Heat & Mass Transfer 1–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

1 Introduction to
Heat Transfer

Part-1 ............................................................................ (1–2B to 1–14B)

• Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• Modes of Heat Transfer
• Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity of Materials
• Introduction to Combined Heat Transfer Mechanism
• General Differential Heat Conduction Equation in Rectangular,
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinate Systems

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 1–2B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 1–2B

Part-2 ......................................................................... (1–14B to 1–41B)

• Initial and Boundary Conditions

• Simple and Composite Systems in Rectangular, Cylindrical and
Spherical Coordinates With and Without Energy Generation

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 1–14B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 1–15B

Part-3 ......................................................................... (1–41B to 1–49B)

• Concept of Thermal Resistance

• Analogy between Heat and Electricity Flow
• Thermal Contact Resistance
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Critical Radius of Insulation

A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 1–41B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 1–41B
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, Modes of Heat Transfer :

Conduction, Convection and Radiation, Effect of Temperature on
Thermal Conductivity of Materials, Introduction to Combined
Heat Transfer Mechanism, General Differential Heat
Conduction Equation in Rectangular, Cylindrical and
Spherical Coordinate Systems.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Thermodynamics : It is the science which deals with the relations
among heat, work and properties of system which are in equilibrium.
It describes state and changes in state of physical systems.
Heat Transfer : It is defined as the transmission of energy from one
region to another as a result of temperature gradient.
Modes of Heat Transfer :
1. Conduction,
2. Convection, and
3. Radiation.
Thermal Conductivity : The amount of energy conducted through
a body of unit area and unit thickness in unit time when the difference
in temperature between the faces causing heat flow is unity.
Combined Heat Transfer : This is the case which involves the use
of two or more than two modes of heat transfer.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer ? How are

they distinguished from each other ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer : Following are the three modes of
heat transfer :
a. Mechanism of Heat Transfer through Conduction :
1. Thermal conduction is a mechanism of heat propagation from region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature within a medium
or between different mediums in direct physical contact.
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. Conduction does not involves any movement of macroscopic portion of

matter relative to one-another.
3. The conduction is done by :
i. Due to random molecular motion i.e., vibration of molecules about
its equilibrium position and the concept is termed as micro form of
heat transfer and is usually referred as diffusion of energy.
ii. The thermal energy may be transferred by means of electrons
which are free to move through the lattice structure of the material.
4. Heat transfer by conduction is prescribed by Fourier law :
dt
Q = – kA
dx
Where, k = Conduction heat transfer coefficient,
A = Cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction
of heat flow, and
dt
= temperature gradient.
dx
b. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Convection :
1. Thermal convection is a process of energy transport affected by the
circulation or mixing of a fluid medium.
2. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with
the transport of medium itself.
3. The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon
the mixing motion of the fluid.
4. There are basically two types of convection :
i. Natural or free convection, and
ii. Forced convection.
5. Convective heat transfer is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling i.e.,
Q = hA(ts – tf)
Where, h = Convection heat transfer coefficient,
ts = Surface temperature,
tf = Fluid temperature, and
A = Area exposed to heat transfer.
c. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Radiation :
1. The mechanism of heat transfer by radiation consists of three distinct
phase :
i. Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into electromagnetic
wave.
ii. Passage of wave motion through intervening space.
iii. Transformation of wave into heat.
2. Radiation heat transfer is governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law :
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

Eb = b AT4 (for black body)

Where, Eb = Energy radiated per unit time,
b = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4, and
T = Absolute temperature.
B. Difference between Conduction, Convection and Radiation :

S. No. Conduction Convection Radiation

1. Heat flows from hot Each particle Heat flows
e nd to co ld e nd. abso rbing he at is without any
Particle s o f the mobile. intervening
medium simply medium in the form
oscillate but do not of electromagnetic
leave their place. waves.
2. Medium is necessary Medium is necessary Me dium is no t
for conduction. for convection. necessary for
radiation.
3. It is a slow process. It is also a slo w It is a ve ry fast
process. process.
4. Path o f heat flow Path may be zig-zag Path is a straight
may be zig-zag. or curved. line.
5. Co nductio n take s Co nve ctio n take s Radiatio n take s
place in solids. place in fluids. place in gase o us
and transpare nt
media.
6. The temperature of In this process also There is no change
the medium the temperature of in the temperature
increases thro ugh medium increases. of the medium.
which heat flows.

Que 1.2. Define thermal conductivity. Discuss the effect of

temperature on thermal conductivity.

Answer
A. Thermal Conductivity :
1. The amount of heat conducted through a body of unit area, and unit
thickness in unit time when the difference in temperature between the
faces causing heat flow is unity.
2. The unit of thermal conductivity is W/mK or W/m °C.
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

B. Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity :

1. Thermal conductivity of most of the metals decreases with increase in
temperature.
2. Due to increase in temperature the density of solid decreases and
consequently thermal conductivity also decreases.
3. In most of the liquids, the values of thermal conductivity tends to decrease
with temperature due to decrease in density and with increase in
temperature.
4. But in case of gases thermal conductivity increases with temperature
because the thermal conductivity is directly proportional to the mean
free path of the molecules.
5. So, gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal
conductivity than those having lower molecular weight.
6. The dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature is as given below,
k = k0 (1 + t)
Where, k0 = Thermal conductivity at 0 °C.
= Te mperature co -e fficie nt o f thermal
conductivity which is positive for non-metal
and insulating material and negative for
metallic conductor.
7. Thermal conductivity of porous material depends upon the type of gas
or liquid present in the voids.

Que 1.3. Briefly explain the combined heat transfer mechanism.

Answer
1. In actual conditions, more than one mode of heat transfer is involved.
2. For example, consider a plate of emissivity  maintained at temperature
Ts. The heat transfer from this plate will take place through both
convection and radiation.
3. The heat loss from this plate is
q = qconv + qrad
q = hA(Ts – T) + A  (Ts4 – T4 )

T
qconv qrad

Ts

Fig. 1.3.1.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.4. A brick (k = 1.2 W/m-K) wall 0.15 m thick separates hot
combustion gases of a furnace from the outside ambient air which
is at 25 °C. The outer surface temperature of the brick wall is found
to be 100 °C. If the natural convection heat transfer coefficient on
the outside of the brick wall is 20 W/m2-K and its emissivity is 0.8,
calculate the inner surface temperature of the brick wall.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : k = 1.2 W/m-K, L = 0.15 m, t = 25 °C = 25 + 273 = 298 K

t2 = 100 °C = 273 + 100 = 373 K, h = 20 W/m2-K,  = 0.8
To Find : Inner surface temperature of brick wall.
1. As we know that,
Qcond. = Qconv. + Qrad.
t t 
k  1 2  = h (t2 – t) +   (t24 – t4)
 L 
 t  373 
1.2   1 = 20 (373 – 298) + 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.8 × [(373)4 – (298)4]
 0.15 
= 2020.3
2020.3  0.15
t1 = + 373 = 625.5 K = 352.5 ºC
1.2
Que 1.5. A carbon steel plate (k = 45 W/m-K) 600 mm × 900 mm ×
25 mm is maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the hot plate.
If convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2-°C and 250 W is lost
from the plate surface by radiation. Calculate the inside plate
temperature. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given : A = 600 mm × 900 mm = 0.6 × 0.9 = 0.54 m2

L = 25 mm = 0.025 m, ts = 310 °C, tf = 15 °C, h = 22 W/m2-°C
Qrad.= 250 W, k = 45 W/m-°C
To Find : Inside plate temperature.
1. In this case the heat conducted through the plate is removed from the
plate surface by the combination of convection and radiation.
Heat conducted through the plate = Convection heat losses
+ Radiation heat losses
Qcond. = Qconv. + Qrad.
dt
–kA = hA (ts – tf) + 250
dx
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

(ts  ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × = 22 × 0.54 × (310 – 15) + 250
L
(310  ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × = 22 × 0.54 × 295 + 250
0.025
972 (ti – 310) = 3754.6
3754.6
ti =  310 = 313.86 °C
972
Qrad.

tf = 15 °C

Air
(fluid)
Qconv. = hA(ts - tf) ts = 310 °C

L = 25 mm

Heat conducted through wall, Qcond.

Fig. 1.5.1. Combination of conduction, convection
and radiation heat transfer.

Que 1.6. Derive the general heat conduction equation in

rectangular or cartesian coordinates.

Answer
1. Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelopiped (volume element)
of sides dx, dy, and dz parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in
a medium in which temperature is varying with location and time as
shown in Fig. 1.6.1.
2. Let, t = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this
temperature may be assumed uniform over the
entire surface, since the area of this face can be
made arbitrarily small, and
dt
= Rate of change of temperature along X-direction.
dx
 t 
Then,   dx = Change of temperature through distance dx,
 x 
and
 t 
t    dx = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a
 x 
distance dx from the left face ABCD).
Further, let, kx, ky, kz = Thermal conductivities along X, Y and Z axes.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

Q(y + dy ) Qz
A (x , y , z )
D H
y
O X
z
x C G dy

Z Q(x + dx )
Elemental Qx A (x , y , z )
volume E
(rectangular
parallelopiped)
dz
Q(z + dz) B F
dx
Qg = qgdxdydx
Qy
Fig. 1.6.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis - Cartesian coordinates.

3. Quantity of heat flowing into element from the left face ABCD during
the time interval d in X-direction is given by
t
Heat influx, Qx = – kx (dydz)
d ...(1.6.1)
x
4. During the same time interval d the heat flowing out of the right face
of control volume (EFGH) will be

Heat efflux, Q(x + dx) = Qx 
(Qx )dx ...(1.6.2)
x
5. Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,
subtracting eq. (1.6.2) from eq. (1.6.1), we get
  
dQx = Qx  Qx  (Qx )dx 
 x 

=  (Qx ) dx
x
  t 
=    kx ( dydz) d  dx
x  x 
  t 
= kx dxdydzd
x  x 
6. Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y
and Z-directions in time d will be :

dQy =   ky t  dxdydzd
y  y 
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

  t 
dQz = kz dxdydzd
z  z 
7. So, net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from
all the coordinate directions is given as,
  t    t 
= kx dxdydzd + ky dxdydzd
x  x  y  y 
  t 
+ kz dxdydzd
z  z 

   t    t    t  
=   kx    ky    kz   dxdydzd
 x  x  y  y  z  z  
...(1.6.3)
8. The total heat generated in the element is given by
Qg = qg(dxdydz)d ...(1.6.4)
9. Energy stored in element,
t
= ( dxdydz)c
d ...(1.6.5)

10. Now using energy balance for the element, we have

   t    t    t  
 x  kx x   y  ky y   z  kz z   dxdydzd + qg(dxdydz)d
 

t
= ( dxdydz)c d

11. Dividing both side by dxdydzd, we have

  t    t    t  t
 kx   ky   kz  + qg = c
x  x  y  y  z  z  
This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-
homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-
dimensional heat flow’.
12. In case of homogeneous and isotropic material (kx = ky = kz= k),
 2 t  2 t  2 t qg c t
   =
x 2 z2 z2 k k 
 2 t  2 t  2 t qg 1 t
or    =
x 2 y 2 z2 k  
k
where, = = Thermal diffusivity
.c
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.7. Derive the general heat conduction equation in

cylindrical coordinates. AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 10

Answer
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinate (r, , z) for three
dimensional heat conduction analysis as shown in Fig. 1.7.1.
2. The volume of the element,
dv = r d dr dz.
Let qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume
per unit time.
k = Thermal conductivity.
 = Density.
c = Specific heat capacity.
Q(z + dz)
d z
rd
Z
Q ( + d )
(r ,  , z ) Qr (r –  )
A plane
dr
dz (z –  ) Elemental
plane
Q volume
z Y (r – z)
 A (r ,  , z )
r plane dz
Q(r + dr )

dr r
X
Qz
Fig. 1.7.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cylindrical coordinates.

3. The heat flowing in the control volume in radial direction i.e., (z – )

plane :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k(rd dz) d
r

Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr +(Qr) dr
r
 Heat stored in the element,
dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr)
  t
=– (Qr) dr = – [– k(r d dz) d] dr
r r r
  t 
= k(dr d dz)  r  d
r  r 
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

  2 t 1 t 
dQr = k(dr rd dz)  2  d
 r r r 
4. Heat flow in tangential direction i.e., (r-z) plane
t
Heat influx, Q = – k(dr dz) d
r

Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q + (Q) rd
r
 Heat stored in the element,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
   t 
=– (Q) rd = –   k(dr dz) r  d  rd
r r  
1 2t
dQ = k(dr rd dz) d
r 2 2
5. Heat flow in axial direction i.e., (r-) plane
t
Heat influx, Qz = – k(rd dr) d
z

Heat efflux, Q(z + dz) = Qz + (Qz) dz
z
 Heat stored in the element,
dQz = Qz – Q(z + dz)
  t 
=–   k( rd dr ) z d  dz
z  
2 t
dQz = k(dr rddz) d
z2
6. Net heat stored in the element
  2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t 
= k. dr rddz  2  ·  2 2  2  d
 r r r r  z 

7. Heat generated within the control volume,

Qg = qg dr rd dz d
8. The increase in thermal energy in the element equal to
t
= dr rd dz c d

9. From the principle of conservation of energy :
  2 t 1 t 1  2 t  2 t 
kdr rd dz  2     d + qg dr rd dzd
 r r r r 2  2 z2 
t
= dr rd dzc d

Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

 2 t 1 t 1  2 t  2t q g c t 1 t
or     = = ...(1.7.1)
r 2 r r r 2  2 z2 k k   
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates.
1. For steady-state, unidirectional heat flow in the radial direction, and
with no internal heat generation, eq. (1.7.1) reduces to
 2 t 1 t 
 2  =0
r r r 
1 d  dt 
or r =0
r dr  dr 
1
Since 0
r
d  dt  dt
r  = 0 or r = constant
dr  dr  dr
Que 1.8. Derive the general heat conduction equation in
spherical coordinates.

