CHAPTER III

EXPERIENTIAL FUNCTION
Halliday (1994) notes that the first metafunction of language is
ideational function and part of which is experiential function, in which
clause is regarded as the representation of experience. Language
enables human beings to build a mental picture of reality, to make
sense of what goes on around them and inside them. So, the clause
plays a central role in this theory because it embodies a general
principle for modeling experience namely the principle that reality is
made up of process and all of them are accounted for in the grammar
of the clause. The grammatical system by which this is achieved is
transitivity. The transitivity system copes with the world of experience
into a manageable set of process types. A process is associated with
three components: the process itself (traditionally called verb) which
is realized in process group, the participant involved (traditionally
known as noun phrase or argument) which is realized in the nominal
group and the circumstance (traditionally known as adverb) which is
realized in adjunct group or prepositional phrase.

3.1 Process
What exists and goes on in this real world as well as in the
inner world are experiences which are realized by various possibilities
such as doing, happening, sensing, meaning, being, etc. and those
experiences are construed by the transitivity system into a set of
process types. Halliday (1994) divides process into six types which
are classified into two groups. The first group called major process
consists of material process, mental process and relational process;
the second group called minor process consists of verbal process,
behavioural process, and existential process. However, Halliday adds
another type of minor process called meteorological process. Minor
processes are so called because they actually belong to any one of the
three major processes. For instance, the process say is a verbal process
but it is also the process of doing and therefore it belongs to material
process as well; the process is in It is Sunday is a meteorological
process but it is also a relational process, etc.
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3.1.1 Material Process

Material process is one of the major types as it covers most of

human conscious reflection. It refers to processes of material doing
which express the notion that some entity physically does something –
which may be done to some other entity (Gerrot and Wignell, 1994:
55). Material process covers process of doing, process of creating,
process of happening and abstract process.

1. Process of Doing
Process of doing occurs in the actor point of view of the
dispositive type and the actor does something to the goal so that the
processes which are generally used in this type are those which
indicate deed as in the following.
(1.a)

The rhinocerous chased the hunter.

Actor Material Goal

(1.b)

The bulldozer Destroyed the building.

Actor Material Goal

(1.c)

The lion Killed the tiger.

Actor Material Goal

If those active sentences are expressed in the corresponding

passive the identity of the actor and the goal is maintained as in (2).
The number of processes which belongs to this type is quite large such
as attack, break, chase, destroy, drive, inject, kill, read, write, etc.

(2.a)
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The frog was chased by the rhinocerous.

Goal Material Actor

(2.b)

The building was destroyed by the bulldozer.

Goal Material Actor

Some processes of doing may be monovalent (intransitive) and

therefore they involve one participant; that is the actor only. Such
processes as arrive, come, dive, go, play, run, swim, walk, etc. are
intransitive and they do not have a second participant.

(3.a)

The whale Dives in the sea.

Actor Material Cir.

(3.b)

The students swim in the swimming pool.

Actor Material Cir.

2. Process of Creating
Material process may also refer to the process of creating and
it obviously expresses the notion that it must be transitive and the goal
is brought about as the result of creating. The processes which belong
to this type are: build, compose, construct, decorate, establish, form,
make, paint, produce, etc.

(3.a)

The Muslim community built a mosque.

Actor Material Goal

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(3.b)

The woman Made cake.

Actor Material Goal

(3.c)

The singer Composed his own songs.

Actor Material Goal

3. Process of Happening
Material process of happening is also found in the dispositive
type. It occurs as the result of the goal in undergoing what the actor
has done to it, or something happens to the goal after the actor did
something to it. Process of happening is generally intransitive. The
material processes of happening include stop, start, melt, freeze,
collide, break out, burst, erupt, explode, bend, dent, lean, etc.

(4.a)

The banner fell down.

Actor Material Cir.

(4.b)

The glass broke.

Actor Material

(4.c)

The fence leant to the street.

Actor Material Cir.

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4. Abstract Process
Material process can be an abstract process. It is unnecessarily
concrete but still treated grammatically as the type of action as in the
following.
(5. a)

The Vice Chancellor Opened the meeting.

Actor Material Goal

(5.b)

The athlete broke a new record.

Actor Material Range

(5.c)

The Dean Closed the seminar.

Actor Material Goal

Material abstract process can involve one participant as in (6).

(6.a)

The two families integrated.

Actor Material

(6.b)

The ice has melted.

Actor Material
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3.1.2 Mental Process

Mental process is a process which occurs in the internal world

of the mind. Mental processes may be differentiated into four types:
the first related to affection and reaction (feelings), the second related
to cognition (thinking), the third related to perception (perceiving),
and the last related to desirability. Mental process generally involves
two participants. The first participant is called senser and the second
phenomenon.
Mental processes are differentiated into four types: Process of
feelings, Process of Thinking, Process of Perceiving and Process of
Desirability.

1. Process of Feeling
Process of feelings refers to such words related to human
affectionate feelings as detest, enjoy, like, hate, love, etc. It may
express emotion such as amuse, dismay, doubt, surprise, worry, etc.

a.

Childre like European food very much.

n
Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon Circumstance
b.

Indonesian villagers Hate modern life style.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon

2. Process of Thinking
Process of thinking is associated with human cognition such as
believe, consider, evaluate, examine, forget, imagine, know,
memorize, regard, remember, think, etc.

a.

She forgot the name of his old friends.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon

b.
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The researcher examined the data in the

laboratory.
Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon Circumst.

