Cambridge Biology

Mid Year Exam (2023-2024)

Revision File
Unit 1: Respiration
1.1 The Human Respiratory System

Respiration
Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that happen inside every living cell.

The Human Respiratory System

(1) Nose/Mouth: Entrance to the air way

(2) Larynx (Voice box): Contains vocal cord and is responsible for making sound

(3) Trachea (Windpipe): Surrounded by rings of cartilage

● CARTILAGE--> prevents the trachea from collapsing and keep the trachea always
open
●
(4) Bronchi (Singular Bronchus) - Left bronchus goes into the left lung - Right
bronchus goes into the right lung - Draw air into the lungs
(5) Bronchioles: smaller branches divided from bronchi - Carry air from the bronchus,
deep into each lung

(6) Air sacs (Alveoli/ Singular: Alveolus) - Grape-like structures at the tips of
bronchioles
● A place where gas exchange takes place (where oxygen goes into the blood and
carbon dioxide goes out of the blood)

Air Passage into the lungs

Nose/Mouth --> Larynx --> Trachea --> Bronchi --> Bronchioles --> Alveoli

Air Passage out of the lungs

Alveoli ---> Bronchioles --> Bronchi --> Trachea --> Larynx ---> Nose/Mouth

(7) Lungs: the main organs of the respiratory system

(8) Ribs: Lungs are protected by rib bones

(9) Intercostal muscles: Muscles between the ribs; contract and relax to move the ribs

(10) Diaphragm: a sheet of muscles under the lungs which is important for breathing
mechanism
1.2 Gas Exchange
Gas exchange takes place inside the alveoli.
Inside alveoli, oxygen goes into the blood and carbon dioxide goes out of the
blood. This is called gas exchange.
Gas exchange takes place by means of diffusion. Diffusion means movement of
particles from high concentration to low concentration without expenditure of
energy.

Direction of oxygen: from air sac (high concentration) to blood (low

concentration)

What happens to oxygen when it goes into the blood?

Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells and is carried to the cells where
oxygen is used for respiration

Direction of carbon dioxide: from blood (high concentration) to air sacs (low
concentration)

Why is carbon dioxide high in concentration in blood?

As the cells are always respiring, which releases carbon dioxide, which is carried back to
the lungs to get rid of by plasma in the blood.
Adaptations of an air sac
● Air sacs are surrounded by blood capillaries; so, there is a short distance for
diffusion.
● Air sacs are small and there are a lot of air sacs; therefore, they have a large
surface area for efficient diffusion.
● As the walls of air sacs and the walls of capillaries are thin, diffusion can take
place easily.

Why do air sacs need to be small? - Experiment

Key concepts:
The smaller ones have greater surface area to volume ratio. The greater the surface area
to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion.

Small holes in agar jelly: represent alveoli in the lungs

Color dye: represent oxygen
In the model, color dye diffuses from the holes to the surface of agar jelly
In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the blood

Comparing carbon dioxide content in inspired air and expired air

Key Concepts
● Carbon dioxide cannot be seen by the naked eye.
● To test for the presence of carbon dioxide, limewater can be used as an indicator. -
Limewater is clear when there is no carbon dioxide dissolved. It turns cloudy
when carbon dioxide reacts with it.
Inspired air (the air that you breathe in) goes through the limewater in test tube
A.
Expired air (the air that you breathe out) goes through the limewater in test tube
B.
As the expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired air, limewater in test
tube B goes cloudy first.

1.3 Breathing
● A part of the respiratory system
● Breathing is a physical process taking place between the lungs and air and cannot
provide energy

How much air do you use? Experiment

Key concepts
● Gasses can displace water.
● The amount of air that the lungs can hold varies with age, sex, and height.

● Take a deep breath in, then put your mouth over the tubing and breathe out as
much air as you can through the tubing. Your expired air will push out some water
from the bottle.
 ● Reduced water volume = the volume of air that you breathe out
● The volume of liquid can be measured by measuring cylinder.