Answer
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (r, , ), for three
dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig. 1.8.1.
2. The volume of the element = dr rdrsin  d
3. Let, qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume per unit time.
We assume that thermal conductivity (k), density () and specific heat
(c) are uniform.
4. Heat flow through r- plane (-direction) :
t
Heat influx, Q = – k (dr rd) d ...(1.8.1)
r sin 

Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q + (Q ) r sin  d ...(1.8.2)
r sin  
 Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the -direction,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
1 
=– (Q ) r sin  d
r sin  
1   1 t 
=–  k( dr rd) d r sin d
r sin    r sin   
1 2t
= k (dr rd r sin  d) d
r sin   2
2 2

5. Heat flow in r- (plane -direction) :

t
Heat influx, Q = – k (dr r sin  d) d ...(1.8.3)
r
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–13 B (ME-Sem-5)


Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q +
(Q ) rd ...(1.8.4)
r 
 Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the
-direction,
dQ = Q – Q(+d) [Subtracting eq. (1.8.4) and (1.8.3)]

=– (Q) rd
r
  t 
=–  k( dr r sin  d) d r d
r  r  
k dr rd rd   t 
= sin  d
r r    
1   t 
= k (dr rd r sin  d) sin   d
r 2 sin     
6. Heat flow in - plane (r-direction) :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k (rd r sin  d)  ...(1.8.5)
r

Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr +
(Qr)dr ...(1.8.6)
r
 Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in the
r-direction,

dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr) = – (Qr ) dr
r
  t 
=–  k (rd r sin  d) d  dr
r  r 
  2 t 
= k d sin  d dr r d
r  r 
1   2 t 
= k (dr rd r sin  d) 2 r d
r r  r 
Z Q( + d)

A( r, , ) r sin d
Qr
r Q( + d)
A (r ,  ,  ) Elemental
 rd
Y volume
 Q Q(r + dr )
X dr
Q
Fig. 1.8.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-spherical coordinates.
7. Net heat accumulated in the element
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–14 B (ME-Sem-5)

 1  2t 1   t  1   2 t  
= k dr rd r sin  d   2  sin    2 r   d
 r 2
sin 2
  2
r sin     r r  r  
8. The total heat generated within the element is given by,
Qg = qg (dr rd r sin  d) d
9. The increase in thermal energy in the element
t
d
= (dr rd r sin  d) c

10. From the principle of conservation of energy,
 1 2t 1   t  1   2 t  
k dr rd r sin  d  2  2  sin    2 r   d
 r sin 2
  
r sin    r r  r  
t
+ qg (dr rd r sin  d) d =  (dr rd r sin  d) c d

11. Dividing both sides by k(dr rd r sin  d) d, we get
 1 2t 1    t  1   2  t   qg c t
 2  2  sin    2 r   =
2
 r sin  
2
r sin    r r  r   k k 
2
 1  t 1   t  1   2 t   q g 1 t
or  2 2 2
 2  sin    2  r    =
 r sin   r sin    r r r  k  d
...(1.8.7)
This equation is known as general heat conduction equation in spherical
coordinates.
12. In case there are no heat sources present and the heat flow is steady
and one-dimensional, then eq. (1.8.7) reduces to
1 d  2 dt 
r  =0
r 2 dr  dr 

PART-2
Initial and Boundary Conditions, Simple and Composite
Systems in Rectangular, Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
With and Without Energy Generation.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Initial and Boundary Conditions : To solve the differential
equation, initial conditions are required to be in unsteady state heat
conduction at (t = 0). Boundary conditions are referring to physical
conditions existing at the boundary of the medium.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Heat & Mass Transfer 1–15 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.9. Define initial conditions and boundary conditions.

Explain the different types of boundary conditions applied to heat
conduction problem.

Answer
A. Initial Conditions :
1. The initial conditions describe the temperature distribution in a medium
at the initial moment of time, and these are needed only for the transient
(time-dependent) problems.
2. The initial conditions can be expressed as
At  = 0; t = t (x, y, z) ...(1.9.1)
3. For a uniform initial temperature distribution, a simple but typical form
of the above identity can be recast as
At  = 0; t = t0 (x, y, z) ...(1.9.2)
B. Boundary Conditions :
1. The boundary conditions refer to physical conditions existing at the
boundaries of the medium, and specify the temperature or the heat flow
at the surface of the body.
C. Types of Boundary Conditions :
The different types of boundary conditions applied to heat conduction
problems are as follows :
a. Boundary Condition of First K ind (Prescribed Surface
Temperature) :
1. The temperature distribution, ts is given at a boundary surface for each
moment of time.
ts = t(x, y, z, )
2. A typical example of boundary condition of the first kind for a slab is
shown in Fig. 1.9.1.
t(x, y, ) = 0, at x = 0
t(x, y, ) = 0, at y = 0
t(x, y, ) = f1(y), at x = a
t(x, y, ) = f2(x), at y = b
Y

ty = b = f2(x)
b
t x=0 = 0 t(x, y, ) tx =a = f1(y)
O a X
ty = 0 = 0
Fig. 1.9.1. Boundary condition of the first kind.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–16 B (ME-Sem-5)

b. Boundary Condition of the Second Kind (Prescribed Heat Flux) :

1. In this case, the heat flux at a boundary is prescribed.
 kt( x, )
= q0, at x = 0
x
t  q0
or = = F0, at x = 0
x k
t
= 0, at x = 0
x
t
2. Here, = 0 at x = 0 describes an insulated or adiabatic boundary such
x
a condition can also exist at the plane of symmetry.

t
= F0
x x=0 t(x, )
or X
– k t
= q0
x x=0

Fig. 1.9.2. Boundary condition of the second kind.

c. Boundary Condition of Third Kind (Convective Condition) :
1. This condition is encountered at a solid boundary when there is equality
between heat transfer to the surface by conduction and that leaving the
surface by convection.
2. At x = 0,
 t 
h1(t1 – tx = 0) =  k  
 x  x  0
 t 
or  k  h1t = h1t1 = F1
x x 0

3. Similarly at x = L,
 t 
– k  = h2 (tx = L – t2)
 x  x  L
 t 
or  k  h2 t = h2t2 = F2
x xL

t1
tx =L
t
qx = h1(t 1 – tx = 0) = – k tx t
x x = 0 =0 qx = h2 (tx = L – t2) = – k
x x = L
t2

Fig. 1.9.3. Boundary condition of the third kind.

Heat & Mass Transfer 1–17 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.10. Derive the expression for heat conduction through a

plane wall with uniform thermal conductivity for one-dimensional
steady state, homogeneous and isotropic material.

Answer
1. Consider a plane wall of homogeneous and isotropic material through
which heat is flowing only in X-direction. The general heat conduction
equation is,
 2t 2t 2t qg 1 t
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ = ...(1.10.1)
x y z k  
 t 
2. If the heat conduction takes place under steady state   0 , one-
  
  2 t  2t 
dimensional  2  2  0 and with no internal heat generation
 y z 
 qg 
  0 . Then, the eq. (1.10.1) reduced to,
k 
 2t
=0 ...(1.10.2)
x 2
T

t1 Plane wall
k

Q dt Q
x Q t1 t2 Q
dx
t2 L
(Rth)cond. =
1 kA
L X
2
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.10.1. Heat conduction through a plane wall.
3. By integrating the eq. (1.10.2) twice, we get
dt
= C1 and t = C1 x + C2 ...(1.10.3)
dx
Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.
4. By applying boundary conditions in eq. (1.10.3),
At, x = 0, t = t1
At, x = L, t = t2
t t
We get, t1 = C2 and C1 = 2 1
L
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–18 B (ME-Sem-5)

5. By putting the value of C1 and C2, in eq. (1.10.3),

t t 
t =  2 1  x + t1
 L 
It indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is
independent of thermal conductivity.
6. Now, by using Fourier’s equation,
dt d  t2  t1  
Q = – kA = – kA x  t1 
dx dx  L  
(t2  t1 ) (t  t )
= – kA = kA 1 2
L L
(t1  t2 ) t t
or Q=  1 2
L ( Rth )cond .
kA
Que 1.11. Derive expression for heat conduction through a
composite wall.

Answer
1. Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting
of a number of slabs as shown in Fig. 1.11.1.
2. Let LA, LB, LC = Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C respectively
(also called path length),
kA, kB, kC = Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B, and C
respectively,
t1, t4 (t1 > t4) = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4
respectively, and
t2, t3 = Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3
respectively.
3. Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each slab/
layer is same, so we have
kA A(t1  t2 ) kB A(t2  t3 ) kC A(t3  t4 )
Q=  
LA LB LC
(Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no
temperature drop occurs across the interface between the materials).
4. Rearranging the above expression, we get
QLA
t1 – t2 = ...(1.11.1)
kA A
QLB
t2 – t3 = ...(1.11.2)
kB A
QLC
t3 – t4 = ...(1.11.3)
kC A
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–19 B (ME-Sem-5)

t1 Interfaces
t2

Q t3 Q

Temperature
profile

A B C t4

kA kB kC
1 2 3 4
LA LB LC
(a)
Q t1 t2 t3 t4 Q

Rth-A Rth-B Rth-C

LA LB LC
Rth – A = , Rth – B = , Rth – C =
k AA kBA kC A
( b)
Fig. 1.11.1. Steady state conduction through a composite wall.

5. Adding eq. (1.11.1), eq. (1.11.2) and eq. (1.11.3), we have

 L L L 
(t1 – t4) = Q  A  B  C 
k
 A A kB A kC A

A(t1  t4 ) ( t1  t4 ) (t1  t4 )
or, Q = = 
 LA LB LC   LA LB LC  [ Rth  A  Rth  B  Rth C ]
k  k  k   k A  k A  k A
 A B c   A B C 
6. If the composite wall consists of n slab/layers, then
[t  t ]
Q = 1 n ( n1)
L
1 kA
Que 1.12. Derive the expression for steady state heat conduction
through a hollow cylinder with uniform thermal conductivity,
whose inner surface is exposed to hot fluid and outer surface is
exposed to a cold fluid.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–20 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
1. Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant thermal
conductivity and insulated at both ends.
2. The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinate is,
2 t 1 t 1  2t 2t qg 1 t
2 + + 2 2
+ + = ...(1.12.1)
dr r r r  z2 k  

 t 
3. For steady state   0 , unidirectional (t  f [, x]) heat flow with no
  
internal heat generation (qg = 0), then the eq. (1.12.1) becomes
d 2 t 1 dt
 =0
dr 2 r dr
1 d  dt 
or r =0
r dr  dr 
1
Since  0,
r
d  dt 
 r =0 ...(1.12.2)
dr  dr 
 (Cold fluid (t2)
Hollow cylinder
(length = l ) Element
No heat flows in the axial
Hot
r2 direction
fluid (t1)
r
r1

t1 dt

t2
Q t1 t2 dr Q
r
Rth = 1 ln 2
2kL r1

Fig. 1.12.1.

4. On integrating the eq. (1.12.2) two times, we get

dt dr
r = C or  dt = C 
dr r
or t = C ln r + C1 ...(1.12.3)
5. Applying boundary condition :
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–21 B (ME-Sem-5)

At, r= r1, t = t1
At, r= r2, t = t2
We get, t1 = C ln r1 + C1 ...(1.12.4)
and t2 = C ln r2 + C1 ...(1.12.5)
6. From eq. (1.12.4) and eq. (1.12.5), we get
t1  t2
C=–
r 
ln  2 
r 
1

t1  t2
and C1 = t1 + ln r1
ln (r2 / r1 )
7. Substituting the value of C and C1 in eq. (1.12.3) we get
(t1  t2 ) (t  t )
t = t1 + ln (r1) – 1 2 ln (r)
 r2  r 
ln   ln  2 
 r1   r1 
 r
ln  
t  t1  r1 
or = ...(1.12.6)
t2  t1 r 
ln  2 
 r1 
This gives the temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder which is
varying logarithmically and is a function of radius only.
8. Now, the heat transfer rate is given as,
  r 
 ( t2  t1 ) ln   
dt d 
t1   r1  
Q = – kA = – kA  
dr dr r 
 ln  2  
  r1  
[From eq. (1.12.6)]
(t1  t2 ) (t1  t2 ) t
= 2 kL = =
 r2  ln (r2 / r1 ) Rth
ln  
 r1  2 kL

 ln (r2 / r1 ) 
 Rth  2kL 
 
t1  t2
So, Q=
ln (r2 / r1 )
2kL
This is the expression for rate of heat transfer through hollow cylinder
which is insulated at both ends.

Que 1.13. Derive the expression for heat conduction through a

composite cylinder.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–22 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
1. Consider heat flows radially through a composite cylinder as shown in
Fig. 1.13.1.
2. Let, th and tc = The temperature of hot fluid and cold fluid
f f
respectively,
hhf and hcf = Convective heat transfer coefficient of hot fluid
and cold fluid respectively,
kA and kB = Thermal conductivity of inside layer A and of
outside layer B, and
t1, t2, t3 = Temperatures at point 1, 2 and 3.
3. The rate of heat transfer,
kA (2 L)( t1  t2 )
Q = hh 2r1 L (th – t1) =
f f r 
ln  2 
 r1 
kB 2 L (t2  t3 )
= = hc 2r3 L (t3– tc )
r  f f
ln  3 
r  2
4. By rearranging, we get
Q
th – t1 = ...(1.13.1)
f hhf r1 2 L

Cold fluid
(air) tcf
Q
hcf

B
Hot thf A
fluid
hhf t1 t2 t3

r
r2 1
r3
Fig. 1.13.1.

Q
kA 2L
t1 – t2 = ...(1.13.2)
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–23 B (ME-Sem-5)

Q
kB 2L
t2 – t3 = ...(1.13.3)
r 
ln  3 
 r2 
Q
t3 – tcf = ...(1.13.4)
hcf r3 2L
5. Adding eq. (1.13.1), eq. (1.13.2), eq. (1.13.3) and eq. (1.13.4), we get
 1 1 1 1 
h r  k 
k

h 
Q  hf 1 A B c f r3 
= th – tc
2L  r  r   f f
 ln  2  ln  3  
 r
 1 r
 2 
2L (thf  tcf )
or Q=
 1 1 1 1 
h r  k 
k

h 
A B c f r3
 hf 1 
 r  r  
ln  2  ln  3 
 r r 
  1  2 
2L (thf  tcf )
or Q=
 r  r  
 ln  2  ln  3  
 1   r1    r2   1 
 hh r1 kA kB hcf r3 
 f 
6. If there are n concentric cylinders, then
2L (thf  tcf )
Q= ...(1.13.5)
 1 n
1  rn 1  1 
   ln   
 hhf r1 n1 kn  rn  hcf rn  1 
7. If inside and outside heat transfer coefficient are not considered, then
eq. (1.13.5) can be written as,
2 L(t  t( n1) )
Q= n
1 r 
 ln  n 1 
k
n 1 n  rn 
Que 1.14. Derive expressions under one dimensional steady state
heat conduction for temperature distribution for the sphere.
OR
Starting with an energy balance on a spherical shell volume
element, derive the one dimensional transient heat conduction
equation for a sphere with constant thermal conductivity and no
heat generation [Fig. (1.14.1)].
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–24 B (ME-Sem-5)

r + r
r
O R r

Fig. 1.14.1.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
1. Let thermal conductivity of a hollow sphere is uniform.
2. Let r1 and r2 are inner and outer radius and t1 and t2 are temperatures
of inner surface and outer surface and k be thermal conductivity of the
material with the given temperature range.
Q, Heat flows radially
outwards ( t1 > t2)

Hollow sphere
dr
Element
r2
r
r1 t1 t2

Q t1 t2 Q

(r2 – r1)
Rth =
4kr1r2
Fig. 1.14.2. Steady state conduction through a hollow sphere.
3. Applying the general heat conduction equation in spherical co-ordinates,
1   2 t  1  2t 1   t  q g 1 t
r  2   sin    =
r r  r  r sin  2 r 2 sin   
2 2
  k  
...(1.14.1)
t
4. For steady state  
 0 , unidirectional heat flow in the radial
  
direction and with no heat generation, eq. (1.14.1) reduces to
1   2 dt 
r  =0
r 2 r  dr 
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–25 B (ME-Sem-5)

d  2 dt   1 
r =0  2  0 
dr  dr   r 
dt
or r2 = Constant = C ...(1.14.2)
dr
5. On integrating eq. (1.14.2) twice, we have
C
t= + C1 ...(1.14.3)
r
6. Applying boundary condition,
At r = r1, t = t1
At r = r2, t = t2
C
We get, t1 = + C1 ...(1.14.4)
r1
C
and t2 = + C1 ...(1.14.5)
r2
7. From eq. (1.14.4) and (1.14.5), we get
(t1  t2 ) r1 r2
C=
r1  r2
(t1  t2 ) r1 r2
and C1 = t1 +
r1 (r1  r2 )
8. Substituting the values of C and C1 in eq. (1.14.3), we have
(t1  t2 ) r1 r2 (t  t ) r r
t=– + t1 + 1 2 1 2
r (r1  r2 ) r1 (r1  r2 )
(t1  t2 ) (t1  t2 )
t=– + t1 +
 1 1  1 1
r   r1   
 r2 r1   r2 r1 
t1  t2  1 1
t = t1 +    ...(1.14.6)
 1 1   r1 r 
 r  r 
2 1

1 1

t  t1 r r1
or =
t2  t1 1 1

r2 r1
t  t1 r  r  r1 
or = 2   ...(1.14.7)
t2  t1 r  r2  r1 
Eq. (1.14.7) shows that temperature distribution associated with radial
conduction through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
9. Now, from Fourier’s equation,
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–26 B (ME-Sem-5)

  
Q =  kA dt   k4 r 2 d t1  t1  t2  1  1  
dr dr   1 1   r1
r 
    
  r2 r1  
t  t 1 t  t 1 ( t  t )rr
=  k4 r2 1 2     2  =  k4 r 2 1 2  2 =  4 k 1 2 1 2
1 1  r   r1  r2  r (r1  r2 )
    
 r2 r1   r1r2 
t1  t2 t t
 Q= = 1 2
(r2  r1 ) Rth
4 kr1r2
r2  r1
Where, Rth =
4 kr1 r2

Que 1.15. A steam pipe is covered with two layers of insulation.