3. Process of Perceiving
Process of perceiving is associated with human senses such as
hear, listen to, look at, notice, observe, see, taste, witness, etc.

a.

We have never heard such a funny story.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon
b.

He witnessed the accident in front of the office.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon Circumstance

4. Process of Desirability
Process of desirability covers such words as desire, intend,
mean, plan, want, etc.
a.

The kid wanted some milk.

Senser Mental Phenomenon

b.

He planned a trip to Bali.

Senser Mental Phenomenon

Note that when the two clauses above are reversed into their
corresponding passives, the analysis is as follows.

a.

Some milk was wanted by the kid.

Phenomenon Mental Senser

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b.

A trip to Bali was planned by him.

Phenomenon Mental Senser

Some mental processes may also have one participant.

(9.a)

The students understand.

Senser Mental Process

(9.b)

She realized.

Senser Mental Process

The first participant of mental processes normally functions as senser

and the second as phenomenon; however, the first participant of some
mental processes functions as phenomenon and the second as senser
as in (10).

(10.a)

Your words amused me.

Phenomenon Mental Senser

(10.b)

Her shout Scared him.

Phenomenon Mental Senser

(10.c)
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The thunder Shocked all the audiences.

Phenomenon Mental Senser

Some mental processes may have phenomenon as the only participant.

(11.a)

Loneliness hurt.

Phenomenon Mental

(11.b)

His advice was ignored.

Phenomenon Mental

(11.b)

The lecture was understood.

Phenomenon Mental

3.1.3 Relational Process

Relational process is one of the three major types of process.

Relational processes are used to relate one fragment of experience to
another. They construe relation among entities through two possible
modes identification and attribution, which can further be divided into
three types: intensive, circumstantial, and possessive.

Halliday (1994: 119) gives six categories of relational process

as adopted below.
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Mode
Type (i) Attributive (ii) Identifying

(1) Intensive Jane is disappointed. Mr. Hasan is the Principal.

The Principal is Mr. Hasan.

(2) Circumstantial The fair is on Tuesday. Tomorrow is my birth day.

My birth day is tomorrow.

(3) Possessive Husain has a new car. The new car is Husain’s.
Husain’s is the new car.

Thus, relational process can be differentiated into six types as follows.

1. Intensive Attributive Relational Process

Intensive attributive relational process construes that an entity
has some quality attributed to it so that the participant which carries
the quality is labeled as carrier and the quality itself has the label
called attribute. The main characteristics of this type of process are:
(1) the process refers to the ascriptive classes,
(2) if the attribute is nominal it is typically indefinite, and
(3) the clause is not reversible.

(11)

My brother is talkative..
My brother becomes a teacher.
My brother looks worried.

Carrier Intensive Attributive Rel. Process Attribute

Here are some attributive relational processes, which are

traditionally called linking verbs or copular verbs: be, become, get,
turn, grow, go, look, seem, appear, feel, sound, taste, smell, keep,
remain, stay, continue, break, crack, prove, fall, last etc. The
following words also belong to this type: has, belong to, concern,
weigh, require, cost, end up, etc.

2. Intensive Identifying Relational Process

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Intensive identifying relational process construes that

something has an identity assigned to it and the participant which
serves as identity is labeled as identifier or token and that which serves
to define the identity is called identified or value. This type of process
is characterized as:
(1) the process refers to the equative classes,
(2) the identifier is typically definite, and
(3) the clause is reversible.

Here are some identifying relational processes, in which some

of them belong to the traditional copular verbs: be, call, play,
represent, imply, mean, define, resemble, comprise, include, own,
contain, constitute, spell, form, equal, signify, indicate, provide,
occupy, stand for, cause, symbolize, express, etc.

(12.a)

Susan is the best student.

John played a rascal.
The right one was yours.

Identifier/Token Intensive Ident. Rel Pr. Identified/Value

The above clauses may be reversed into:

(12.b)

The best student is Susan.

A rascal was played by John.
Yours was he right one.

Identified/Value Intensive Ident. Identifier/Token

Relational Process

3. Circumstantial Attributive Relational Process

Circumstantial attributive relational process is similar to the
intensive attributive relational process but the former involves
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concepts of location, time, manner, cause, etc. which refer to a

particular circumstance as the attribute.

(13)

The mowing machine is in the backyard.

The Independence Day was on Friday.

Carrier Circumstantial Attribute

Attributive Rel. Pro

Notice that the attributes in the two clauses above consist of location
spatial and location temporal respectively, which constitute
circumstantial adjuncts. However, the circumstance may be in the
form of a process as in the following.

(14).

The play Lasted the whole night.

Carrier Circumstantial Attr. Attribute

Rel. Process

4. Circumstantial Identifying Relational Process

Circumstantial identifying relational process, on the other
hand, is also almost similar to intensive identifying relational process
but the former is characterized by the fact that the relationship
between the identifier and the identified is expressed by a
circumstance indicating place, time or manner or by a process
associated to a circumstance.

(15.a)

Today is the twentieth.

Token Circumstantial Identifying Value

Relational Process

(15.b)
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The twentieth Is today.

Value Circ. Ident. Relational Process Token

(15.c)

The song Follows the music.

Token Circumstantial Identifying Value

Relational Process

(15.d)

The music is followed by the song.

Value Circumstantial Identifying Token

Relational Process

5. Possessive Attributive Relational Process

Possessive attributive relational process construes the
relationship between two participants in terms of ownership in which
one entity possesses another. If the possession is expressed as the
attribute, it is generally in the form of a possessive nominal group.