Breathing In and Out Mechanism

Breathing In Mechanism
● Diaphragm contract --> It moves downwards/ flattens.
● Intercostal muscles contract --> It pulls the ribs upward and outward.
● These two movements make the volume of the chest cavity increase which makes
the pressure decrease inside the chest.
● Air is drawn into the lungs. The lungs become filled with air.

Breathing Out Mechanism

● Diaphragm relaxes --> It moves upwards/ It returns to normal shape.
● Intercostal muscle relaxes --> It allows the ribs to return to normal position.
● These two movements make the volume of the chest cavity decrease which makes
the pressure increase inside the chest.
● Air is forced out of the lungs. The lungs deflate.
Making model to represent breathing movements

● Small hole – trachea

● Syringe wall – the rib cage
● Balloon – the lung
● Plunger – the diaphragm
When the plunger is pulled out, the volume inside the syringe increases which makes the
pressure decrease causing the air to enter the balloon through the small hole in the rubber
bung. The balloons inflate.

Limitations: the syringe wall cannot move at all, and it does not completely represent the
rib cage which can move in and out with the help of the intercostal muscles.

1.4 Respiration
● All living things respire to get energy.

The energy from respiration is used

- To move around the body
- To send electrical impulses along neurones (nerve cells)
- To keep our bodies warm when it is cold

Aerobic respiration: a chemical reaction taking place inside the mitochondria where
glucose is broken down with the help of oxygen to release carbon dioxide, water and
energy
Reactants of aerobic respiration: glucose and oxygen
Products of aerobic respiration: Carbon dioxide, Water, Energy (Useful Products)

How do the cells get glucose?

Carbohydrates are broken into simple sugars called glucose inside the digestive system
from where it is absorbed by the blood and transported to the cells in the body.

How do the cells get oxygen?

When we breathe in, oxygen from the air enters the alveoli from where it diffuses into the
blood and combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the cells
in the body.

Therefore,
• Glucose and oxygen react in the cells, specifically inside the mitochondria of the cell.
• Glucose is a store of chemical energy which is released when glucose is broken down
by oxygen.
• As energy can be transformed from one type of energy to another, the released energy
can be transformed into various types of energy and can be used for daily activities.
• Respiration releases some of its energy as heat (thermal energy) too.
Respiration and Heat Production

Key Concepts
• Change variable: types of peas (dead and live, germinating peas)
• Measure variable: temperature
• Constant variable: mass of peas, types of peas, number of peas, time given, room
temperature, etc....

Results:
• The temperature is expected to rise in the flask with live, germinating peas because they
respire and respiration releases some energy as heat, which is trapped inside the flasks,
causing the temperature to rise in the flask.
• The temperature in the flask with dead peas remains the same as they are not doing
respiration and no heat energy is released from dead peas.
Thermogram

● In thermogram, the screen is the hottest as it converts electrical energy to heat

energy.
● The temperature of most of woman’s body is higher than that of chairs and tables
because the woman is respiring as she is living, and respiration releases some
energy as heat.

Differences between breathing and respiration

Breathing Respiration

A physical process A chemical process

Cannot release energy Release energy

Takes place between the lungs and air Takes place in the mitochondria of the cell

It involves taking in oxygen and taking It involves the breakdown of glucose by

our carbon dioxide oxygen
1.5 Blood
Three components of blood are discussed in this lesson. They are plasma, red blood
cells and white blood cells.

Plasma: Liquid part of the blood, pale yellow color

Carries carbon dioxide, nutrients like glucose and other blood cells

Red blood cells: most abundant blood cells, round with a dent in the middle

Have no nucleus
Cytoplasm is filled with pigment called haemoglobin, which can carry oxygen
Carry oxygen
No mitochondria so it makes sure that oxygen is not used in respiration
Oxygen + Hamoglobin → Oxyhaemoglobin (formed in the lungs)
Oxyhaemoglobin becomes haemoglobin after leaving the body cells.
Very small so they can fit with tiniest blood capillaries

White blood cells: fewer than red blood cells, spherical shape
 Have nucleus
Bigger than red blood cells
Have no haemoglobin
Fight against pathogens which are disease causing organisms (eg: bacteria and
viruses)

Phagocytosis

White blood cells engulf the pathogens, take them inside the cells and digest.