The inner layer (k = 0.17 W/m-K) is 30 mm thick and outer layer
(k = 0.023 W/m-K) is 50 mm thick. The pipe is made of steel
(k = 58 W/m-K) and has inner diameter and outer diameter of 160
and 170 mm, respectively. The temperature of saturated steam is
300 °C and the ambient air is at 50 °C. If the inside and outside heat
transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2-K and 5.8 W/m2-K respectively,
calculate the rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : r1 = 80 mm , ti = t1 = 300 ºC, r2 = 85 mm, t4 = 50 ºC

r3 = 85 + 30 = 115 mm, r4 = 115 + 50 = 165 mm
k1 = 58 W/m-K, k2 = 0.17 W/m-K, k3 = 0.023 W/m-K
hi = 30 W/m2-K, ho= 5.8 W/m2-K
To Find : Rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe.
1. There are three concentric cylinders, hence n = 3, thus
1  1 1 1 r  1 r  1  r 
R =    ln  2   ln  3   ln  4  
2L  r1 hi hor4 k1  r1  k2  r2  k3  r3  
1  1 1
=  
2  1  0.08  30 0.165  5.8
1  85  1  115  1  165  
 ln  ln  ln
58  80  0.17  85  0.023  115  
= 3.014 K-m/W
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–27 B (ME-Sem-5)

ho t4
to
Air film
t3
k3
t2
k2
Physical system
k1 t1 St
r2 fil eam
m
r1
0.5

8
cm
cm

3
cm

5
cm

Thermal circuit
ti t1 t2 t3 t4 to
q q
Ri R1 R2 R3 Ro
Fig. 1.15.1.

ti  t4 300  50
2. Heat loss per unit length of the pipe, q = 
R 3.014
q = 82.95 W/m
Que 1.16. Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double pane window
consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glass (k = 0.78 W/m-°C) separated
by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space (k = 0.026 W/m-°C). Determine
the steady rate of heat transfer through this double pane window
and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the
room is maintained at 20 °C while the temperature of the outdoors
is – 10 °C. Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and outer surface of the window to be h1 = 10 W/m2-°C and
h2 = 40 W/m2-°C, which includes the effects of radiation.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : w = 1.5 m, H = 0.8 m, x1 = x3 = 4 mm = 0.004 m

x2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m, ta = 20 °C, ha = 10 W/m2-°C,
k1 = k3 = 0.78 W/m-°C, t = – 10 °C, h = 40 W/m2-°C, k2 = 0.026 W/m-°C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of inner surface.
1. Under steady state,
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–28 B (ME-Sem-5)

ta  t
Q=
1 x1 x x 1
  2  3 
ha A k1 A k2 A k3 A h A
20  (10)
=
1 0.004 0.01 0.004 1
   
10  1.2 0.78  1.2 0.026  1.2 0.78  1.2 40  1.2
= 69.24 W
2. Also, Q = hiAs(ti – t1)
69.24 = 10 × 1.2 × (20 – t1)
t1 = 14.23 °C

Que 1.17. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes

compris es three layers . A 12 cm thick layer of gras s
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of plywood
(k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is achieved with glue
which does not offer any resistance of heat flow. If the side surfaces
of board are maintained at 40 °C and 20 °C temperature, determine
the heat flux. How would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue
the three pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : k1 = 0.22 W/m-K, k2 = 0.15 W/m-K,

kb = 40 W/m-K, Db = 1.2 cm, A = 1 m2
To Find : i. Heat flux.
ii. Change in heat flux when three pieces are fastened
by bolts instead of glue.
i. When Pieces are Fastened by Glue :
3 cm 3 cm

40 °C

k2 k1 k2
20 °C

12 cm

Fig. 1.17.1.
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–29 B (ME-Sem-5)

1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :

40 °C 20 °C
R2 R1 R2
Fig. 1.17.2.
L2 0.03
2. Now, R2 =   0.2
k2 A 0.15  1
L1 0.12
R1 =   0.545
k1 A 0.22  1
Reff. = 2R2 + R1 = 2 × 0.2 + 0.545
= 0.4 + 0.545
= 0.945
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q1 = = 21.164 W/m2
Reff 0.945
ii. When they are Fastened by Bolts :
3 cm 3 cm

1.2 cm

40 °C 1.2 cm

k2 k2
k1

20 °C

1.2 cm

12 cm (a) (b)
Fig. 1.17.3.
1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :
t1= 40 °C t4= 20 °C

R2 R1 R2

Rb

Rb

Rb

Rb
Fig. 1.17.4. Thermal circuit for the system.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–30 B (ME-Sem-5)

Lb 0.18
2. Now, Rb =  2
= 39.78
kb Ab   1.2 
40   
4  100 
1 2 1 2
=   {Rs = R1 + R2 + R2}
Reffective Rb Rs Rb

4 1 4 Rs  Rb 4  0.945  39.78
=   = = 1.16
Rb Rs Rb Rs 0.945  39.78
So, Reff = 1/1.16 = 0.86
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q2 =  = 23.2 W/m2
Reff 0.86
4. Change in flux = q2 – q1 = 23.2 – 21.164 = 2.036 W/m2

Que 1.18. A steam pipe of 5 cm inside diameter and 6.5 cm outside

diameter is covered with a 2.75 cm radial thickness of high
temperature insulation (k = 1.1 W/m-K). The surface heat transfer
coefficient for inside and outside surfaces are 4650 W/m2-K and
11.5 W/m 2-K. The thermal conductivity of the pipe material is
45 W/m-K. If the steam temperature is 200 °C and ambient air
temperature is 25 °C, determine :
a. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
b. Temperature at the interface.
c. Overall heat transfer coefficient. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer

Given : d1 = 5 cm or r1 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m

d2 = 6.5 cm or r2 = 3.25 cm = 0.0325 m, x = 2.75 cm,
k2 = 1.1 W/m-K, ho = 11.5 W/m2-K, hi = 4650 W/m2-K,
k1 = 45 W/m-K, ti = 200 °C, to = 25 °C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
ii. Temperature at the interface.
iii. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
1. Equivalent thermal resistance,

1 1 ln (r2 / r1 ) ln (r3 / r2 ) 1 
Rth =     
2L
 hi ri k 1 k 2 h0 r0 

1  1 ln (3.25 / 2.5) ln (6 / 3.25) 1 

=   
2L  4650  0.025 45 1.1 11.5  0.06 
0.3216
=
L
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–31 B (ME-Sem-5)

2.75 cm
ti
to
2.5 cm

3.25 cm

Fig. 1.18.1.

t 200  25
3. We know that, Q = =
Rth 0.3216
L
Q
= 544.154 W/m ...(1.18.1)
L
4. Let temperature at interface is t,
t
Q=
Rth
200  t
Q=
1 ln (r2 / r1 )

(hiri )(2L) 2k1 L
200  t
=
1.369  10  3 0.9279  10  3

L L
Q 200  t
= ...(1.18.2)
L 2.2969  10  3
5. Equating eq. (1.18.1) and eq. (1.18.2), we get
200  t
544.154 =
2.2969  10  3
t = 198.75 °C.
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Q = UAt
Q Q 544.154  L
U=  
At 2r3 Lt 6
2   L  175
100
= 8.248 W/m2 -K
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–32 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.19. A furnace wall is composed of 220 mm of fire brick,

150 mm of common brick, 50 mm of 85 % magnesia and 3 mm of steel
plate on the outside. If the inside surface temperature is 1500 °C and
outside surface temperature is 90 °C, estimate the temperature
between layers and calculate the heat loss in kJ/hm2. Assume, k (for
fire brick) = 4 kJ/mh- °C, k (for common brick) = 2.8 kJ/mh-°C, k (for
85 % magnesia) = 2.4 kJ/mh-°C, k (steel) = 240 kJ/mh-°C.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given : LA = 220 mm = 0.22 m, LB = 150 mm = 0.15 m,

LC = 50 mm = 0.05 m, LD = 3 mm = 0.003 m, t1 = 1500 °C, t5 = 90 °C,
kA = 4 kJ/mh-°C, kB = 2.8 kJ/mh-°C, kC = 2.4 kJ/mh-°C,
kD = 240 kJ/mh-°C.
To Find : i. Heat loss.
ii. Temperature between layers.
1. The equivalent thermal resistances of various layers are as follows :
LA 0.22
Rth–A =  = 0.055 m2h-°C/kJ
kA 4
LB 0.15
Rth–B =  = 0.05357 m2h-°C/kJ
kB 2.8
LC 0.05
Rth–C =  = 0.02083 m2h-°C/kJ
kC 2.4
LD 0.003
Rth–D =  = 1.25 × 10–5 m2h-°C/kJ
kD 240
2. Total thermal resistance,
(Rth)total = 0.055 + 0.05357 + 0.02083 + 1.25 × 10–5
= 0.1294 m2h-°C/kJ
(t1  t5 ) (1500  90)
3. Heat loss, q=  = 10896.445 kJ/hm2
( Rth )total 0.1294
t4  t5
4. Also, q=
Rth  D
or t4 = t5 + q Rth–D = 90 + 10896.445 × 1.25 × 10–5
= 90.136 °C
5. Similarly, t3 = t4 + q Rth–C = 90.136 + 10896.445 × 0.02083
= 317.109 °C
and t2 = t3 + q Rth–B = 317.109 + 10896.445 × 0.05357
= 900.83 °C
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–33 B (ME-Sem-5)

Fire brick (A)

Common brick (B)
Magnesia (C)
Steel plate ( D)
1 2 3 45

1500 °C
(t1) 90 °C
(t5)

220 150 3 mm
mm mm 50
mm
Fig. 1.19.1.

Que 1.20. Derive the expression for maximum temperature

within a plane wall with uniform heat generation when both the
surfaces of the wall having same temperature.

Answer
1. Consider a plane wall of thickness L, of uniform thermal conductivity
k and in which heat sources are uniformly distributed in the whole
volume.
2. Let the wall surface are maintained at temperature t1 and t2.
3. Assume that heat flow is one-dimensional, under steady state conditions
and there is a uniform volumetric heat generation within the wall.
4. Consider an element of thickness dx at a distance x from the left face
of the wall.
5. Heat conducted in at a distance x,
dt
Qx = – kA
dx
Heat generated in the element,
Qg = qg Adx
Heat conducted out at a distance (x + dx),
d
Q(x + dx) = Qx +(Qx) dx
dx
6. From energy balance, we get,
Qx + Qg = Qx + dx
d
Qx + Qg = Qx + (Q ) dx
dx x
d
Qg = (Q ) dx
dx x
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–34 B (ME-Sem-5)

2
d  dt  dt
qg A dx =  kA  dx = – kA dx
dx  dx  dx2
d 2t q
or + g =0 ...(1.20.1)
dx 2 k
7. Integrating eq. (1.20.1) we get
dt q
= – g x + C1 ...(1.20.2)
dx k
8. On integrating eq. (1.20.2), we get.
qg 2
t=– x + C1 x + C2 ...(1.20.3)
2k
9. Now, if both the surfaces are at same temperature then,
at, x = 0, t = t1 = tw
and at, x = L, t = t2 = tw
T
Element

Plane
tmax
wall

tw tw

Qx + dx
Qx

Qg

x=0 x=L
x dx x = L /2
L
Fig. 1.21.1.
10. By applying above boundary conditions we in eq. (1.20.3), get,
C2 = tw
q
and C1 = g L
2k
11. Substituting the value of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.20.3) :
qg qg
t=– x2 +
L x + tw
2k 2k
12. For the location of maximum temperature :
dt dt q
= 0 or = g (L – 2x) = 0
dx dx 2k
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–35 B (ME-Sem-5)

qg L
Since,  0, therefore, (L – 2x) = 0 or x =
2k 2
L
13. The maximum temperature occurs at x = i.e., mid plane of plane
2
wall and its value equals
 qg 
tmax =  ( L  x) x  + tw
 2 k x L
2

q  L L 
tmax =  g  L    + tw
 2 k  2 2 
qg 2
tmax = L + tw ...(1.20.4)
8k
14. Heat transfer takes place towards both the surfaces and for each surface
it is given by :
 dt   qg 
Q = – kA   = – kA  ( L  2 x) 
 dx  x 0 or x  L  2k  x 0 or x  L
AL
i.e., Q= qg
2
15. When both the surfaces are considered
AL
Q= 2× qg = AL qg
2
16. Also heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated to the
surroundings at temperature ta,
AL
Thus, qg = hA (tw – ta)
2
q
or tw = ta + g L ...(1.20.5)
2h
17. Substituting value of eq. (1.20.5) in eq (1.20.4), we get
 L L2 
tmax = ta + qg   
 2h 8 k 

Que 1.21. Derive the expression for maximum temperature with

in a cylinder with uniform heat generation in one-dimensional under
steady state condition.

Answer
1. Consider a cylindrical rod in which one-dimensional radial conduction
is taking place under steady state condition.
2. Heat conducted in at radius r,
dt
Qr = – k 2rL
dr
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–36 B (ME-Sem-5)

3. Heat generated in the element,

Qg = qg 2r dr L
Heat conducted out at radius (r + dr),
d
Qr + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr
dr
4. Under steady state condition,
d
Qr + Qg = Qr + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr
dr
Element
h
Cylindrical
rod
ta tw
qg

r dr

qg
L
ta

Fig. 1.21.1. Heat conduction in a solid cylinder with heat generation.

d
 Qg =(Qr) dr
dr
d  dt 
qg 2r dr L =  k 2 rL dr
dr  dr 
d  dt  qg
r =– r ...(1.21.1)
dr  dr  k
5. Integrating the eq. (1.21.1), we get
dt q r2
r =– g × + C1
dr k 2
dt q r C
=– g × + 1 ...(1.21.2)
dr k 2 r
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–37 B (ME-Sem-5)

6. Again integrating the eq. (1.21.2), we get,

qg r2
t=– ×+ C1 log r + C2 ...(1.21.3)
k 4
7. To get the value of C1 and C2, apply boundary condition :
i. At, r = R, t = tw
dt
ii. At, r = 0, = 0,
dr
iii. Heat generated = Heat loss by conduction at the rod surface.
8. The temperature gradient at the surface is given by,
 dt  qg R C
 dr  =– × + 1
 r  R k 2 R
Also from eq. (1.21.2), we have
 dt  qg R
 dr  =– ×
 r  R k 2
qg R C qg R
 – × + 1 =– × or C1 = 0
k 2 R k 2
9. Applying the boundary condition in eq. (1.21.3), we get,
qg R2
tw = – × + C2
k 4
R2
qg
or C2 = tw + ×
k 4
10. Substitute the value of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.21.3), we get
qg r2 qg R2
t=– × + tw + ×
k 4 k 4
qg
t = tw + [R2 – r2] ...(1.21.4)
4k
11. It is evident from eq. (1.21.4) that the temperature distribution is
parabolic and the location of maximum temperature is at r = 0 i.e.,
centre of the cylinder.
qg 2
So, tmax = tw + R ...(1.21.5)
4k
12. By combining eq. (1.21.4) and eq. (1.21.5), we arrive at the following
dimensionless form of temperature distribution,
qg 2
t  tw [ R  r2 ] ( R2  r 2 )  r
2

= k
4 = 2
=1–  
tmax  tw qg 2 R  R
·R
4k
2
t  tw  r
i.e., = 1–  
tmax  tw  R
13. Also,
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–38 B (ME-Sem-5)

Energy generated within the rod = Energy dissipated by convection at

the rod boundary
i.e., qg (R2 L) = h 2 RL (tw – ta)
qg
or tw = ta + ×R ...(1.21.6)
2h
14. By putting the value of eq. (1.21.6) in eq. (1.21.5), we get
qg qg
tmax = ta + ×R+ × R2
2h 4k
Que 1.22. Derive the expression for maximum temperature with
in a sphere in one dimensional under steady state condition.