(15.a)

One of them is John’s.

Carrier/ Pos. Attrib. Rel. Proc. Attribute/Possessor

Possessed

(15.b)

It is mine.

Carrier/ Pos. Attrib. Rel. Proc. Attribute/Possessor

Possessed
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If the possession is expressed as the process, then two possibilities

may take place, either the carrier as the possessor and the attribute as
the possessed or the carrier as the possessed and the attribute as the
possessor, depending on the process used.

(16.a)

John Has a detective novel.

Carrier/ Possessive Attributive Attribute/ possessed

possessor Relational Process

(16.b)

The detective novel belongs to John.

Attribute/possessed Pos. Attrib. Rel. Proc. Carrier/ possessor

6. Possessive Identifying Relational Process

On the other hand, possessive identifying relational process is
similar to possessive attributive relational process but this is
characterized by the possibility of the clause to be reversed as:

(17.a)

The house is John’s.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/

Possessed Relational Process Possessor

(17.b)

John’s is the house.

Value/ Possessive Identifying Token/

Possessor Relational Process Possessed
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Observe that the possession is expressed by the relationship between

the token and the value. The possession can also be expressed by a
process as in the following:

(18.a)

John owns the house.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/

Possessor Relational Process Possessed

(18.b)

The house is owned by John.

Value/ Possessive Identifying Token/

Possessed Relational Process Possessor

(18.c)

Hamid possesses the school.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/

Possessor Relational Process Possessed

(18.d)

The school is possessed by Hamid.

Value/ Possessive Identifying Token/

Possessed Relational Process Possessor

3.1.4 Verbal Process

Verbal process refers to processes which carry the sense of

expressing ideas in words. However, verbal process may include those
which do not require a conscious participant. The sayer can be
anything that puts out a signal (Halliday, 1994: 140). Verbal processes
are intermediate between mental and material processes. Verbal
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processes may be classified into several subclasses: process of saying,

process of quoting, and process of reporting.
1. Process of Saying
Process of saying covers a large number of verbal groups such
as answer, ask, comment, declare, describe, explain, mention, reply,
report, say, speak, state, tell, etc. But, those processes are regarded as
the process of saying when they are used with two participants: sayer
and verbiage as in (19)

(19.a)

He speaks French.

Sayer Verbal Verbiage

(19.b)

The announcer mentioned my name.

Sayer Verbal Verbiage

(19.c)

The eyewitness described the case.

Sayer Verbal Verbiage

Some verbal processes of saying may have a second

participant which constitutes the target of the process, not something
which is said on mentioned; and therefore such a participant role is
called target. The common processes which function this way are
scold, reprimand, mock, insult, curse, snap at, etc.

(19.c)

The old man scolded his son.

Sayer Verbal Target

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(19.d)

The rude man mocked the foolish boy.

Sayer Verbal Target

(19.e)

The man cursed the rude boy.

Sayer Verbal Target

On the other hand, the second participant role is called range,

if it is the cognate of the process or it constitutes part of the process
which is used idiomatically such as say a saying, describe some
descriptions, explain an explanation, state a statement, etc.

(19.e)

The teacher explained clear about the

explanations subject.

Sayer Verbal Range Circumstance

(19.f)

The wise man always says good sayings.

Sayer Verbal Range

(19.g)

The man asked a wise a question.

Sayer Verbal Range

2. Process of Quoting
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Verbal processes are called the process of quoting when they

are used in the direct speech. The wording of the clause quoted is
generally identical to that spoken by the sayer or speaker. Direct
speech is identified from its characteristic of using quotation marks
and, therefore, the words between the quotation marks are not treated
as the verbiage but the quoted as in (20).

(20.a)

The jury announced, “John is defeated.”

Sayer Verbal Quoted

(20.b)

The police said, “Show me your travel document.”

Sayer Verbal Quoted

(20.c)

The Judge asked, “How do you know him.”

Sayer Verbal Quoted

3. Process of Reporting
Verbal processes when used in the indirect speech or reported
speech are called processes of reporting. In the reported speech the
speaker reports the gist of what was said and the wording is usually
quite different from the original statement. The speech function in
reporting is by any means obscured but it can be made explicit by
using reporting processes. The second participant which receives the
report is called receiver.
Reported clause can be differentiated from whether it is a
reporting statement, a question, an order, or a suggestion. Observe the
following.

(21.a)

The teacher said that every student should have a

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dictionary.

Sayer Verbal Reported

(21.b)

He asked her where she lives.

Sayer Verbal Receiver Reported

(21.c)

The principal ordered the students to buy a dictionary.

Sayer Verbal Receiver Reported

(21.d)

He requested us not to make noise.

Sayer Verbal Receiver Reported

3.1.5 Behavioral Process

Behavioral processes are associated with physical and

psychological behavior, like breathing, dreaming, snoring, smiling,
hiccupping, looking, watching, listening, and pondering (Halliday,
1994: 139 and Gerot and Wignel, 1994: 160). Behavioral processes
are partly like the material and partly like the mental. They generally
have only one participant called behaver which is typically a
conscious being. However, they may also have two participants and
the second participant is called range. Observe the following.

(22.a)

He lives happily.
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Behaver Behavioral Circumstance

(22.b)

He lives a happy life.

Behaver Behavioral Range

(22.c)

She smiles nicely.

Behaver Behavioral Circumstance

(22.d)

She smiles a nice smile.