Producing Antibodies

Some types of white blood cells can produce antibodies, chemicals that attach to invading
pathogens and make them stick together. Other white blood cells come around the
pathogens and kill them by phagocytosis.
Cambridge Biology KBTC International School

Cambridge Biology
Mid Year Exam (2023-2024)
Revision File
Unit 4: Ecosystems
4.1 The Sonoran Desert

Keywords:
Adaptations: special features that help the organisms to survive in their habitats
Ecology: study of ecosystems
Ecosystem: interactions between organism and their physical environment
Food chain: show energy passing from one organism to another organism
Food web: a collection of food chains in an ecosystem
Habitat: a place where an organism lives
Interaction: a situation where two or more organisms communicate with each other or
react to each other
Nectar: sweet liquid inside flowers
Nocturnal: active at night
Pollen: fine powdery substance produced by male part of the flower
Pollination: transfer of pollen from male part of the flower to female part of the flower

Adaptations of cactus (plural: cacti)

● Leaves are reduced to spines which can prevent from being eaten by herbivores
● Green, thick stem can do photosynthesis instead of leaves
● As there are no leaves, surface area exposed to the air would be reduced and and
prevent loss of water
● Thick stems can also store water
● Have shallow spreading root system which can absorb a lot of water when the rain
comes

4.1 Adaptations of Cactus

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Interactions between organisms in the Sonoran Desert

4.2 A Saguaro Cactus

● Gila woodpeckers make holes in the cacti, to make their nests. Other birds also
visit these holes.
● Insects feed on the nectar and pollen in the flowers, helping the plants to reproduce
by pollinating them.

4.3 Teddy bear cholla and cactus wren

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● Cactus wrens often use a different kind of cactus, called a teddy bear cholla, to
make their nests. Teddy bear chollas are so spiky that very few other animals will
get close to them. So the cactus wren’s eggs and young ones are protected from
predators.
● Desert animals usually hunt at night, when the temperature falls.

Interactions between living and non-living things

(1) Light: plants depend on light to do photosynthesis
(2) Temperature: desert animals are mostly nocturnal; it is too hot for them to hunt
during the day
(3) Soil: Rocks and soil provide minerals for the plants to grow, as well as building
material for ground-nesting birds
(4) Water: all living things need water
(5) Air: all organisms need oxygen for respiration and plants need carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.

The organisms also affect their environment. For example, droppings from the kangaroo
rats become part of the soil. The gasses that they take in and give out affect the
composition of the air.
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A food web in an ecosystem

Producers: organisms that can make their own food

Consumers: organisms that cannot make their own food
Predators: animals that hunt and kill other animal
Prey: animals that are eaten by predators

● The arrows in food chains and food webs show energy passing from one organism
to another

Every food chain starts with producers as they are the only organisms that can convert
light energy from the sun into chemical energy.
Cambridge Biology KBTC International School

An ecosystem contains many different habitats.

● The habitat of a saguaro cactus is the open desert.
● The habitat of a Gila woodpecker is a saguaro cactus (where it makes its nest) and
the air and ground in the open desert (where it collects food).
● The habitat of a desert ant is underneath the rocks and soil and on the soil surface.
Termites live at the base of the saguaro stems.
● Sap beetles live inside the saguaro flowers.
● Kangaroo rats live in burrows and come out to look for food at night.

4.2 Different Ecosystems

Make sure that you understand different interactions in mangrove forests, sea ice in the
Arctic Ocean and Rice paddy.

4.3 Intruders in an Ecosystem

Intruders (invasive species): a species that doesn’t belong to an area naturally

Native species: a species that belongs to an area naturally
Eradicate: completely get rid off
Extinct: no longer exist on the Earth

Make sure you understand introduced species in New Zealand on Page:135

General facts about invasive species

● Invasive species often grow and reproduce rapidly in their new environment
because they may lack natural predators or other limiting factors
● Invasive species can outcompete native species and lead to ecological imbalances.