Answer
1. Consider one dimensional radial conduction of heat, under steady state
conditions through a sphere having uniform heat generation.
2. Let, R = Outside radius of sphere,
k = Thermal conductivity (uniform),
qg = Uniform heat generation per unit volume, per
unit time within the solid,
tw = Temperature of the outside surface (wall) of
the sphere, and
ta = Ambient temperature.
3. Consider an element at radius r and thickness, dr as shown in
Fig. 1.22.1.

Element

qg tw

ta

r dr
R
Fig. 1.22.1. Sphere with uniform heat generation.
4. Heat conducted in at radius r,
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–39 B (ME-Sem-5)

dt dt
  k  4r 2 
Qr =  kA
dr dr
Heat generated in the element,
Qg = qg × A × dr = qg × 4r2 × dr
Heat conducted out at radius (r + dr)
d
Q(r + dr) = Qr  (Qr ) dr
dr
5. Under steady state conditions, we have
Qr + Qg = Q(r + dr)
d
= Qr  (Qr ) dr
dr
d
Qg = (Qr ) dr
dr
d  dt 
qg × 4r2 × dr =  4 k r 2  dr
dr  dr 
d  2 dt 
qg × 4r2 × dr = – 4 k r  dr
dr  dr 
1 d  2 dt  qg
r   =0
r 2 dr  dr  k
1  2 d 2t dt  qg
 r  2  2r   =0
r2  dr dr  k
d 2 t 2 dt qg
   =0
dr 2 r dr k
d2t dt qg r
r 2 2  =0
dr dr k
d 2 t dt dt qg r
or r 2    =0
dr dr dr k
dt  dt  dt qg r
or r   =0 ...(1.22.1)
dr  dr  dr k
6. Integrating the eq. (1.22.1), we get

dt q r2
r t g  = C1
dr k 2
d q r2
or ( rt)  g  = C1 ...(1.22.2)
dr k 2
7. Integrating the eq. (1.22.2), we get
r3
qg
rt  = C1r + C2
 ...(1.22.3)
k 6
8. At the centre of sphere, r = 0
 C2 = 0
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–40 B (ME-Sem-5)

9. Applying boundary condition, at r = R, t = tw to eq. (1.22.3), we get

qg R3
Rtw   = C1R ( C2 = 0)
k 6
qg 2
or C1 = tw 
R
6k
10. By substituting the values of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.22.3), we have the
temperature distribution as
qg r3  qg 2 
rt   =  tw  R r
k 6  6k 
qg q g
or t  r 2 = tw  R2
6k 6k
qg
or t = tw  ( R2  r 2 ) ...(1.22.4)
6k
11. From eq. (1.22.4) it is evident that the temperature distribution is
parabolic; the maximum temperature occurs at the centre (r = 0) and
its value is given by
qg
R2
tmax = tw  ...(1.22.5)
6k
12. From eq. (1.22.4) and eq. (1.22.5), we have
2
t  tw R2  r 2  r
= 1  
tmax  tw R2  R
2
t  tw  r
i.e., = 1   
tmax  tw R
(Temperature distribution in dimensionless form)
13. Invoking Fourier’s equation (to evaluate heat flow), we have
 dt 
Q =  kA  
 dr  r  R
d  qg 
=  k  4 R2   tw  ( R2  r 2 ) 
dr  6k r  R
q 
=  k  4 R2  g (  2r ) 
 6k r  R
qg
= k  4 R2  R
3k
4
R3  q g
Q=
3
(= volume of sphere × heat generation capacity)
14. Under steady state conditions the heat conducted (or generated) should
be equal to the heat convected from the outer surface of the sphere.
4
i.e., qg   R3 = h × 4 R2 (tw – ta)
3
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–41 B (ME-Sem-5)

qg R
or tw = ta  ...(1.22.6)
3h
15. Putting the value of eq. (1.22.6) in eq. (1.22.5), we get
The maximum temperature,
qg qg
tmax = ta  R  R2
3h 6k

PART-3
Concept of Thermal Resistance, Analogy between Heat and
Electricity Flow, Thermal Contact Resistance, Overall Heat
Transfer Coefficient, Critical Radius of Insulation.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3

Thermal Resistance : It is the obstruction to the flow of heat
transfer. It is analogous to the electric resistance in electrical system.
Analogy between Thermal and Electrical System :
Thermal System Electrical System
Heat transfer, Q Current, I
Change in temperature, dt Change in voltage, dV
Thermal resistance, Rth Electrical resistance, R

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient : It is defined as the quantity

which gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per unit
degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side
of the substance.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.23. What do you mean by analogous system ? Explain the

thermal resistance in case of conduction, convection and radiation.

Answer
A. Analogous System :
1. When two physical systems are described by similar equations and
have similar boundary conditions, then the system are said to be
analogous.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–42 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. The heat transfer process may be compared by analogy with the flow
of electricity in an electrical system.
B. Thermal Resistance :
i. For Conduction :
As per Ohm’s law :
Potential difference dV
Current, I= =
Electrical resistance R
By analogy, for conduction
Temperature difference (dt)
Q=
dx / kA
dx
Rth =
kA
Rth = Thermal conduction resistance.
i R i

Q Rth Q

dx
Rth =
kA
Fig. 1.23.1.
ii. For Convection : Convection heat transfer is given by Newton’s law
of cooling i.e.,
Qconv. = h A(ts – tf)
(t  t )
Qconv. = s f
1 / hA
1
Rth =
conv. hA
1
Rth =
ts hA tf

Fig. 1.23.2.
iii. For Radiation : Radiation heat transfer is governed by Stefan
Boltzmann law i.e.,
Q =  AT4
or Q = A (T14 – T24) (For real surface)
(T1  T2 )
or Q=
1
 A (T1  T2 )(T12  T22 )
1
So, (Rth)Rad. =
 A (T1  T2 )(T12  T22 )
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–43 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 1.24. A wire of 1.2 mm diameter and 200 mm length is submerged

horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of 135 A
with an applied voltage of 2.18 V. If the surface of the wire is
maintained at 200 °C, calculate the heat flux.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer

Given : d = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m, l = 200 mm = 0.2 m, I = 135 A

V = 2.18 V, ts = 200 °C
To Find : Heat flux.
1. The electrical energy input of the wire is given by,
Q = VI = 2.18 × 135 = 294.3 W
2. Surface area of the wire, A = dl
=  × 0.0012 × 0.2
= 7.54 × 10–4 m2
Q 294.3
3. Heat flux, q= 
A 7.54  10–4
= 0.39 × 106 W/m2
= 0.39 MW/m2

Que 1.25. Explain thermal contact resistance.

AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
1. In real systems, due to surface roughness and void spaces, the contact
surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus, the area available for
flow of heat at the interface will be small as compared to geometric
face area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large
resistance to heat flow at the interface occurs. This resistance is known
as thermal contact resistance.
Mathematically,
t t
Rc = 
Q qA
2. It causes temperature drop between two materials at the interface.
Que 1.26. Derive an expression for overall heat transfer coefficient
through a plane wall.

Answer
1. Heat transfer between hot fluid and surface-1 of the wall take place
due to convection. The amount of heat transfer is given as,
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–44 B (ME-Sem-5)

Q = hhf A (thf – t1) ...(1.26.1)

2. Heat transfer within the wall takes place due to conduction. The amount
of heat transfer is given as
KA (t1  t2 )
Q= ...(1.26.2)
L
Metal
thf wall

t1
Q
h cf
Hot hhf t2 Cold
fluid fluid film
film

tcf

1 2
L
thf t1 t2 tcf

1 L 1
h hf . A k.A hcf . A

Fig. 1.26.1. The overall heat transfer through a plane wall.

3. Heat transfer between surface-2 of the wall and cold fluid takes place
due to convection. The amount of heat transfer is given as
Q = hcf A (t2 – tcf) ...(1.26.3)
4. By rearranging the eq. (1.26.1), eq. (1.26.2) and eq. (1.26.3), we get
Q
(thf – t1) = ...(1.26.4)
hhf A
QL
(t1 – t2) = ...(1.26.5)
kA
Q
(t2 – tcf) = ...(1.26.6)
hcf A
5. By adding eq. (1.26.4), eq. (1.26.5) and eq. (1.26.6), we get
 1 L 1 
(th – tc ) = Q    
f f h
 hf A kA hcf A 

A (thf  tcf )
or Q=
1 L 1
 
hhf k hcf
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–45 B (ME-Sem-5)

6. If U is the overall coefficient of heat transfer, then

A (thf  tcf )
Q = U A(th – tc ) =
f f 1 L 1
 
hhf k hcf
1
or U=
1 L 1
 
hhf k hcf

Que 1.27. Derive the expression for steady state overall heat
transfer coefficient for a composite sphere whose inner surface is
at higher temperature and outer surface is at lower temperature.

Answer
1. Considering Fig. 1.27.1 as cross-section of a composite sphere, the heat
flow equation can written as follows
4 kA r1r2 (t1  t2 )
Q = hh 4r12 (th – t1) =
f f (r2  r1 )
4 kB r2 r3 (t2  t3 )
= = hc 4  r32 (t3 – tc )
(r3  r2 ) f f

2. By rearranging, we get
Q
(th – t1) = ...(1.27.1)
f 4  r12 hhf
Q (r2  r1 )
(t1 – t2) = ...(1.27.2)
4 kA r1 r2
Q (r3  r2 )
(t2 – t3) = ...(1.27.3)
4 kB r2 r3
Q
(t3 – tc ) = ...(1.27.4)
f 4  r32 hcf
3. Adding eq. (1.27.1), (1.27.2), (1.27.3) and (1.27.4), we get
Q  1 (r  r ) (r  r ) 1 
(th – tc ) =  2
 2 1  3 2  2

f f 4 h r k r r k r r h
 hf 1 A 1 2 B 2 3 cf r3 
(thf  tcf )
So, Q= ...(1.27.5)
1  1 (r2  r1 ) (r3  r2 ) 1 
    
4   hhf r12 kA r1 r2 kB r2 r3 hcf r32 
 
6. If U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. Then, heat transfer is given
as,
Q = U A(th – tc ) ...(1.27.6)
f f
7. Comparing the eq. (1.27.5) and (1.27.6), we get
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–46 B (ME-Sem-5)

 1 
4   
U=   1  (r2  r1 )  r3  r2  1  
A 
 hh r12 kA r1 r2 
kBr2 r3 hcf r32  
  f 
Cold fluid (air) t cf
Q

hcf

B tcf
Hot t A
fluid hf
hhf t1 t2 t3

r1
r2
r3
Fig. 1.27.1. Steady state conduction through a composite sphere.

Que 1.28. What is critical thickness of insulation ?

AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05

Answer
1. The thickness upto which heat flow rate increases and after which
heat rate flow decreases is termed as critical thickness of insulation.
2. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called critical radius (rc).
i. For cylinder, rc = k / h
ii. For sphere, rc = 2k / h
3. The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal
resistance.
4. But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal
resistance [(Rth)cond.] and convective thermal resistance [(Rth)conv.], the
addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective thermal
resistance due to increase in surface area, as in the case of a cylinder
and sphere, and the total thermal resistance may actually decrease
resulting in increased heat flow.

Que 1.29. Prove that the critical radius of insulation for cylinder

k 2k
is, rc = and for sphere is, rc = ·
ho ho
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–47 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
A. Critical Radius of Insulation for Cylinder :
1. Consider a solid cylinder of radius r 1 insulated with an insulation of
thickness (r 2 – r 1).
2. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the solid cylinder
to the surroundings is,

2 L(t1  tair )
Q= ...(1.29.1)
r 
ln  2 
 r1  1

k ho r2
Solid cylinder

Insulation Fluid film

k h0
t1
tair

r1 r2 – r1
r2

Fig. 1.29.1. Critical radius of insulation for cylinder.

ln (r2 / r1 )
3. From eq. (1.29.1) it is evident that as r2 increases, the factor
k
1
increases but the factor decreases. Then, the required condition
ho r2
is,
  r2  
 ln   
d   r1  1 
 =0
dr2  k ho r2 
1 1 1  1
+   = 0
k r2 ho  r22 
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–48 B (ME-Sem-5)

1 1
– =0
k ho r2
hor2 = k
k
r2 = (rc) =
ho
B. Critical Radius of Insulation for Sphere :
1. Consider a solid sphere which is insulated by a thickness of insulation
(r2 – r1).
2. Then the rate of heat transfer from sphere to surrounding is given by,
(t1  tair )
Q=
 (r2  r1 ) 1 
  
 4  kr r
1 2 4  r22ho 
3. For critical radius :
d  (r2  r1 ) 1 
   =0
dr2  4 kr1 r2 4  r22 ho 
1 2
 =0
kr22 r23 ho
2kr2 = r23ho
2

2k
r2 = rc =
ho

Insulation
Solid sphere

k h0
t1 tair

r1
r2 r2 – r1

Fig. 1.29.2. Critical radius of insulation for sphere.

Que 1.30. A wire of 6.5 mm diameter at a temperature of

60 °C is to be insulated by a material having k = 0.174 W/m-°C.
Convective heat transfer coefficient (ho) = 8.722 W/m 2-°C. The
ambient temperature is 20 °C for maximum heat loss. What is the
minimum thickness of insulation and heat loss per meter length ?
Also find the percentage increase in the heat dissipation.
Heat & Mass Transfer 1–49 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer

6.5
Given : r1 = = 3.25 mm = 0.00325 m
2
k = 0.174 W/m-°C, ho = 8.722 W/m2-°C, tair = 20 °C, t1 = 60 °C.
To Find : i. Minimum thickness of insulation.
ii. Heat loss per meter length.
iii. Percentage increase in the heat dissipation.
1. We know that, the critical radius of insulation of cylinder
k 0.174
rc = = = 0.01995 m = 19.95 mm
ho 8.722
2. Minimum thickness of insulation = rc – r1 = 19.95 – 3.25 = 16.7 mm
3. Heat loss without insulation,
2L (t1  tair ) 2  1  (60  20)
Q1 = = = 7.124 W/m
1 1
ho r1 8.722  0.00325
4. Heat loss with insulation when critical thickness is used,
2 L (t1  tair ) 2  1  (60  20)
Q2 = =
r   0.01995 
ln  c  ln 
 0.00325  1
 r1   1 
k ho rc 0.174 8.722  0.01995
= 15.537 W/m
5. Percentage increase in heat dissipation,
Q2  Q1 (15.537  7.124)
= × 100 = × 100 = 118.09 %
Q1 7.124

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. What are the mechanism of heat transfer ? How are they

distinguished from each other ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.1.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–50 B (ME-Sem-5)

Q. 2. A carbon steel plate (k = 45 W/m-K) 600 mm × 900 mm ×

25 mm is maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the
hot plate. If convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2-
°C and 250 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation.
Calculate the inside plate temperature.flow heat exchanger
by using NTU method.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5.