Behaver Behavioral Range

(22.e)

He always hiccups loudly.

Behaver Behavioral Cir.

(22.f)

He always hiccups a loud noise.

Behaver Behavioral Range.

(22.g)

The chess player Ponders before every step.

Behaver Behavioral Cir.

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3.1.6 Existential Process

Existential process represents that something exists or happens
(Halliday, 1994: 142). Existential processes generally occur with the
verb be and the word there known as existential there which does not
have any representational function. They are always followed by
spatial or temporal circumstance.

(23.a)

There is a bomb in this building.

Existential Existent Circumstance

(23.b)

There are many spectators in the stadium.

Existential Existent Circumstance

Observe that the existential process has only one participant

called existent, which comes after the process. However, in some
other existential processes the existent comes first as in (24).

(24.a)

A ghost like creature exists in this old building.

Existent Existential Circumstance

(24.b)

The ghost appears at midnight.

Existent Existential Circumstance

This process type which represents happening includes: arise, break

out, come about, erupt, explode, happen, occur, prevail, take place,
etc.

(25.a).
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The world war II broke out in 1942.

Existent Existential Circumstance

(25.b).

The volcano erupted at midnight.

Existent Existential Circumstance

3.1.7 Meteorological Process

Meteorological process is a supplement type of minor

processes which represents the process of weathering or timing. This
process occurs with the impersonal it, which has no representational
function, but does provide a participant, and it is followed by be and
meteorological representations: weathering and timing as in (26).

(26.a)

It is winter Now in Europe.

Meteorological Circumstance Circumstance

Process

(26.b)

It is summer in Africa.

Meteorological Circumstance
Process

(26.c)

It is monsoon here.

Meteorological Circumstance
Process
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Meteorological process is a unique type in the case that it has

no participant at all. Those clauses are analyzed as consisting of a
single element namely the process only.

(26.a)

It is ten o’clock

Meteorological
Process

(26.b)

It was at midnight.

Meteorological
Process

(26.c)

It is Sunday.

Meteorological
Process

3.2 Participant
Participants mostly consist of nominal groups which are
involved in a process type. However, in the case of relational process
the second participant, which is a subject complement, can be
anything other than a nominal group. Different process types will have
different participants and the number of participants is also
determined by the process type and the context how it is used. In this
section various possible participants that may involve in every process
type in various contexts will be given.

3.2.1 Participant Functions of Material Process

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Material process has only one participant if it is intransitive

and the participant involved is called Actor which functions as the
subject of the clause. However, if it is transitive, the second
participant is called goal which functions as the direct object. Another
possible second participant of material process is called range which
functions as a cognate object or an idiomatic object. If it has three
participants, the indirect object may have either recipient/beneficiary
(when the direct object is goods) or client (when the direct object is
service). Here are some possible participants which involve in
material processes.
1. Actor + Material Process
When a material process requires only one participant, it must
consist of only an actor as the subject of the clause as in (27).

(27.a)

The old lady are wandering.

Actor Material Process

(27.b)

The fast train stopped.

Actor Material Process

(27.c)

The Dean has arrived.

Actor Material Process

2. Actor + Material Process + Goal

When two participants are involved in the material process,
they generally consist of actor and goal.

(28.a)

The crocodile Broke the cage.

Actor Material Goal

(28.b)

The girl Pilled an apple.

Actor Material Goal
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(28.c)

The shark Chased the vessel.

Actor Material Goal

3. Actor – Material Process – Recipient – Goal

When three participants are involved in the material process,
generally they consist of actor, recipient and goal. Recipient refers to
an entity which receives goods as the goal.
(29.a)

The presenter gave the audience a hand-out.

Actor Material Recipient Goal

(29.b)

The politician Gave us a T-shirt.

Actor Material Recipient Goal

4. Actor – Material Process – Beneficiary – Goal

If the third participant receives a benefit from the process, it is
said to function as beneficiary.
(30.a)

My aunty Made me some cake.

Actor Material Beneficiary Goal

(30.b)

The girl Showed me her photo.

Actor Material Beneficiary Goal

5. Actor – Material Process – Client – Goal

If the third participant receives a service from the process, it is
said to function as client.

(30.a) `

My aunty treated her guests special services.

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Actor Material Client Goal

(30.b)

The girl gave Me a warm welcome.

Actor Material Client Goal

6. Actor – Material Process – Range

Range is a participant function which is characterized by the
following features:
a). a cognate object such as build a building, do the work,
b). object of an idiomatic process such as break a record, kill
time, take a walk, take a nap, play truant, pay attention,
run a business, kick the bucket, etc.
(31.a)

My neighbor Built a building.

Actor Material Range

(31.b)

The sprinter Broke a new record.

Actor Material Range
(31.c)

John’s father is running a business.

Actor Material Range

When a material process is used in the passive, goal or range

may come first or it may constitute the only participant.

(31.a)

The motorbike was stolen

Goal Material

(31.b)

The new building was designed by a foreign architect.

Range Material Actor
3.2.2 Participant Functions of Mental Process
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Like material process, mental process may also have one or

two participants depending on whether it is transitive or intransitive.
Here are various possible participants which may involve in mental
processes.
1. Senser – Mental Process
When a mental process has only one participant which
constitutes the subject in the clause, it is called senser.

(32.a)

The wife finally understands.

Senser Mental Process

(32.b)

The boy Knows very well.

Senser Mental Pr. Cir. Adjunct

2. Senser – Mental Process – Phenomenon

The second participant of a mental process is called
phenomenon, which is the object of the process.