4.4 Bioaccumulation
Keywords
Bioaccumulation: an increase in concentration of chemicals in the tissues of organisms
over time
Biomagnification: an increase in concentration of chemicals along the food chain
Insecticide: chemicals that can kill insects
Persistent: cannot be broken down and stay in the environment for many years
Toxic: poisonous
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Decomposer: organisms that break down dead organic matter; bacteria and fungi are
decomposers.
DDT
● Insecticide
● Especially used to kill mosquitoes that transmit malaria and fleas that transmit a
disease called typhus.
● DDT is persistent
● DDT makes the shells of birds’ eggs very thin and easy to break.
● DDT can cause bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
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Unit 7: Diet and Growth

7.1 Nutrients
Nutrients: substances inside the food which are used by the cells to grow and be healthy
There are six types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, vitamins, minerals, and
water
Energy providing nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins and fats (consume in large quantities)
(1) Carbohydrates
- Provides glucose for respiration
- Provides energy
- Simple carbohydrates: glucose
- Complex carbohydrates: cellulose (found in cell wall), starch (storage carbohydrate in
plants), glycogen (storage carbohydrate in animals)
- Eg: cereal grains, potatoes, biscuits, noodles

(2) Proteins
- Provides energy
- Requires for making new cells (growth) and repairing tissues
- Requires for making haemoglobin, antibodies
- Eg: meat, peas and beans, eggs

(3) Fats and Oils

- Fats are from animal sources (solid at room temperature) and oils are from plant sources
(liquid at room temperature)
- Provides energy
- Important for making cell membranes
- Provides insulation
- Eg: butter, margarine, peanut
Nutrients that cannot provide energy: vitamins and minerals (consume in small quantities)
(4) Vitamins
- Does not provide energy
- Requires for the body to be healthy
(i)
- Vitamin A: important for vision, helps white blood cells to fight against pathogens
- Vitamin A deficiency: night blindness
- Vitamin A sources: carrots, carrots and squash (such as pumpkin), cheese and fish
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(ii)
- Vitamin C: helps the skin to stay strong and heal the wound quickly
- Vitamin C deficiency: scurvy (bleeding gums)
- Vitamin C sources: Citrus fruit, potatoes and berries

(iii)
- Vitamin D: Needs for strong bones and teeth, helps the body to absorb calcium
- Vitamin D deficiency: rickets (bones are weak and bent)
- Vitamin D sources: skin can make vitamin D when it exposes to sunlight, oily fish

(5) Minerals
- Does not provide energy
- Requires for the body to be healthy
(i)
- Calcium: requires for strong bones and teeth
- Calcium deficiency: rickets (bones are weak and bent)
- Calcium sources: milk, nuts such as almonds
(ii)
- Iron: requires for making haemoglobin in red blood cells
- Iron deficiency: anaemia (without enough haemoglobin, a person cannot carry enough
oxygen for respiration, leading to less energy available, which makes a person feel
fatigued)
- Iron sources: meat, dark green vegetables, fish and shellfish, nuts and seeds

(6) Water
- Also considered as nutrients
- Cells and blood contain a lot of water
- 90% of body weight is made up of water
- Allows chemical reactions to take place inside the body
- Water in blood allows it to flow easily, transporting substances all over the body
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Energy Stores

- We cannot store all nutrients in our body, but extra carbohydrates and fats can be stored
in our body if we eat more than we need.
- Extra carbohydrates can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles (short-term
energy storage)
- Extra fats can be stored under the skin and around some body organs (long-term energy
storage)

Food Tests
Starch test

- Put a few drops of iodine solution to the sample food

- If starch is present, iodine will change from orange- brown to blue black

7.2 A Balanced Diet

Diet: The food that you eat each day is called diet.
Balanced diet: A diet that provides all the different kinds of nutrients, and the right amount of
energy
How much energy?

- Different people need different amount of energy

- Energy demand depends on age, size, activity levels, gender, pregnancy and genes
Different diets

- Young people need a lot of proteins to make new cells. They need to eat enough
carbohydrates to give them plenty of energy. They need to eat a little bit of fat to make cell
membranes on the new cells.
- Office workers do not need as much carbohydrate or fat as they are not using much energy
as people who are very active
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- Pregnant woman needs plenty of proteins for her baby’s new cells; a lot of iron to make
haemoglobin in her own blood and baby’s blood; plenty of calcium for baby’s bones

Fibre
- Fibre is not considered as nutrients because it is indigestible, and it cannot go into the blood
or to your cells
- Helps to prevent constipation and bowel cancer
- Fibre is very important to keep the digestive system healthy.