Q. 3. Derive the general heat conduction equation in rectangular

or cartesian coordinates.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.6.

Q. 4. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical

coordinates.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7.

Q. 5. Derive expressions under one dimensional steady state heat

conduction for temperature distribution for the sphere.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.14.

Q. 6. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes

comprises three layers. A 12 cm thick layer of grass
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of
plywood (k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is
achieved with glue which does not offer any resistance of
heat flow. If the side surfaces of board are maintained at
40 °C and 20 °C temperature, determine the heat flux. How
would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue the three
pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.

Q. 7. Derive an expression for overall heat transfer coefficient

through a plane wall.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.26.

Q. 8. What is critical thickness of insulation ?

Ans. Refer Q. 1.28.

Q. 9. Prove that the critical radius of insulation for cylinder is,

k 2k
rc = and for sphere is, rc = ·
ho ho
Ans. Refer Q. 1.29.


Heat & Mass Transfer 2–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

2 Fins &
Transient Conduction

Part-1 ............................................................................ (2–2B to 2–13B)

• Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

• Fins of Uniform Cross-sectional Area
• Errors of Measurement of Temperature in Thermometer Wells

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 2–2B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 2–2B
Part-2 ......................................................................... (2–14B to 2–30B)
• Transient Heat Conduction
• Lumped Capacitance Method
• Time Constant
• Unsteady State Heat Conduction in One Dimension only
• Heisler Charts

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 2–14B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 2–14B
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces, Fins of Uniform

Cross-sectional Area, Errors of Measurement of Temperature
in Thermometer Wells.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Fins : These are the extended surfaces used for increasing the heat
transfer rate from the surfaces.
Efficiency of Fin (fin) : It is defined as the ratio of the actual heat
transferred by the fin to the maximum heat transferable by fin, if
entire fin area were at base temperature.
Effectiveness of Fin ( fin) : It is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate
to the heat transfer rate that would exist without a fin.
Qwith fin
 fin =
Qwithout fin

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What do you understand by fins and also explain types
of fins ?

Answer
A. Fins :
1. These are extended surfaces used for increasing the heat transfer rate
from the surfaces whenever the available surface is found inadequate
to transfer the required quantity of heat with the available temperature
drop and convective heat transfer coefficient.
2. Heat transfer through fin is because of conduction and convection
between its boundary and surrounding.
B. Types of Fins : Fins are of two types :
1. Fins of uniform cross-sectional area :
a. Fins of rectangular profile, and
b. Fins of circular profile.
2. Fins of non-uniform cross-sectional area :
a. Longitudinal fin of trapezoidal profile,
Heat & Mass Transfer 2–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

b. Longitudinal fin of parabolic profile, and

c. Truncated conical spline.

Que 2.2. What is the reason for the widespread use of fins on

surfaces ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. Generally fins are used to provide extra surface area to increase rate of
heat transfer from existing surface.
2. In most of practical situation the heat transfer fluids involves liquid and
gas.
3. In such a situation of heat transfer between liquid and gas, as gas is
having less value of heat transfer coefficient it offers greater resistance
for the heat transfer.
4. So to increase the rate of heat transfer on the gas side, extra surface
area is provided by using fins.
5. Use of fins on surfaces is found in case of air-cooled cylinder, condenser
tubes in refrigerator.

Que 2.3. Derive an expression for temperature distribution and

heat transfer rate in a straight fin of rectangular profile, when :
i. Fin tip is insulated.
ii. Heat dissipation from an infinite long fin.
iii. The fin is of finite length and losses heat by convection.
Also write the advantages and application of fins.
OR
What are the applications of fins ? Establish an expression for
temperature distribution in a straight fin of rectangular profile,
when fin tip is insulated. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Derive an expression of rectangular fin in case of heat dissipation
from an infinite long fin. What are advantages and application of
fins ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Temperature Distribution and Heat Transfer Rate for
Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature distribution
along the fin is necessary.
2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

ii. No heat generation within the fin.

iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a distance
x from the base.
7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
 dt 
Qx = – kA CS  
 dx  x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),

P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element

x
Fig. 2.3.1. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.

 dt 
Qx + dx = – kACS  
 dx  x  dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and (x + dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2.3.1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
Heat & Mass Transfer 2–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
 dt   dt 
– kA CS   = – kA CS   + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2.3.2)
 dx  x  dx  x  dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
 dt   dt  d  dt  d 2  dt  ( dx)2
 dx  =   
    dx  2    ... ...(2.3.3)
  x  dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2.3.2), we have
 dt   dt  d  dt 
– kA CS   = – kA CS   – kA CS   dx
 dx  x  dx  x dx  dx  x
d 2  dt  (dx)2
– kA CS    ...  h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2  dx  x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx  0,
 dt   dt   d2t 
 – kA CS   =– kA CS   – kA CS  2  dx + h (P dx) (t – ta)
 dx  x  dx  x  dx 

 d2t 
kA CS  2  dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
 dx 
d2t hP
or – (t – ta )  0 ...(2.3.4)
dx2 kACS
12. If temperature excess is,
 = t – ta ...(2.3.5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
 =
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or = ...(2.3.6)
dx 2 dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (2.3.5) and eq. (2.3.6) in eq. (2.3.4), we get
d 2
– m2  = 0 ...(2.3.7)
dx 2
hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (2.3.4) and eq. (2.3.7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
 = C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(2.3.8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by using

proper boundary conditions.
Case I : When Fin Tip is Insulated :
1. When the end of fin is insulated, the boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0,  = 0
dt
ii. At x = l,
=0
dx
2. Applying these boundary conditions in eq. (2.3.8), we get expression
for temperature distribution,
 t  ta cosh{m (l  x)}
= = ...(2.3.9)
0 t0  ta cosh(ml)
em ( l  x)  e[  m( l  x)]
Where, cosh {m (l – x)} =
2
eml  e ml
and, cosh(ml) =
2
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.9), we get
dt  sinh {m(l – x)} 
= (t0 – ta)   (– m)
dx  cosh (ml) 
 dt 
 dx  = – m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml) ...(2.3.10)
  x0
4. Rate of heat flow from the fin is given by
 dt 
Qfin = – kACS  
 dx  x 0
Putting the value of eq. (2.3.10) in above equation, we get
Qfin = kA CS m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
[ m  hP / kACS ]
Case II : When Heat is Dissipated from an Infinite Long Fin :
1. The fin is infinitely long and temperature at the end of fin is that of
ambient/surrounding fluid. In this case, the boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0, t = t0
t – ta = to – ta
or, at x = 0,  = 0
ii. At x = , t = ta
or x = ,  = 0
2. Substituting these boundary condition in eq. (2.3.8), we get
 = 0 e–mx
or (t – ta) = (t0 – ta) e–mx ...(2.3.11)
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.11) w.r.t. x, we get,
 dt 
= [– m (t0 – ta) e–mx]x = 0 = – m (t0 – ta) ...(2.3.12)
 dx  x0

4. Rate of heat flow across the base of fin is given by,

Heat & Mass Transfer 2–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

 dt 
Qfin = – kACS  
 dx  x 0
 dt 
Putting the value of   from eq. (2.3.12) in above equation, we
 dx  x  0
get
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta)
Case III : The Fin is of Finite Length and Losses Heat by Convection :
1. The boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0,  = 0
ii. Heat conducted to the fin at (x = l) = Heat convected from the end
to surrounding.
 dt 
i.e., – kA CS   = h ASA(t – ta)
 dx  x  l
Where, ASA is surface area from which the convective heat transfer
takes place and at the tip of fin, A CS = ASA.
dt h
Thus, =– at x = l
dx k
2. Applying these boundary condition in eq. (2.3.8), we get
h
 t  ta cosh[ m(l  x)]  [sinh{m (l  x)}]
= = km
o to  ta h
cosh(ml)  [sinh(ml)]
km

...(2.3.13)
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.13) w.r.t. x, we get
  h  
 dt   sinh {ml}   km  cosh {ml} 
 dx  = – m (to  ta )   ...(2.3.14)
 x 0  cosh {ml}   h  sinh {ml} 
  km  
4. Rate of heat flow through the fin is given by :
 dt 
Qfin = – kACS  
 dx  x 0
 dt 
Putting the value of   from eq. (2.3.14) in above equation, we
 dx  x  0
get
 h 
 tanh( ml)  km 
Qfin = Ph kACS (to – ta)  
 1  h tanh (ml) 
 km 
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

B. Advantages :
1. By using the fin, heat transfer rate can be increased without any
preventive maintenance.
2. It is the cheapest way for increasing the heat transfer rate from the hot
bodies.
C. Applications :
1. Economisers for steam power plants,
2. Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems,
3. Radiators for automobiles, and
4. Air cooled engine cylinder heads.

Que 2.4. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.

Answer
A. Efficiency of Fin :
1. It is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to the
maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin area were at base
temperature.
Actual heat transfer by the fin(Qfin )
fin =
Maximum heat that would be transferred if whole surface
of the fin is maintained at the base temperature (Qmax )
2. For a fin which is infinitely long,
PhkACS (to  ta ) kACS 1
fin =  
Phl(to  ta ) hPl 2 ml
3. For a fin which is insulated at the tip,

PhkACS (to  ta ) tanh (ml) tanh (ml)

fin = 
Phl( to  ta ) ml
B. Effectiveness of Fin :
1. It is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate that
would exist without a fin.
Qwith fin
Mathematically, fin =
Qwithout fin
2. In case of infinitely long fin,
Pk
fin =
hACS
3. For a straight rectangular fin of thickness ‘y’ and width ‘b’,
2k
fin =
hy
Heat & Mass Transfer 2–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 2.5. Two pin fins are identical, except that the diameter of
one of them is twice the diameter of the other. For which fin will the
(a) effectiveness, and (b) fin efficiency be higher ? Explain.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Let the diameter of fin I be d1 and diameter of fin II be d2.
Given : d1 = 2d2
a. Effectiveness :
1. The effectiveness of a fin is given as follows,
 h cosh mL  mk sinh mL 
kAm [ ts  t ]  
 mk cosh mL  h sinh mL 
=
hA (ts  t )
kA1 m(ts  t )  h cosh mL  mk sinh mL 
 fin hA(ts  t )  mk cosh mL  h sinh mL 
2. Now, I =  
 fin II kA2 m(ts  t )  h cosh mL  mk sinh mL 
hA(ts  t )  mk cosh mL  h sinh mL 
 
 2
A d1
 fin I = 1 4

 fin II
A2  d 2
4 2

 fin I (2 d2 )2
= 4
 fin II  2
d
4 2
fin I = 4 fin II
3. So, effectiveness of fin I is higher than effectiveness of fin II.
b. Efficiency :
1. The efficiency of a fin is given as follows,
1 A
fin =  (t  t ) dA
A [ ts  t ] 0

1 A

2. Now,
fin I
=
A1 [ ts  t ] 0 [t  t ] dA  A2
fin II 1 A

A2 [ ts  t ]
0 [t  t ] dA A1
 2  2
fin I d2 d2
= 4  4
fin II  2 
d (2 d2 )2
4 1 4
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

fin I 1 1
=  fin I  fin II [fin I = 25 % of fin II]
fin II 4 4
3. So, efficiency of fin II is higher than efficiency of fin I.

Que 2.6. A stainless steel fin (k = 20 W/m-K) having a diameter of

20 mm and a length of 0.1 m is attached to a wall at 300 °C. The
ambient temperature is 50 °C and the heat transfer coefficient is
10 W/m2-K. The fin tip is insulated.
Determine :
i. The rate of heat dissipation from the fin.
ii. The temperature at the fin tip. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : d = 20 mm = 0.02 m, l = 0.1 m, to = 300 ºC, ta = 50 ºC,

k = 20 W/m-K, h =10 W/m2-K
To Find : i. The rate of heat dissipation from the fin.
ii. The temperature at the fin tip.
d
ti late
su
p
In

ta

to

0.1 m
0.02 m
Fig. 2.6.1.

hP 10    d 10  4
1. We know that, m=  
kACS  2 20  0.02
20   d
4
m = 10
2. Rate of heat transfer,
Qfin = PhkACS (to  ta ) tanh (ml)

Qfin =   0.02  10  20    (0.02)2 × (300 – 50) × tanh (10 × 0.1)

4
= 11.96 W
3. We know that,
 t  ta cosh {m (l  x) }
= 
o to  ta cosh (ml)
Here, x=l
Heat & Mass Transfer 2–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

t  ta 1
 =
to  ta cosh (ml)
t  50 1
=
300  50 cosh (10  0.1)
Temperature at fin tip, t = 212 ºC.

Que 2.7. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick are placed
on 2.5 cm diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface
temperature is 170 °C and the ambient fluid temperature is 25 °C.
Calculate the heat loss per fin for h = 130 W/m2-°C for aluminium.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : b = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, t = 1 mm = 0.001 m,

d = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, t0 = 170 °C, ta = 25 °C, h = 130 W/m2-°C,
k = 200 W/m-°C
To Find : Heat loss per fin.
1. Perimeter, P = d
=  × 0.025 = 0.0785 m
 2 
Area, A = d   (0.025)2  4.9  10  4 m2
4 4
0 = t0 – ta = 170 – 25 = 145 °C
2. Heat loss due to infinitely long fin,
Qfin = hPkA 0

Qfin = 130  0.0785  200  4.9  10  4  145

Qfin = 145.17 W

Que 2.8. What do you understand by thermometer well ?

Estimate the error in temperature measurement in a thermometer
well.

Answer
A. Thermometer Well : It is defined as a small tube welded radially into
a pipeline through which a fluid whose temperature is to be measured
is flowing.
B. Estimation of the Error in Temperature Measurement in a
Thermometer Well :
1. Let, l = Length of the well/tube,
d = Internal diameter of the well/tube,
 = Thickness of well/tube,
Fins & Transient Conduction 2–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

tf = Temperature of the fluid flowing through the

pipe (which is to be measured), and
to = Temperature of the pipe wall.
2. When the temperature of the fluid flowing through the pipeline is
higher than the ambient temperature, the heat flows from the fluid
towards the tube walls along the well. Consequently the temperature
at the bottom of well becomes colder than the fluid flowing around,
obviously the temperature shown by the thermometer will not be the
true temperature of the fluid.
3. This error may be calculated by assuming the well to be a spine
protruding from the wall of a pipe in which fluid is flowing.
4. It may be assumed, for simplicity, that there is no flow of heat from the
tip of the well (i.e., the tip of the well is insulated).
5. The temperature distribution at any distance x measured from pipe
wall along the temperature well is given by
x t  tf cosh [ m(l  x)]
= x 
o to  tf cosh ( ml)
Thermometer

Pipeline

t0 (at x = 0)
oil
Fluid flow

tf
tl (at x = l )
d

Fig. 2.8.1. Thermometer well.

to tl tf
l

l
Well
temperature

x
Fig. 2.8.2. Temperature variation in well.
Heat & Mass Transfer 2–13 B (ME-Sem-5)

6. At x = l, we have
tl  tf cosh [ m( l  l)] 1
=  [Thermometric error]
to  tf cosh (ml) cosh (ml)
Where, tl = Temperature recorded by the thermometer at the
bottom of the well.
7. Now, perimeter of the well,
P = (d + 2)  d
and cross-sectional area,
Acs = d
P d 1
 = 
Acs d 

hP h
8. Then, m= 
kAcs k
Thus, the temperature measured by the thermometer is not affected
by the diameter of the well.