(33.a)

Small children Like mushroom soup.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon

(33.b)

The distinguished guest enjoyed country food.

Senser Mental Pr. Phenomenon

3. Senser – Mental Process – Range

The second participant of a mental process is called range
when it is a cognate object.

(34.a)

The teenagers Imagine fantastic imagination.

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Senser Mental Pr. Range

(34.b)

The illiterate Knew some knowledge.

Senser Mental Pr. Range

4. Phenomenon – Mental Process – Senser

The first participant of a mental process is not always senser
but it can be phenomenon and the second is senser. Such processes as
amuse, scare, please, sadden, baffle, etc may have these perticipants.

(a).

Your painting Amuses the visitors.

Phenomenon Mental Pr. Senser

(b).

The ghost Scared the children.

Phenomenon Mental Pr. Senser

5. Range – Mental Process – Senser

Range can also function as the first participant of a mental
process, particularly when the clause is in the passive.

(a).

The enjoyment was enjoyed by the guests.

Range Mental Pr. Senser

(b).

A little knowledge is known by the idiot.

Range Mental Pr. Senser

6. Phenomenon/Range – Mental Process

Some mental processes may involve a single participant either
phenomenon or range.
(a).

Loneliness Hurts
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Phenomenon Mental Pr.

(b).

Some knowledge is known

Range Mental Pr.

3.2.3 Participant Functions of Relational Process

Unlike the two major processes above in which all the
processes involved are nominal groups, relational process may have
other grammatical categories as the participants particularly the
complements. Here are various participants which may involve in
relational process.

1. Intensive Attributive Relational Process

This process has carrier and attribute as the participants. The
first participant the carrier which is a subject is always a nominal
group and the attribute may be a nominal group, an adjective group, a
circumstance or other word classes and groups.

(35.a)

Dinosaurs Are mammals.

Carrier Intensive Attributive Attribute
Relational Process
(35.b)

My hometown Is quite far.

Carrier Intensive Attributive Attribute
Relational Process

2. Circumstantial Attributive Relational Process

In circumstantial attributive relational process the carrier is
always a nominal group and the attribute is a circumstantial adjunct.

(36.a)

My Is on the tenth of
birthday March.
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Carrier Circumstantial Attributive Attribute

Relational Process

(36.b)

His hometown Is in Java.

Carrier Circumstantial Attributive Attribute
Relational Process

3. Possessive Attributive Relational Process

In the possessive attributive relational process, instead of
carrier and attribute as the first and the second participant, possessor
and possessed may be used.

(37.a)
My neighbour Has many houses.
Carrier/ Possessive Attributive Attribute/
Possessor Relational Process Possessed

(37.b)
Those houses Are my neighbour’s.
Attribute Possessive Carrier
/Possessed Attributive Relational /Possessor
Process

4. Intensive Identifying Relational Process

In the intensive identifying relational process, the first
participant is called token and the second is value. Besides those
terms, identifier and identified may also be used.

(38.a)
Geoge Soros is the richest man.
Token/ Intensive Identifying Value/Identified
Identifier Relational Process

(38.b)

The richest man is Geoge Soros.

Value/Identified Intensive Identifying Token/
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Relational Process Identifier

5. Circumstantial Identifying Relational Process

The participant functions of identifying relational process are
always the same namely token and value or identifier and identified.

(39.a)

My birthday Was yesterday.

Token/Identifier Circumstantial Identifying Value/
Relational Process Identified

(39.b)

Yesterday was my birthday

Value/Identified Circumstantial Token/Identifier
Identifying Rel. Process

6. Possessive Identifying Relational Process

Like possessive attributive relational process, possessive
identifying relational process may have the participant functions
possessor and possessed.

(40.a)

This small room Is Mr. Udin’s.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/
Possessed Relational Pprocess Possessor

(40.b)

Mr. Udin’s Is this small room.

Value/ Possessive Identifying Token/Possessed
Possessor Relational Process

(40.c)

Mr. Udin Owned this small room.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/Possessed
Possessor Relational Process
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(40.d)

This small was owned by Mr. Udin.

room
Value/ Possessive Identifying Token/Possessor
Possessed Relational Process

(40.e)

The man Possessed a big company.

Token/ Possessive Identifying Value/Possessed
Possessor Relational Process
(40.f)

A big company was owned by the man.

Value/ Possessive Token/Possessor
Possessed Identifying Rel. Proc
3.2.4 Participant Function of Verbal Process

1. Sayer – Verbal Process

The single participant function of a verbal process is called
Sayer which conducts the saying.
(41.a)

The cute baby can speak.

Sayer Verbal process

(41.b)

The child Shouted loudly.

Sayer Verbal process Circumstance

2. Sayer – Verbal Process – Verbiage

The second particicipant which is said or mentioned is called
verbiage.

(42.a)

The young boy can speak English.

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Sayer Verbal Process Verbiage

(42.b)

The casualties cannot say a word.

Sayer Verbal Process Verbiage

3. Sayer – Verbal Process – Quoted

When something said or expressed is a clause in the direct
speech, intead of verbiage, such a participant is called quoted and it is
relevant as the clause naturally between double quotes.

(43.a)

The man said “I will commit suicide.”

Sayer Verbal process Quoted

(43.b)

The director asked “What is your qualification?”

Sayer Verbal process Quoted
4. Sayer – Verbal Process – Reported
On the other hand, when something expressed is a clause
which is in the reported speech, such a participant is called reported.
(a).