Food groups

Not too much

Too much sugar: tooth decay, diabetes
Too much salt: high blood pressure
Too much fat, oil, carbohydrate: weight gain, leading to put a strain on joints, heart and other body
organs
Too many fats and oils: increase the risk of heart disease
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7.3 Growth, Development and Health

Growth: permanent increase in cell size or cell number
Eg: zygote --> embryo (both cell numbers and size increase)

Cells contain a lot of protein. Energy is needed to make cells divide. A pregnant woman and a
growing child need plenty of protein in their diet, as well as enough energy to help cells to divide.
Development: increase in efficiency of organs in the body
Eg: As the baby grows into a child, its brain develops and it learns to talk and to play with toys.
Each person is an individual, and everyone grows and develops at different rates, and in slightly
different ways. But everyone goes through the same stages in development.
Baby --> Toddler --> Child --> Adolescent --> Adult

Exercise & Health

- Exercise stops you from storing too much as fat

- Exercise helps heart and muscles work harder
- Exercise makes people feel more cheerful and positive about life

Smoking
- Tobacco contains different harmful chemicals.
- There are four main components in tobacco smoke: Nicotine, Tar, Carbon Monoxide,
Particulates
(1) Nicotine
- Highly addictive chemical --> it is difficult for smokers to give up
- Damage the blood vessels, makes blood vessels narrower --> smokers are more likely to
develop heart disease
(2) Tar
- A mixture of dark, sticky substances containing thousands of chemicals
- Cause lung cancer and other types of cancer
(3) Carbon Monoxide
- Poisonous gas
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- Combines with haemoglobin, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
(4) Particulates
- tiny particles of carbon and other materials
- Particulates break down the wall of alveoli, reducing the surface area for gas exchange and
making it difficult to get enough oxygen

7.4 Moving the Body

Skeleton

- Supports the body

- Allows movement
- Protects vital organs such as heart, brain and spinal cord

Exoskeleton: a type of skeleton found outside the body

Eg: Arthropods have exoskeleton

Endoskeleton: a type of skeleton found inside the body

Eg: Human skeletal system is an example of endoskeleton.
Human skeletal system
- Made up of bones, which contain a lot of calcium
- Bones contain living cells
- Make sure that you know the names of respective bones
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Joints
- A place where the two bones meet one another
Hinge Joint: allow bones to move in one direction

- Examples of hinge joint: elbow, knee, ankle, finger joints, toes, etc...
Ball and socket joint: allow bones to move in a complete circle
- Examples of ball and socket joint: shoulder joint, hip joint
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Joints in the arm

Muscles

- Skeletal muscles are found attached to the bones

- Muscles can get shorter: contraction
- Muscles can only pull; they cannot push back. That’s why muscles always work in pairs.
Tendon: a tissue that connects muscles to bones
Ligament: a tissue that connects bones to bones
Biceps and Triceps

- A pair of muscles found in the upper arm

Biceps
- Biceps has its name because it attaches to the bones by means of two heads of tendons.
- Biceps attaches to scapula and radius
Triceps

- Triceps has its name because it attaches to the bones by means of three heads of tendons.
- Triceps attaches to scapula, humerus and ulna
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Bending the elbow joint

- Biceps contracts and triceps relaxes

- Biceps contracts (getting shorter) and the contraction of biceps creates the pulling force,
which pulls on the radius that biceps attaches to. The radius moves upwards.
- The arm bends at the elbow joint
Straightening the elbow joint

- Triceps contracts and biceps relaxes

- Triceps contracts (getting shorter), and the contraction of tricpes creates the pulling force,
which pulls on the ulna that triceps attaches to. The ulna moves downwards.
- The arm straightens at the elbow joint.
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Antagonistic Muscles

- A pair of muscles that work together, but in opposite directions is called an antagonistic
muscle pair.
- Biceps and triceps are examples of antagonistic muscle pair.