Que 2.9. A mercury thermometer placed in oil well is required

to measure temperature of compressed air flowing in a pipe. The
well is 140 mm long and is made of steel (k = 50 W/m-°C) of 1 mm
thickness. The temperature recorded by the well is 100 °C while
pipe wall temperature is 50 °C. Heat transfer coefficient between
the air and well wall is 30 W/m2-°C. Estimate true temperature of
air.

Answer

Given : l = 140 mm = 0.14 m,  = 1 mm = 0.001 m, tl = 100 °C,

to = 50 °C, h = 30 W/m2 °C, k = 50 W/m °C.
To Find : True temperature of air.

h 30
1. We know that, m=  = 24.5
k 50  0.001
2. Now, ml = 24.5 × 0.14 = 3.43
3. The true temperature of air is found from the relation,
tl  tf 1
=
to  t f cosh (ml)
100  tf 1 1
=  = 0.0647
50  tf cosh (3.43) 15.4545
(100 – tf) = 0.0647 (50 – tf)
100 – tf = 3.235 – 0.0647 tf
tf = 103.46 °C.
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

3 Forced &
Natural Convection

Part-1 ............................................................................ (3–2B to 3–12B)

• Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer • Thermal Boundary Layer

• Approximate Integral Boundary Layer Analysis
• Analogy between Momentum and Heat Transfer in Turbulent
Flow over a Flat Surface • Mixed Boundary Layer

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 3–2B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 3–2B
Part-2 ......................................................................... (3–12B to 3–21B)
• Flow over a Flat Plate
• Flow across a Single Cylinder and a Sphere
• Flow Inside Ducts • Thermal Entrance Region
• Empirical Heat Transfer Relations
• Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer
• Liquid Metal Heat Transfer

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 3–12B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 3–12B
Part-3 ......................................................................... (3–21B to 3–28B)
• Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection
• Buoyant Force
• Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Natural Convection over
Vertical Plates and Cylinders, Horizontal Plates and Cylinders
and Sphere
• Combined Free and Forced Convection

A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 3–21B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 3–22B
Forced & Natural Convection 3–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer, Thermal Boundary Layer,

Approximate Integral Boundary Layer Analysis, Analogy
between Momentum and Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow
over a Flat Surface, Mixed Boundary Layer.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Boundary Layer : The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as
boundary layer. It is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
Boundary Layer Thickness : It is defined as the distance from the
boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 % of the velocity of the free
stream.
Thermal Boundary Layer : It may be defined as that region where
temperature gradient are present in the flow. These temperature
gradients would result from a heat exchange process between the
fluid and the wall.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Explain the concept of boundary layer.

Answer
1. The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer.
Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
2. When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid boundary,
a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the boundary surface,
adheres to it and condition of no slip occurs.
3. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary surface
undergoes retardation, this retarded layer further causes retardation
for the adjacent layers of the fluid, thereby developing a small region in
the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the velocity of
the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero at the boundary surface
and approaches the velocity of main stream.
4. According to boundary layer theory, the extensive fluid medium around
bodies moving in fluids can be divided into following two regions :
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

i. A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where
the viscous shear takes place.
ii. A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behaviour is quite
like that of an ideal fluid and the potential flow theory is applicable.

Que 3.2. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
The equation for boundary layer thickness can be obtained in terms of
displacement, momentum and energy that are discussed as below :
a. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of formation of
boundary layer. It is denoted by *.

Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U

y

Stationary plate
Fig. 3.2.1. Displacement thickness.
2. Let fluid of density  flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the
plate.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate

=   (U  u) dy ...(3.2.1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of mass
of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(3.2.2)
Forced & Natural Convection 3–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

9. On equating eq. (3.2.1) and eq. (3.2.2), we get


U* =   (U  u) dy
0

 u
* =   1  U  dy
0
b. Momentum Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by .
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. Momentum/sec of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy × u = u2dy
4. Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering the boundary
layer = uUdy
5. Loss of momentum/sec = uUdy – u2dy = u(U – u) dy

6. Total loss of momentum/sec =  u(U  u)dy ...(3.2.3)
0
7. Let  be the distance by which plate is displaced when fluid is flowing
with a constant velocity U. Then, loss of momentum/sec of fluid flowing
through distance  with a velocity U
= U 2 ...(3.2.4)
8. On equating eq. (3.2.3) and eq. (3.2.4), we get

U2 =  u(U  u)dy
0

u u
=  U  1  U  dy
0
c. Energy Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by e.
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. KE of this fluid inside the boundary layer
1 1
= mu2 = (udy)u2
2 2
4. KE of same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer
1
= (udy)U2
2
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

5. Loss of KE through elementary strip

1 1 1
= (udy) U2 – (udy)u2 = u (U2 – u2)dy
2 2 2

1 2
6. So, total loss of KE of fluid =  2 u (U  u2 ) dy ...(3.2.5)
0
7. Let e be the distance by which plate is displaced to compensate for
reduction in KE. Then, loss of KE through e of fluid flowing with
velocity U
1
=(Ue) U2 ...(3.2.6)
2
8. On equating eq. (3.2.5) and (3.2.6), we have

1 1 2
(Ue) U2 =  2 u (U  u2 ) dy
2 0

1 2 2
e =  u (U  u ) dy
U3 0

u u2 
e =  U 1  U 2  dy
0

Que 3.3. Explain the concept of thermal boundary layer.

Answer
1. Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated or cold surface, a
temperature field is set up in the field next to the surface. If the
surface of the plate is hotter than fluid, the temperature distribution
will be as shown in the Fig. 3.3.1. The zone or the layer wherein the
temperature field exists is called the thermal boundary layer.

Limit of thermal
boundary layer
Region
affected by Temperature
U, t heating
Y profile, t(y)
Free th
stream ( t s – t )
t (y ) Plate
surface (ts)
X
t t
Laminar Turbulent
Fig. 3.3.1. Thermal boundary layer formed during
flow of cool fluid over a warm plate.

2. Due to the exchange of heat between the plate and the fluid,
temperature gradient occurs.
Forced & Natural Convection 3–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

3. The thermal boundary layer thickness (th) is arbitrarily defined as the

distance y from the plate surface at which
ts  t
= 0.99
ts  t
4. The temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer depends upon
the viscosity, velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal conductivity of
the fluid.

Que 3.4. Derive the differential energy equation for flow past a
flat plate. Also write down assumptions of it.
OR
Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal boundary layer
over flat plate. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5

Answer
A. Assumptions :
1. The flow is steady and incompressible.
t  ts
2. Fluid’s properties evaluated at the film temperature, tf =  are
2
constant.
3. The body forces, viscous heating and conduction in the flow direction
are negligible.
B. Derivation :
1. For an element of dimensions (dx × dy × Unit depth) in the boundary
layer the quantities of energy entering and leaving are shown in
Fig. 3.4.1.

–kdx t +  t dy
y y y
Viscous heat
Ey2 =  v+ v dy dx C t + t dy
generation y p
y
u 2
 dxdy
y

Ex1 = ( u dy) Cp t dy Control Ex2 =  u + u dx dy C p t + t dx

volume x x

dx

– k dx t/ y Ey1 = ( v dx) Cp t

Fig. 3.4.1. Differential control volume for energy conservation
in thermal boundary layer.
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. The rate of temperature change in the X-direction is being presumed

small and as such conduction is to be considered only in the Y-direction.
3. The convective terms in the X and Y-directions have been written in
terms of mass, temperature and specific heat which is assumed constant.
a. In X-direction :
i. Energy influx,
Ex1 = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
= (udy) Cpt
ii. Energy efflux,
 u   t 
Ex2 =   u  dx  dy C p  t  dx 
 x   x 
Neglecting the product of small quantities,
 t u 
Ex2 = C p dy ut  u dx  t dx 
 x x 
iii. Net energy convection = Ex1 – Ex2
 t u 
= – Cp u  t  dx dy
 x x 
b. In Y-direction :
i. Similarly, net energy convection in Y-direction,
= Ey1 – Ey2
 t v 
= ( v dx) Cpt – Cpdx  v t  v dy  t dy 
 y y 
 t v
=  C p  v  t dx dy
 y y 
4. Conduction heat rate in Y-direction,
t   t   t   
=  kdx    kdx      dy 
y   y y  y   
2t
= k dx dy
 y2
5. Due to relative motion of fluid in the boundary layer there will be
viscous effects which will cause heat generation.
Viscous force = Shear stress × Area upon which it acts
u
=  (dx × 1)
y
6. The viscous force will act through a distance ‘s’ which can be given as
 u 
s =   dy
 y 
2
u u  u 
 Viscous heat generation =  dx  dy     dxdy
y y  y 
Forced & Natural Convection 3–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

7. Now, for steady state condition, the algebraic sum of heat due to
convection, conduction and viscous effect equals to zero. Thus
2
 t u t v 2 t  u 
 C p  u  t v t  dxdy + k dxdy + µ   dxdy = 0
 x x y y  y2  y 
2
 t t  u  v    2t  u 
or – Cp u  v  t     k 2     = 0 ...(3.4.1)
 x y  x y   y  y 

 u    v 
8. For a two-dimensional boundary layer flow,      = 0 and
 x   y 
therefore eq. (3.4.1) can be written as,
2
t t k  2t   u 
u v =   
x y C p y2 C p  y 
which represents the differential energy equation for flow past a flat
plate.
9. If the heat generation due to viscous effects is negligible, then the
energy equation can be re-written as
t t k 2t 2t
u v = = 
x y C p y2 y2
k
Where, = = Thermal diffusivity
C p

Que 3.5. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for

the flow past a flat plate. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
1. Consider a control volume as shown in Fig. 3.5.1.
Hydrodynamic
boundary layer
Qh Thermal
U , t boundary layer
B C

H
Q x + dx
Qx 
Y  th
Control
volume
X A D
xo Q cond.
x dx Thin flat plate

Fig. 3.5.1. Integral energy equation – control volume.

Heat & Mass Transfer 3–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. Following assumptions are made to derive the integral energy equation :

i. , Cp and k (thermo-plastic properties) of fluid remain constant
within the operating range of the temperature
ii. The heating of the plate commences at a distance x0 from the
leading edge of the plate.
3. For unit width of the plate we have,
H
i. Mass of fluid entering through face AB =  u dy
0

  H H
ii. Mass of fluid leaving through face CD = u dy  dx
 u dy 
x  0 0 
iii. Mass of fluid entering the control volume through face BC
 H
=  0 u dy 


x
 0
H 

 0
H
u dy dx  –  u dy

  H
= u dy  dx
x  0 
4. Heat influx through the face AB,
Qx = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
or, Qx =  0
H

u dy C pt  C p  ut dy
0
H

5. Heat efflux through the face CD,

 H H
Qx + dx =  C p  ut dy  dx
ut dy 
x
0  0 
6. Heat (energy) influx through the face BC (which is outside thermal
boundary layer and there the temperature is constant at t ),
  H
Qh = u dy  dx C p t
x 0 
7. Heat conducted into the control volume through face AD,
 t   t 
Qcond. = – kA    – k dx  
 y  y  0  y  y  0
8. The energy balance for the element is given by
H   H   t  
C p  ut dy  C p t  u dy  dx   – k dx  y  
0 x  0 
 y0

  H H
C p  ut dy  dx
= C p 0 ut dy 

x  0 
9. After simplification and rearrangement, we have
d H k  t   t 
(t – t)u dy =
dx 0
   ...(3.5.1)
C p  y  y  0  y  y  0
Eq. (3.5.1) is the integral equation for the boundary layer for constant
properties and constant free stream temperature t.
Forced & Natural Convection 3–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 3.6. Explain the analogy between momentum and heat

transfer in turbulent flow over a flat surface.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow over
flat plate using Colburn analogy. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. As we know that, the inter-relationship between fluid friction and
Newton’s law of viscosity is given as,
du
0 =  ...(3.6.1)
dy
2. Heat flow along Y-direction follows the Fourier equation
dt
 Q =  kA ...(3.6.2)
dy
3. When Pr is unity, temperature and velocity profile are identical (for
most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)
C p k
i.e., = 1 or = Cp ...(3.6.3)
k 
4. By combining eq. (3.6.1), eq. (3.6.2) and eq. (3.6.3), we get
dt
Q = – C p A 0
du
5. Separating the variables and integrating within the limits :
At the plate surface : u = 0 and t = ts
At the outer edge of boundary layer : u = U and t = t
Q U t
du = – t dt
C p A  0 0 s

Q
U = (ts – t)
C p A 0
Q 0 Cp
= ...(3.6.4)
A (ts  t ) U
Q
6. But, = hx ...(3.6.5)
A (ts  t )
1
and, U 2
0 = C fx  ...(3.6.6)
2
7. Substituting eq. (3.6.5) and eq. (3.6.6) in eq. (3.6.4), we get
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

1 C p Cfx
hx = Cfx  U 2   ( C p U )
2 U 2
hx C
= fx
 Cp U 2
hx
is called the Stanton number Stx.
 Cp U
8. It represents the Nusselt number divided by the product of the Reynolds
and Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nux C fx
= Stx  ...(3.6.7)
Rex Pr 2
Eq. (3.6.7) is called the Reynolds analogy.
9. Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we have
hx x
Nux =  0.332 ( Rex )1/ 2 ( Pr)1/ 3 ...(3.6.8)
k
10. Dividing both sides of the eq. (3.6.8) by Rex (Pr)1/3, we get
Nux 0.332 Cfx
=  ...(3.6.9)
Rex ( Pr)1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2 2
11. The LHS of the eq. (3.6.9) can be rewritten as
Nux Nux
= ( Pr)2/ 3  Stx (Pr)2/ 3
Rex ( Pr)1/ 3 Rex Pr
C fx
 Stx (Pr)2/3 = ...(3.6.10)
2
Eq. (3.6.10) shows the inter-relationship between heat and momentum
transfer and designated as Colburn analogy.
12. For Pr = 1, the Reynolds and Colburn analogies are same.

Que 3.7. What do you understand by mixed boundary layer ?

Answer
1. Fig. 3.7.1 shows flow over a plate.
Turbulent boundary layer
Mixed G
Laminar boundary boundary F
layer layer
U
E Laminar
sub-layer

B C D
A
Laminar Transition Turbulent
zone zone zone
Leading edge
Fig. 3.7.1.
Forced & Natural Convection 3–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, calculated from
equation, Ux/ = 5 × 105, the thickness of boundary layer will go on
increasing in the downstream direction.
3. Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid
within it is disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from
laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
4. This short length over which the boundary layer flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is called transition zone or mixed zone, which is
shown by distance BC.
5. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent
and continues to grow in thickness.
6. This layer of boundary is called turbulent and continues to grow in
thickness which is shown by the portion FG.

PART-2
Flow over a Flat Plate, Flow across a Single Cylinder and a Sphere,
Flow Inside Ducts, Thermal Entrance Region, Empirical Heat
Transfer Relations, Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat
Transfer, Liquid Metal Heat Transfer.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Empirical Correlations for Forced Convection :
For Flow over Flat Surfaces :
Nux = 0.0292 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)0.33
For Flow inside Duct or Pipe :
Nux = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
For Flow across a Sphere :
Nux = [0.97 + 0.68(Re)0.5] (Pr)0.3

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.8. Give expression for :

a. Flow over the flat plate,
b. Flow inside duct or pipe, and
c. Flow across a sphere.