The prisoner said that he would commit suicide.

Sayer Verbal Reported
process
(b).

The director asked what my qualification was.

Sayer Verbal Reported
process

5. Sayer – Verbal Process – Receiver – Quoted

The third participant which receives what is expressed in the
verbal process is called receiver.

(45.a)
The man said to me “I will commit suicide.”
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Sayer Verbal Receiver Quoted

(45.b)
The man asked me “Why will you commit suicide?”
Sayer Verbal Receiver Quoted

6. Sayer – Verbal Process – Receiver –Reported

The receiver of what is said, asked, ordered, or reported in the
verbal process is always called receiver.

(46.a)
The man said to me that he would commit suicide.
Sayer Verbal Receiver Reported

(46.b)
The man asked me “Why will you commit suicide?”
Sayer Verbal Receiver Quoted

7. Sayer – Verbal Process – Target

The second participant of a verbal process is called target
when it is not what is said or expressed, but the one which becomes
the target of the process.
(47.a)

Father Scolded my elder brother

Sayer Verbal Process Target

(47.b)

The boy Insulted his friend

Sayer Verbal Process Target

8. Sayer – Verbal Process – Range

On the other hand, the second participant of a verbal process is
called Range when it is a cognate noun of the process or a metaphoric
object.

(47.a)
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Mother always says good sayings.

Sayer Verbal Process Range

(47.b)

The boy Expressed a rude expression.

Sayer Verbal process Range

9. Sayer – Verbal Process – Receiver – Verbiage/Range

Some verbal processes may involve three participants sayer,
receiver, and verbiage or range.

(47.a)

He told her a love story

Sayer Verbal process Receiver Range

(47.a)

He speaks English to his brother.

Sayer Verbal Process Verbiage Receiver

3.2.5 Participant Function of Behavioral Process

1. Behaver – Behavioral Process
Most behavioral processes have only one participant called
behaver which constitute the agent which behaves the process.

(48.a)
The young girl Smiles nicely.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Circumstance

(48.b)
The old lady Lives happily.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Circumstance

2. Behaver – Behavioral Process – Range

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When a behavioral process has a second participant, it is

generally called range, which may either a cognate or idiomatic
object.

(a)
The young girl Smiles a nice smile.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Range

(b)
The old lady Lives a happy life.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Range

(c)
The sprinter Drew a deep breath.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Range

(d)
The artist Threw a tantrum.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Range

(e)
The old man heaves a sigh.
Behaver Behvioral Pr. Range

3.2.6 Participant Function of Existential Process

1. Existential Process – Existent
Existential processes can only have one participant called
existent. When the clause makes use of the existential there, the
participant comes after the process.

(50.a)
There is a rhinocerous in the bush.
Existential pr. Existent Circumstance

(50.b)
There is a rhinocerous in the bush.
Existential pr. Existent Circumstance

(50.c)
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There are many buildings up the hill.

Existential pr. Existent Circumstance

2. Existent – Existential Process

When the clause is without the existential there and makes use
of other existential processes, the existent comes first as the agent.
(a)
A ghost Exists in this old building.
Existent Existential Pr. Circumstance

(b)
The World War II broke out in 1942.
Existent Existential Pr. Circumstance

(c)
The earthquake Happened at midnight.
Existent Existential Pr. Circumstance

(d)
The bomb Blasted at the police station.
Existent Existential Pr. Circumstance

3.2.7 Participant Function of Meteorological Process

Meteorological process is considered unique, for it is absent of

participant, either when indicating time or weather.
1. Process of Timing
Meteorological process of timing indicates time such as hour,
day, date, month, year, century, etc.

(a)
It is ten o’clock now.
Meteorological Process Circumstance

(b)
It was Sunday yesterday.
Meteorological Process Circumstance
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(c)
It is the 21st century now.
Meteorological Process Circumstance

2. Process of Weathering
Meteorological process of weathering indicates the condition
of weather such as summer, winter, date, autumn, spring, monsoon,
sunny season, rainy season, etc.

(a)
It is winter this time in Europe.
Meteorological Process Circumstance Circumstance

(b)
It is summer here now.
Meteorological Process Circumstance Circumstance

(c)
It was rainy season there in the area.
Meteorological Process Circumstance Circumstance

3.2.8 Other Participant Functions

In the nonfinite hypotactic clause, the participant roles in the
clause are analyzed in different ways. For instance, you have two
simple clauses (54.a) and (54.b).

(54.a)
John pushed him.
Actor Material Goal

(54.b)
The boy Stole her photograph.
Actor Material Goal

When the two clauses are combined into one hypotactic clause,
the analysis of the participant roles in the clause is as follows.
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(55)

John Pushed him to steal her photograph.

Actor
Initiator Material process Goal

Observe that the first participant John in the clause above is

not the actor but the initiator who pushes him to do something, and
him here functions as the actor who does the stealing.
Here are some other examples.

(56.a)

She Urged me to leave my wife.

Actor
Initiator Material Process Goal

(56.b)

The lady causedher husband to commit corruption.

Actor
Initiator Material Process Range

However, when such a sentence makes use of a mental

process, the first participant is called inducer as in the following.

(57.a)
The man appealed to his sister to rethink her attitude
Senser
Inducer Mental Process Phenomen.

(57.b)

The has made the students Know the concept.

teacher
Senser
Inducer Mental Process Phenomenon
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(57.c)

The appeals to the to the condition

President people understand of the crisis.
Senser
Inducer Mental Process Phenomenon

Further, the participant roles of relational processes in the hypotactic

clauses are analyzed as follows.

