Jared Diamond describes in his book ‘Germs, Guns and Steel’ is in fact
wrong. This artefact is a tombstone of a person that died of an early DNA strain of the
bacterium Yersinia Pestis. There is a large consensus among the academic world that this
bacterium is the main cause of the black death. Diamond argues that because of the
domestication of animals, infectious diseases could rise. He explains this by highlighting that
under the new circumstances that these animals were living in, diseases could spread fast
between animals. Later on, these domesticated animals spread infectious diseases to humans.
However, the tombstone found in Kyrgyzstan proves the opposite is true. The stone was
placed on the grave of a person who died of the Black Death in 1338. Engraved on the stone
is the following text: “In the Year 1649 [= 1338 CE], and it was the Year of the tiger, in
Turkic Bars. This is the tomb of the believer Sanmaq. [He] died of pestilence”. This not only
proves that the Black Death was present early on in 1338, but it also implies something much
more interesting. Other researchers found more DNA strains in an area close to the
excavation of the tombstone, around the Tian Shan mountains. Contrary to what Diamond
believes, Yersinia pestis is spread by the wild rodents; they form plague reservoirs. WIth the
help of the findings in Kyrgyzstan and the Tian Shan mountains is to be believed that we
have found such a reservoir in Central Asia. Since this area lies close to trade routes, it is
hypothesised that the Black Death could have spread to Europe and North Africa via this
valley. So, whereas Diamond argues that, especially in Eurasia, pandemics are mainly due to
the domestication of animals, Spyrou et al. (2022) found something that indicates the
opposite. They believe that the origin of the Black Death lies with wild animals, like rodents.

https://www.mpg.de/18778852/0607-evan-origins-of-the-black-death-identified-150495-x
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evo-news/evolution-of-the-plague-pandemic/
Figure 3: The first landing of Christopher Columbus
The arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Amerias highlights important consequences of infectious
diseases. In his painting ‘the first landing of Christopher Columbus’, Frederick Kemmelmeyer depicts
the first encounter between European life and the way of living in the Americas. One of Diamond’s
main arguments is that we as humans are not entirely defenceless against infectious diseases, we have
an immune system in place that can make us resistant to persistent infections. When Europeans first
arrived in the Americas, they brought their infectious diseases with them and consequently transferred
them to the natives. In a process called the ‘Columbian exchange’, diseases were spread amongst
natives. This exchange caused the death of many of the original inhabitants of the Americas, some
argue up to 95%. With the help of infectious pathogens like influenza, Europeans could easily
colonise different parts of the world.
This also raises the question of why almost no diseases spread the other way, from the natives to
Europeans. Diamond argues that this is partly due to the fact that populations were less dense in the
New World early on in history, if you compare it to the Old World, this is caused by the delay in the
rise of these dense populations. The New World only consisted of three large centres, namely in
Mesoamerica, the Anders and Mississippi Valley. As can be seen in artefact 1, with the help of
densely populated areas, disease could spread fast. However, if in the New World, these dense areas
were absent, then infectious disease could also not be as deadly as in Europe. Furthermore, there was
also an absence of significant trade routes in the Americas. Especially if you compare it to the Roman
times, where there were important trade connections formed between Europe, Asia and North Africa.
It is widely believed that these trade routes played an important role in spreading the disease among
humans. So, the absence of trade routes and dense population left the Americas vulnerable for
European colonists and the spread of lethal infectious diseases.
Problem 4 (Liam)

Problem 5 (Julia)

Problem 6 (Thom)
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