Answer
a. Flow over Flat Surface : The general equation giving to the local heat
transfer coefficient for turbulent flow over flat plate is given by,
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–13 B (ME-Sem-5)

Nux = 0.0292 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)0.33

b. Flow inside Duct or Pipe : The general equation giving to the local
heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow for duct or pipe is given by,
Nux = 0.023 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)n
c. Flow across a Sphere : The general equation giving to the local heat
transfer coefficient for turbulent flow for sphere is given by,
Nux = [0.97 + 0.68 (Re)0.5] (Pr)0.3
Que 3.9. Give the empirical correlations for forced convection.

Answer
1. The following dimensionless numbers are used in forced convection :
hL
i. Nusselt number, Nu =
k
L v
ii. Reynold’s number, Re =

C p
iii. Prandtl number, Pr =
k
h
iv. Stanton number, St =
C p v
2. In order to determine the value of convection coefficient h, the following
equations are used :
Nu = f1 (Re, Pr) = C1 (Re)m (Pr)n
St = f2 (Re, Pr) = C2 (Re)a (Pr)b

Que 3.10. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer coefficients
determined in flow over a flat plate ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
A. Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer : Refer Q. 3.6,
Page 3–10B, Unit-3.
B. Expression for Average Friction :
1. The local skin friction coefficient is given as
0 0.646
Cfx = 
1 2 Rex
U
2
2. Average value of skin friction coefficient,
1 L 1 L 0.646 dx
Cf = C fx dx = 
L 0 L 0 U /  x
 1.292
or, Cf = 1.292 
LU ReL
Forced & Natural Convection 3–14 B (ME-Sem-5)

LU
Where, ReL = is Reynolds number based on total length L of the

flat plate.
C. Expression for Heat Transfer Coefficient :
Q  dt 
1. We know that, = hx(ts – t) = – k  
A  dy  y 0
 k(dt / dy) y0
or, hx =
ts  t
 dt  3 t  t 
2. But,  dy  =  s 
y 0 2   th 
3 t  t 
k   s  
2   th  3k 3k 1
hx = =   ...(3.10.1)
(ts  t ) 2 th 2 r
3/ 4 1/ 3
  4.64 x
3. Substituting r = 0.975 1   x0   and  = in eq. (3.10.1), we
( Pr )   x  
1/ 3
Rex
get
3k ( Pr )1/ 3 Rex
hx =  
2 3 / 4 1/ 3 4.64 x
 x  
0.975 1   0  
  x 
k 1
hx = 0.332( Pr)1/ 3 ( Re)1/ 2  1/ 3
x   x0  3/ 4 
1    
 x 
4. When the plate is heated over the whole length i.e., x0 = 0, we have
k
hx = 0.332 ( Pr )1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2
x
Que 3.11. Explain drag force and drag coefficient.

Answer
A. Drag Force (FD) :
1. The drag force on elemental area
= Force due to pressure in the direction of fluid motion
+ Force due to shear stress in the direction
of fluid motion
= pdA cos  + 0dA cos (90° – ) = pdA cos  + 0dA sin 

 Total drag, FD =  p cos  dA    0 sin  dA

Heat & Mass Transfer 3–15 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. The term  p cos  dA is called the pressure drag or form drag while the

term  0 sin  dA is called the friction drag or skin drag or shear drag.

0dA
FL FR
pdA

U X  90°– FD
X

Stationary body
Fig. 3.11.1.
B. Local Coefficient of Drag : It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress
1
0 to the quantity U2. It is denoted by C*D.
2
0
Hence, C*D =
1
U 2
2
C. Average Coefficient of Drag : It is defined as the ratio of the total drag
force to the quantity 1/2 AU2. It is also called coefficient of drag and it
is denoted by CD.
FD
Hence, CD =
1 / 2 AU 2
Where, A = Area of the surface (or plate),
U = Free stream velocity, and
 = Mass density of fluid.

Que 3.12. Air at 27 °C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a velocity
3 m/s. The plate is heated over its entire length to a temperature of
70 °C. Calculate the heat transferred if the plate length is 45 cm
and width is 1 m. Properties of air,  = 17.36 × 10 –6 m 2/s ,
k = 0.02749 W/m-K , C p = 1.006 kJ/kg-K , Pr = 0.7. Take,
NuL = 0.664 ReL0.5 Pr 1/ 3 . AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : t = 27 ºC, ts = 70 ºC, U = 3 m/s, L = 45 cm = 0.45 m,

w = 1 m,  = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, k = 0.02749 W/m-K,
Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg-K, Pr = 0.7
To Find : Heat transferred.
Forced & Natural Convection 3–16 B (ME-Sem-5)

UL 3  0.45
1. Reynolds number, Re =  = 77764.98
 17 . 36  10 6
 Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. Average Nusselt number,
NuL = 0.664 Re0.5 Pr1/3
hL
= 0.664 (77764.98)0.5 (0.7)1/3
k
0.02749  0.664 (77764.98)0.5  (0.7)1/3
h =
0.45
h = 10.044 W/m2-ºC
3. Heat transfer, Q = h As(ts – t)
= 10.044 × 0.45 × 1 × (70 – 27) = 194.351 W

Que 3.13. Air at 2 atm and 200 °C is heated as it flows at a velocity

of 12 m/s through a tube with a diameter of 3 cm. A constant heat
flux condition is maintained at the wall and the wall temperature
is 20 °C above the air temperature all along the length of the tube.
Calculate :
i. the heat transfer per unit length of the tube, and
ii. the increase in bulk temperature of air over a 4 m length of the
tube. Properties of air, Pr = 0.681,  = 2.57 × 10 –5 kg/ms,
k = 0.0386 W/m-K, Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg-K,  = 1.493 kg/m3.
Use : Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : t = 200 ºC, tw = 220 ºC, U = 12 m/s, d = 3 cm = 0.03 m

Pr = 0.681,  = 2.57 × 10–5 kg/ms, k = 0.0386 W/m-K,
Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg-K,  = 1.493 kg/m3
To Find : i. Heat transfer per unit length of tube.
ii. Increase in bulk temperature of air.
1. Reynolds number,
Ud 1.493  12  0.03
Re =  = 0.2091× 105
 2.57  10 5
 Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. Nusselt number,
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
hd
= 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
k
0.0386  0.023  (0.2091  105 )0.8  (0.681)0.4
h=
0.03
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–17 B (ME-Sem-5)

h = 72.57 W/m2-K
3. Heat transferred per unit length of the tube,
Q = hAs(tw – t) = 72.57 × d × 1 × (220 – 200)
= 72.57 ×  × 0.03 × 20 = 136.79 W/m
4. Bulk temperature increase of air over a 4 m length of the tube
Q = mCp (t) = (AU) Cp (t)

4 × 136.79 = 1.493 × × (0.03)2 × 12 × 1.025 × 103 × (t)
4
t = 42.15 ºC

Que 3.14. Air is flowing over a flat plate 5 m long and 2.5 m
wide with a velocity of 4 m/s at 15 °C. If  = 1.208 kg/m 3 and
 = 1.47 × 10–5 m 2/s, calculate the length of plate over which the
boundary layer is laminar and thickness of the boundary layer
(laminar), shear stress at the location where boundary layer ceases
to be laminar and the total drag force on the both sides of that
portion of the plate where boundary layer is laminar.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
Given : L = 5 m, w = 2.5 m, U = 4 m/s,  = 1.208 kg/m3,
 = 1.47 × 10–5 m2/s
To Find : i. Length of plate over which the boundary layer is
laminar, and thickness of the boundary layer
(laminar).
ii. Shear stress at the location where boundary layer
ceases to be laminar.
iii. Total drag force on the both sides of that portion of
plate where boundary layer is laminar.

UL 45
1. Reynold number, Re =  = 1.361 × 106.
 1.47  10 5
Hence on the front portion, boundary layer is laminar and on the rear,
it is turbulent.
Ux
Re =  5  10 5

4x
 = 5 × 105
1.47  10 –5
5  105  1.47  10 5
x= = 1.837 m
4
Hence the boundary layer is laminar on 1.837 m length of the plate.
5x
2. Thickness of the boundary layer (laminar),  =
Re
Forced & Natural Convection 3–18 B (ME-Sem-5)

5  1.837
= = 0.01299 m or 12.99 mm
5  105
0.664 0.664
3. Local coefficient of drag, Cfx =  = 0.000939
Re 5  105
1
Shear stress, 0 = Cfx  U 2
2
1
= 0.000939 × × 1.208 × 42 = 0.00907 N/m2
2
4. Total drag force on both sides of plate,
1
FD = 2C f  AU 2
2
Where, Cf = Average coefficient of drag (or skin friction)
1.328 1.328
=  = 1.878 × 10–3
Re 5  105
and area of the plate, A = xL = 1.837 × 2.5 = 4.59 m2
1
 FD = 2 × 1.878 × 10–3 × × 1.208 × 4.59 × 42
2
= 0.167 N
Que 3.15. A flat plate is 2 m long, 0.8 m wide and 3 mm thick. Its
density and specific heat is 3000 kg/m3 and 700 J/kg-K respectively.
The plate is having initial temperature of 80 °C. A stream of air at
20 °C blown over both surfaces of the plate along its width, at a
velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate rate of heat dissipation from the plate
and initial rate of cooling of the plate. The properties of air are :
 = 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028 W/m-°C, C = 1007 J/kg-K,
 = 2.03 × 10 – 5 kg/m-s, Pr = 0.698
Nu a = 0.664 (Rex)0.5 (Pr)0.33 for Laminar Flow
Nu a = 0.0336 (Rex)0.8 – 836 (Pr)0.33 for Turbulent Flow
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer

Given : L = 2 m, w = 0.8 m, t = 3 mm = 0.003 m

P = 3000 kg/m3, Cp = 700 J/kg-K, (tP)i = 80 ºC, a = 1.09 kg/m3,
k = 0.028 W/m-ºC, C = 1007 J/kg-K,  = 2.03 × 10–5 kg/m-s,
Pr = 0.698, For air, t = 20 ºC, U = 2 m/s
To Find : i. Heat dissipation rate.
ii. Initial rate of cooling of plate.
1. Air blows over both surfaces of plate along width.
Hence, characteristic length, Lc = w = 0.8 m
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–19 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. Now, Reynolds number,

aULc
Re =

1.09  2  0.8
= = 8.59 × 104
2.03  10 5
 Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
So Nua = 0.664 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.33
= 0.664 (8.59 × 104)0.5 (0.698)0.33
= 172.837
hLc
3. Since, Nua =
k
h  0.8
Nua =
0.028
h  0.8
 = 172.837
0.028
h = 6.0493 W/m2-ºC.
4. Now, heat transfer rate for one surface,
Q = hA t
Q = 6.0493 × 2 × 0.8 × (80 – 20)
Q = 580.7328 W
5. For both surfaces,
QT = 2 × 580.7328 = 1161.4656 W
6. Now, initial cooling rate of plate for one surface,

QP = mC p t
= P AUCpt
= 3000 × 2 × 0.8 × 2 × 700 × (80 – 20)
= 403.2 MW
7. For both surface,
(QP)T = 2 × 403.2 = 806.4 MW

Que 3.16. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is maintained
at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate the following using
exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness on
one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and the
heat transfer rate. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Forced & Natural Convection 3–20 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer

Given : t = 25 °C, ts = 95 °C, L = 4.5 m, U = 0.1 m/s.

To Find : i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thickness on one side of the plate.
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the
plate.
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
and the heat transfer rate.
Data Assumed :  = 0.65 × 10–4 m2/s,  = 7.2 × 10– 8 m2/s,
k = 0.213 W/m-°C,  = 956.8 kg/m3
1. Reynolds number at the end of the plate,
UL 0.1  4.5
Re =  = 6923
 0.65  10 4
 Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
5L 5  4.5
= 
Re 6923
= 0.2704 m = 270.4 mm
3. The thermal boundary layer thickness,

th =
( Pr )1/ 3
 0.65  104
Where, Pr =  = 902.77
 7.2  10 8
0.2704
 th = = 0.02798 m = 27.98 mm
(902.77)1/3
4. The average skin friction coefficient is given by,
1.328
Cf =
Re
1.328
Cf = = 0.01596
6923
5. The total drag force,
1
FD = Cf  U 2 × Area of plate (for one side)
2
1
= 0.01596 × × 956.8 × (0.1)2 × (4.5 × 1)
2
= 0.3436 N/m
hx x
6. Nux = = 0.332 (Rex)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–21 B (ME-Sem-5)

= 0.332 × (6923)1/2 (902.77)1/3 = 266.98

266.98  k 266.98  0.213
or, hx =  = 12.64 W/m2-°C
x 4.5
7. Local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
h = 2hx = 2 × 12.64 = 25.28 W/m2-°C
8. Heat transfer rate, Q = h As (ts  t )
= 25.28 × (4.5 × 1) × (95 – 25) = 7963.2 W
Que 3.17. Give the relation for liquid metal heat transfer.

Answer
1. The example of liquid metal are sodium, potassium, lead, etc. and in the
liquid metal, Prandtl number is very less than 1 i.e., Pr << 1.
2. For constant temperature,
Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Pe0.85 Pr0.08
Where, Pe = Re Pr
3. For constant heat flux condition,
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 Pe0.827

PART-3
Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection, Buoyant Force
Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Natural Convection over
Vertical Plates and Cylinders, Horizontal Plates and Cylinders
and Sphere, Combined Free and Forced Convection.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3

Natural Convection : It occurs when the fluid circulates by virtue of
the natural differences in densities of the hot and cold fluids.
Buoyant force or Buoyancy Force : The difference in the density
of the cold fluid and hot fluid causes the fluid to flow in the upward
direction. The force accounting this flow is known as buoyancy force.
Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Free Convection :
For Vertical Plates :
i. In case of laminar flow, Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)1/4
ii. In case of turbulent flow, Nu = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3
For Cylinders :
i. In case of laminar flow, Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4
ii. In case of turbulent flow, Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr)1/3
For Spheres :
Nu = 2 + 0.43(Gr Pr)1/4
Forced & Natural Convection 3–22 B (ME-Sem-5)

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.18. What do you understand by buoyant force and centre of

buoyancy ?

Answer
A. Buoyant Force : Whenever a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward
force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the buoyant
force or simply buoyancy.

G
B

FB
Fig. 3.18.1.

B. Centre of Buoyancy :
1. It is defined as a point about which the force of buoyancy is supposed to
act.
2. As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the centre
of gravity of the fluid displaced.
3. In Fig. 3.18.1, FB is the force of buoyancy and point B is the centre of
buoyancy.

Que 3.19. For the case of free convection boundary layer on a

heated vertical plate, show that :
u u  2u
u +v = g(t – t ) + v 2
x y y

Answer
1. In free convection, the additional force is the body force g and hence
the momentum equation gets modified to
 u u   2u p
u v  =  y 2 – g – x ...(3.19.1)
 x y 
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–23 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. In free convection, outside the boundary layer, (y  ) as  tends to ,

whereas u and v approach zero. So, eq. (3.19.1) becomes,
p
0=– –  g
x
p
or = –  g ...(3.19.2)
x
3. From eq. (3.19.1) and eq. (3.19.2), we get
 u u  2u
 u v  =  g(  ) ...(3.19.3)
 x y   y2
4. Further the density difference ( – ) may be expressed in terms of the
volume coefficient of expansion  which is defined as,
1  p  1     
=–   
  t    t  t 
5. So, eq. (3.19.3) becomes,
 u u  2u
 u v  =  y2 + g (t – t)
 x y 
u u  2u  
u v =  2  g (t – t )    
x y y  

Que 3.20. Which dimensionless numbers are used to develop the

empirical correlations for free convection ? Give the empirical heat
transfer relations for natural convection over vertical plates,
horizontal plates, cylinders and spheres.