(58.a)

My parents named me Fatimah.

Assigner Identifying Process Token Value

(58.b)

I was named Fatimah by my

parents.
Token Identifying Process Value Assigner

(58.b)

The Principal appointed John the monitor

of the class.
Assigner Identifying Token Value
Process

As the above clauses make use of identifying relational process, they

can be reversed into (58.c) (58.d) and (58.e).

(58.c)

She is usually called the cute by some

friends.
Token Identifying Process Value Assigner

(58.d)

I was named Fatimah by my

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parents.
Token Identifying Process Value Assigner

(58.e)

John was appointed the monitor of by the

the class Principal.
Token Identifying Value Assigner
Process

When an attributive relational process is used, the first participant is

called attributor, instead of assigner.

(59.a)

Her death made me sad.

Attributor Attributive process Carrier Attribute

(59.b)

The girl drove him crazy.

Attributor Attributive Carrier Attribute
Process

(59.c)

Father likes his coffee hot.

Attributor Attributive Carrier Attribute
Process

3.3 Circumstance (Circumstantial Adjunct)

Circumstance is an optional element in a clause whose main
function is to provide additional information about the circumstance
of the process or the clause. One clause may consist of more than one
circumstance, either of similar or different types. Circumstances are
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generally in the form of adverbial, prepositional phrase, nominal

group or clause. Halliday (1994: 151) divides circumstance into the
following subclasses.

3.3.1 Extent

Circumstance of extent divides into temporal (duration) and

spatial (distance).
1. Temporal (Duration)
Circumstance of extent temporal indicates the span of time and
therefore it is generally called duration. This type of circumstance is
characterized by the preposition for, within, since and from … up to
before the time and it is generally associated with perfective aspect of
the clause.
a. He has been waiting for you for more than twenty minutes.
b. He can finish doing the assignment within half an hour.
c. They have moved to Jakarta since 2005.
d. The family had lived in this village from July up to December
last year.

2. Spatial (Distance)

Circumstance of extent spatial indicates the span of one place

to another and therefore it is generally called distance. This type of
circumstance is usually used with the prepositions along and from …
(up) to as in the following.

a. The rice was scattered along the road.

b. He has tried to find out the lost key from campus to his house.
c. From the border up to this village there is no traffic sign.
d. How long will it take the flight from Medan to Jakarta?

3.3.2 Location

Like circumstance of extent, circumstance of location also

divides into temporal and spatial.
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1. Temporal
Circumstance of location temporal indicates the point of time
such as now, yesterday, tomorrow, last week, last year, this morning,
this afternoon, at noon, at midnight, tomorrow morning, next week,
next year, in 1945, at ten o’clock etc.
a. The Second World War broke out in 1942.
b. There was an earthquake last night.
c. We did not have breakfast this morning.
d. The professor will arrive in Medan next Monday.

2. Spatial
Circumstance of location spatial indicates the point of place
such as here, there, home, at home, at school, in the market, at the
crossroad, in front of the campus, in the middle of the crossroad,
opposite my house, under the table, over the campus etc.

a. That is not true as you have never been there.

b. The fatal accident took place exactly in the middle of the
crossroad.
c. You have to wait until your father gets home.
d. Many Muslims go to mosque in Ramadhan.

3.3.3 Manner
Circumstance of manner divides into means, quality, and
comparison.
1. Means
Circumstance of means indicates the instrument or anything
that is used to do something. The commonest preposition used in this
circumstance is with when an instrument is used but the preposition by
should be used when the instrument is a vehicle. However, when the
vehicle is an animal the preposition on is used.

a. Small children generally write with a pencil.

b. Application letters should be hand-written in ink.
c. Many people prefer to go about by train.
d. In the mountain many people like to go to the field on horse.
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e. Many students go to their campus on foot.

f. You can kill rats with this trap.

2. Quality
Circumstance of quality indicates the quality of the manner of
an action or event. Generally, this circumstance is made up with an
adjective and -ly, although there are some irregular adjectives which
have similar forms as the circumstances such as hard, fast, loud, high,
low, well, etc; or it may be with other phrases indicating manner
quality.
a. The new student writes very slowly.
b. You will never be the best unless you work hard.
c. You should not behave that way.
d. He rushed to the counter in haste.
e. I met my old friend at the party by chance.
f. The Old Professor got an accident unexpectedly.

3. Comparison
Circumstance of comparison of manner indicates a comparison
of the way how an action is conducted compared with another and
therefore it is always associated with the three degrees of comparison:
positive degree with as … as, comparative degree with …er than,
superlative degree with the …est, or with the preposition like, or the
conjunction as.

a. Why do you walk like a drunken man?

b. John can run as fast as a cheetah.
c. You speak Bahasa Indonesia better than I do English.
d. He could run the fastest of all his friends.
e. Please finish the job as he did.
f. The sprinter could run faster than the coach.

3.3.4 Cause

Circumstance of cause divides into reason, purpose and

behalf.
1. Reason
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Circumstance of reason gives information about the reason

why something happens or is done. This circumstance generally
makes use of such conjunctions as because, since, as, in asmuchas,
etc.; or such prepositions as because of, due to, owing to, etc.

a. He failed in his life because of his bad habit.

b. As he is unwell, he cannot attend the meeting.
c. The economic crisis will not be solved due to the low
fundamental economy.
d. Since there is no more member to wait, we may start the
meeting.

2. Purpose
Circumstance of purpose gives information about the purpose
of an action. Circumstance of purpose usually makes use of such
words or phrases as in order that, so that, in order to, for; or with
infinitive phrase.

a. Young men must be able to operate computer for their future.

b. Do you come here to see me?
c. The first charging should be at least four hours in order that
the battery may last long.
d. You must study thoroughly so that you may have bright future.

3. Behalf
Circumstance of behalf gives emphasizing information about
the important background of an action, or for whose sake an action is
undertaken. The common prepositional phrases used in this
circumstance are by, for, for the sake of, on behalf of, in favour of, etc.

a. By God, I have never committed such a sin.

b. For efficiency, the meeting should not be held in the hotel.
c. We work hard day and night for the sake of this institution.
d. On behalf of the Dean, I hereby delare this seminar open.
3.3.5 Contingency

Circumstance of contingency divides into condition,

concession and default.
1. Condition
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Circumstance of condition indicates that something happens or

is conducted under a certain condition. The common conjunctions
used in this circumstance are if, even if, unless, on condition (that),
with the condition (that), provided (that), in the event (that), on the
assumption (that), assuming (that), supposing (that), in case, only if,
whether or not, as long as, wh-+ever, etc.

a. Please, contact 777 in case of fire.

b. You may leave this meeting if necessary.
c. Were he a King, she would not be ready to be his wife.
d. Whatever you may say, I will not believe you anymore.
e. Unless you come on time, you will not be promoted.

2. Concession
Circumstance of concession indicates a concession in spite of
the fact. The most common conjunctions and prepositions used in this
circumstance are although, though, even though, whereas, while, in
spite of the fact that, despite, in spite of, notwithstanding, etc.

a. Though very rich, the man does not show off his pride.
b. Notwithstanding his hard work, he failed in the last test.
c. The doctor came to the hospital in spite of the heavy rain.
d. He pursued to the higher degree despite his lack of money.
e. I must continue my study even if I have to sell my house.

3. Default
Circumstance of default indicates the failure of an action in the
absence of something.

a. In the absence of communication with the students, they

expressed their protest against the Rector by hunger strike.
b. In default of winning the match, the team failed to be rewarded
special prizes.
c. The former Prime Minister migrated to Europe, in default of
succeeding the general election for his second term.
3.3.6 Accompaniment

Circumstance of accompaniment divides into comitative and

additive.
1. Comitative
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Comitative circumstance indicates togetherness and it is

usually represented by such prepositions as besides, with, without,
together with, also, etc.

a. Barrack Obama finally can work together with Hillary

Clinton.
b. Small children dare not sleep in the bed room without
friends.
c. Did you go to the theatre with your class mates last
Saturday night?
d. He brought along with him a rain jacket besides an
umbrella.
e. Many people like to work as the staff of a bank, insurance,
also monetary companies.

2. Additive
Additive circumstance indicates additional accompaniment
and it is usually with such phrases as as well as, instead of, besides,
but, except, etc.

a. The girl as well as her friends arrived at the concert hall

late.
b. Instead of the lazy student, the monitor of the class failed
in the final semester examination.
c. In this newly-married life I cannot give you anything
special but love.
d. You may take all the books and magazines except this
encyclopedia.
e. All his wealth was donated to the poor, orphans, as well as
the victims of the disaster.
f. She likes light blue, besides pink.

3.3.7 Role
Circumstance of role indicates how a certain thing plays a role
as another thing or how it changes into another thing. Circumstance of
role divides into guise and product.
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1. Guise
Circumstance of guise indicates the role or function of
something in the event and it usually begins with the conjunction as.
Some prepositional phrases are also commonly used in this
circumstance such as by way of, in the role of, in the shape of, in the
guise of, in the form of, etc.

a. I come here today as your brother.

b. He played the drama written by William Shakespeare in the
role of Hamlet.
c. He expressed their protest against the Rector by way of hunger
strike.
d. The terorrist worked in the bank in the guise of a bellboy.
e. You may express your token of thanks to the Director in the
form of flower bouquet.

2. Product
Circumstance of product indicates the output of an action such
as in the processes change into, make into, mould into, grow into, turn
into, etc.

a. Corn flour as well as cassava flour can be made into various

kinds of cake.
b. The cute girl who lived in a rural area has grown up into a very
beautiful film star.
c. The teacher was successful to educate the boys into smart
students.
d. The old hut up the hill which belongs to a business man has
turned into a beautiful villa.
e. The green jungle near the city has changed into the jungle of
gigantic building.

3.3.8 Matter
Circumstance of matter gives information about the action or
event described or narrated. The common prepositional phrases used
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in this circumstance are about, of, concerning, regarding, with

reference to, etc.
a. They will hold a public speech about family planning.
b. Regarding your application letter, it will be passed to the
director.
c. Many people feel dismayed concerning the economic crisis.
d. The teacher taught us of many topics.
e. With reference to your application letter, we, hereby, invite
you for an interview.

3.3.9 Angel

Circumstance of angel gives information about the status of

something according to a certain angel. The most common
prepositional phrases used in this circumstance are according to, in
accordance with, in the view of, in the opinion of, in the eyes of, from
the stand point of, etc.
a. According to WHO, the rate of mortality in Indonesia is 55
years.
b. Teachers give students’ marks in accordance with their
attendance and achievements.
c. The reputation of the Members of Parliament was bad in the
eyes of the public.
d. In my opinion, the man is not proper to hold such a high
position.