Answer
A. Different Dimensionless Numbers used in Free Convection :
The dimensionless numbers used for empirical relations for heat transfer
in natural convection are :
hL
1. Nusselt number, (Nu) =
k
L3  g t
2. Grashoff number, (Gr) =
2
 Cp
3. Prandtl number, (Pr) =
k
B. Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Free Convection :
a. Vertical Plates : The commonly used relation are :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.59 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (104 < Gr Pr < 109)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (109 < Gr Pr < 1012)
Forced & Natural Convection 3–24 B (ME-Sem-5)

b. Horizontal Plates :
Case I : Upper surface heated or the lower surface cooled :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.54 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (105 < Gr Pr  2 × 107)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.14 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (2 × 107 < Gr Pr  3 × 1010)
Case II. Lower surface heated or upper surface cooled :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.27 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (3 × 105 < Gr Pr  3 × 1010)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.107 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (7 × 106 < Gr Pr  11 × 1010)
c. Cylinders : The relation for cylinders is given by,
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (104 < Gr Pr < 109)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.13 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (109 < Gr Pr < 1012)
d. Spheres : The relation for sphere is given by,
NuL = 2 + 0.43 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (1 < Gr Pr < 105)

Que 3.21. Show that in natural convection heat transfer :

Nu = f(Gr, Pr) AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
1. The heat transfer coefficient in case of natural or free convection, like
forced convection depends upon the variables v,, k, , Cp and L or D.
2. Since the fluid circulation in free convection is owing to difference in
density between the various fluid layers due to temperature gradient
and not by external agency, therefore, velocity v is no longer an
independent variable but depends upon the following factors :
i. t i.e., the difference of temperatures between the heated surface
and the undisturbed fluid.
ii.  i.e., coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid.
iii. g i.e., acceleration due to gravity.
(gt is considered as one physical factor.)
3. Thus heat transfer coefficient ‘h’ may be expressed as follows :
h = f (, L, , Cp, k, gt)
or f1 (, L, , k, h, Cp, gt) = 0 ...(3.21.1)
The parameter (gt) represents the buoyant force and has the
dimensions of [LT–2].
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–25 B (ME-Sem-5)

4. Total number of variables, n = 7

Fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T,  and hence,
m = 4.
Number of dimensionless -terms = n – m = 7 – 4 = 3
5. Now the eq. (3.21.1) can be written as,
f1 (1, 2, 3) = 0 ...(3.21.2)
6. We choose , L,  and k as the repeating variables with unknown
exponents.
 1 = a1 Lb1 c1 kd1 h
2 = a2 Lb2 c2 kd2 Cp
1 = a3 Lb3 c3 kd3 gt
a. 1-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 =(ML–3)a1 (L)b1 (ML–1 T –1) c1 (MLT –3 –1)d1 (MT–3 –1)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T and  respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a1 + c1 + d1 + 1
For L : 0 = – 3a1 + b1 – c1 + d1
For T : 0 = – c1 – 3d1 – 3
For  : 0 = – d1 – 1
Solving the above equations, we get
a1 = 0, b1 = 1, c1 = 0, d1 = – 1
hL
 1 = Lk–1 h or 1 =  Nu
k
b. 2-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 = (ML–3)a2 (L)b2 (ML–1 T–1)c2 (MLT – 3 –1)d2 (L2 T–2–1)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T,  respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a2 + c2 + d2
For L : 0 = – 3a2 + b2 – c2 + d2 + 2
For T : 0 = – c2 – 3d2 – 2
For  : 0 = – d2 –1
Solving the above equations, we get
a2 = 0, b2 = 0, c2 = 1, d2 = –1
C p
 2 = k–1 Cp or 2 = = Pr
k
c. 3-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 = (ML –3)a3 (L)b3 (ML –1 T–1)c3 (MLT –3  –1)d3 (LT – 2)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T,  respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a3 + c3 + d3
For L : 0 = – 3a3 + b3 – c3 + d3 + 1
For T : 0 = – c3 – 3d3 – 2
For  : 0 = – d3
Solving the above equations, we get
a3 = 2, b3 = 3, c3 = – 2, d3 = 0
 3 = 2 L3 –2 (gt)
Forced & Natural Convection 3–26 B (ME-Sem-5)

( gt) 2 L3 ( gt) L3
or 3 =  = Gr
2 2
7. Putting the values of 1, 2 and 3 in eq. (3.21.2), we have
Nu = f(Gr, Pr)
Que 3.22. A horizontal pipe 1 ft (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained
at a temperature of 250 °C in a room where the ambient air is at
15 °C. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of length.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : D = 0.3048 m, to = 250 °C, t = 15 °C

To Find : Free convection heat loss per meter of length.
1. For the horizontal cylinder, with laminar flow relation of convection
heat transfer coefficient,
1/ 4 1/ 4
 t   250  15 
h = 1.32   = 1.32 
 D  0.3048 
2
= 6.955 W/m -°C
2. We know that, Qconv. per unit length,
Qconv. = hA (to  t )
= 6.955 ×  × 0.3048 × 1 × (250 – 15)
= 1565.055 W = 1.565 kW

Que 3.23. A 350 mm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at
24 °C while its temperature is maintained at 80 °C. Calculate the
boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate. If a similar
plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is blown over it at a velocity
of 5 m/s, find the boundary layer thickness at its trailing edge. Also
determine the average heat transfer coefficient, for natural and
forced convection for the above mentioned data.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given : L = 350 mm = 0.35 m, t= 24 °C, ts = 80 °C, U = 5 m/s

To Find : i. Boundary layer thickness at trailing edge for natural
and forced convection.
ii. Average heat transfer coefficient for natural and
forced convection.
ts  t 80  24
1. Film temperature, tf =  = 52 °C
2 2
Heat & Mass Transfer 3–27 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. The properties of air at 52 °C are : k = 28.15 × 10–3 W/m-°C,

 = 18.41 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.7
 1 
=  = 3.07 × 10–3 K–1
 52  273 
3. In case of free convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated as
below :
i. Grashof number,
L3 g (ts  t )
Gr =
2
(0.35)3  9.81  3.07  10 3  (80  24)
=
(18.41  106 )2
8
= 2.133 × 10
ii. Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr Pr = 2.133 × 108 × 0.7 = 1.493 × 108
iii. As we know that,

= 3.93 (0.952 + Pr)1/4 (Gr)–1/4 (Pr)–1/2
x
or,  = 0.35 [3.93 (0.952 + 0.7)1/4 (2.133 × 108) – 1/4 (0.7)–1/2]
= 0.0154 m
4. In case of forced convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated
as below :
i. Reynolds number,
UL 5  0.35
Re =  = 9.505 × 104
 18.41  106
Since Re < 5 × 105, hence the boundary layer is laminar.
ii. Now, boundary layer thickness is,
5L 5  0.35
=  = 0.00567 m = 5.67 mm
Re 9.505  10 4
5. In case of free convection average heat transfer coefficient is calculated
as below :
i. Nusselt number,
hL
NuL = = 0.677 (Pr)1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 (Gr)1/4
k
= 0.677 (0.7)1/2 (0.952 + 0.7)–1/4 (2.133 × 108)1/4
= 60.378
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15  10 3
h=  60.378  × 60.378
L 0.35
2
= 4.856 W/m -°C
6. In case of forced convection average heat transfer coefficient is calculated
as below :
i. Nusselt number,
Forced & Natural Convection 3–28 B (ME-Sem-5)

hL
NuL = = 0.664 (Re)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
= 0.664 (9.505 × 104)1/2 (0.7)1/3 = 181.78
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15  103
h=  181.78  × 181.78
L 0.35
2
= 14.62 W/m -°C

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.2.
Q. 2. Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal
boundary layer over flat plate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.4.
Q. 3. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for the
flow past a flat plate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.
Q. 4. Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow
over flat plate using Colburn analogy.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.6.
Q. 5. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer
coefficients determined in flow over a flat plate ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.10.
Q. 6. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate
the following using exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness
on one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and
the heat transfer rate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.16.

Heat & Mass Transfer 4–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

4 Thermal Radiation

Part-1 ............................................................................... (4–2B to 4–8B)

• Basic Radiation Concept

• Radiation Properties of Surface
• Black Body Radiation
• Planck’s Law
• Wein’s Displacement Law
• Stefan Boltzmann Law
• Kirchhoff ’s Law
• Gray Body
• Shape Factor
• Black Body Radiation

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 4–2B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 4–2B
Part-2 ........................................................................... (4–8B to 4–23B)
• Radiation Exchange between Diffuse Non-Black Bodies in an Enclosure
• Radiation Shield
• Radiation Combined with Conduction and Convection
• Absorption and Emission in Gaseous Medium
• Solar Radiation
• Green House Effect

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ............................................................. 4–9B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 4–9B
Thermal Radiation 4–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Basic Radiation Concept, Radiation Properties of Surface,

Black Body Radiation, Planck’s Law, Wein’s Displacement Law,
Stefan Boltzmann Law, Kirchoff ’s Law, Gray Body, Shape Factor,
Black Body Radiation.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Radiation Heat Transfer : It is defined as the transfer of energy
from a system in the form of electromagnetic mechanism which is
caused by the temperature difference.
Black Body : The body that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching
its surface is known as black body.
Gray Body : If the radiative properties, , ,  of a body are assumed
to be uniform over the entire wavelength spectrum, then such a body
is called gray body.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. What do you understand by radiation heat transfer ?

Also write the surface emission properties.

Answer
A. Radiation Heat Transfer :
1. It is defined as the transfer of energy from a system in the form of
electromagnetic mechanism which is caused by the temperature
difference.
2. Factors on which rate of emission of radiation by a body depends are as
follows :
i. Temperature of the surface,
ii. The nature of the surface, and
iii. Wavelength of radiation.
B. Surface Emission Properties :
a. Total Emissive Power (E) :
1. It is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit
area and time.
2. According to Stefan Boltzmann “the total emissive power of a black
body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.”
Eb = t4 W/m2
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

Eb =  At4 W
Where,  = Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2-K4
b. Monochromatic Emissive Power (E ) : It is defined as the rate of
energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
Total emissive power is :


E= E  d W/ m 2
0
c. Emission from real surface-emissivity : The emissive power from a
real surface is given by
E =  At4 W
Where, E = Emissivity of the material.
d. Intensity of radiation.
e. Radiation density and pressure.
f. Radiosity (J) : It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface.

Que 4.2. What do you mean by black body ? Also write the
properties of black body.

Answer
A. Black Body :
1. The body that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching its surface is
known as black body.
2. For a black body :  = 1,  = 0,  = 0
B. Properties of Black Body :
1. It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or
reflect regardless of wavelength and direction.
2. It emits maximum amount of thermal radiations at all wavelengths at
any specified temperature.
3. It is a diffuse emitter (i.e., the radiation emitted by a black body is
independent of direction).

Que 4.3. Explain the following terms :

a. White body,
b. Gray body, and
c. Opaque body.

Answer
a. White Body :
1. A body which reflects all incident radiation falling on it is known as
white body.
2. For a white body :  = 1,  = 0 and  = 0.
b. Gray Body :
1. If the radiative properties , ,  of a body are assumed to be uniform
over the entire wavelength spectrum, then such a body is called gray
body.
Thermal Radiation 4–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. It is also defined as one whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary

with temperature and wavelength of the incident radiation.
c. Opaque Body :
1. A body which does not transmit any part of incident radiation is known
as opaque body.
2. For a opaque body.  = 0. So,  +  = 1.

Que 4.4. Define the properties :

i. Emissivity.
ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity.
iv. Transmissivity. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer
i. Emissivity () : It is defined as the ability of a body to radiate heat. It is
also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of a body to the emissive
power of a black body of equal temperature.
ii. Absorptivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation absorbed to the
total incident radiation.
 = Ga / G
iii. Reflectivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation reflected to the
total incident radiation.
 = Gr / G
iv. Transmissivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation transmitted
to the total incident radiation.
 = Gt / G

Que 4.5. A flat plate 5 m2 receives normally radiant energy with

an intensity of 660 W/m2. The absorptivity of the plate is 2 times its
transmissivity and 3 times its reflectivity. Find the energy absorbed,
transmitted and reflected in watts.

Answer

 
Given :  = 2 or  =, Q = 660 W/m2,  = 3 or  = , A = 5 m2
2 3
To Find : Energy absorbed, transmitted and reflected.
1. We know that,  +  +  = 1,
 
Then, + + =1
3 2
6  3  2
=1
6
11 = 6
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

6
=
11
6 3
So, = or
22 11
6 2
and = or
33 11
2. Energy absorbed per unit area,
6
= 660 ×  = 660 × = 360 W/m2
11
Total energy absorbed = 360 × 5 = 1800 W
3. Energy reflected per unit area,
2
= 660 ×  = 660 × = 120 W/m2
11
Total energy reflected = 120 × 5 = 600 W
4. Energy transmitted per unit area,
3
= 660 ×  = 660 × = 180 W/m2
11
Total energy transmitted = 180 × 5 = 900 W

Que 4.6. Explain the following terms :

a. Kirchhoff’s law,
b. Planck’s law,
c. Stefan-Boltzmann law, and
d. Wein’s displacement law.

Answer
a. Kirchhoff’s Law :
1. Kirchhoff’s law states that the ratio of total emissive power (E) to
absorptivity () is constant for all bodies which are in thermal equilibrium
with their environment.
Walls having uniform temperature
Large body
(2)

Eb A1 Hollow space

Small
body (1)

Fig. 4.6.1.
2. At equilibrium, the energy absorbed by body is equal to energy emitted
by body.
For body 1 : A1E1 = 1A1Eb ...(4.6.1)
Thermal Radiation 4–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

For body 2 : A2E2 = 2A2Eb ...(4.6.2)

3. From eq. (4.6.1) and eq. (4.6.2), we have
E1 E2 E
Eb =   ...(4.6.3)
1  2 
4. According to the emissivity relation,
E
=
Eb
E
or Eb = ...(4.6.4)

5. Comparing eq. (4.6.3) and eq. (4.6.4), we get
= 
This shows that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
b. Planck’s Law :
1. The laws governing the distribution of radiant energy over wavelength
for a black body at a fixed temperature were formulated by Planck.
2. According to Planck, spectral emissive power (E )b at any temperature
and wavelength is given as,
C1 5
(E )b=
C 
exp  2   1
 t 
Where C1 = 2  c2h = 3.742 × 108 Wm4/m2,
C2 = ch / k = 1.4388 × 104 mK,
t = Absolute temperature, k
 = Wavelength, in m
c = Speed of light,
h = Planck’s constant, and
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 × 10–23 J/K
c. Stefan-Boltzmann Law :
1. It states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Eb =  t4
Where, Eb = Emissive power of a black body, and
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4
d. Wein’s Displacement Law :
1. The Wein’s law states that the product of temperature (t) and wavelength
(max) is constant i.e.,
max t = Constant
2. According to planck’s law, we know, that
C1 5
(E )b =
C 
exp  2   1
 t 
3. (E )b becomes maximum (if t remains constant) when
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

d ( E ) b
=0
d
d ( E ) b d  C1 5 
or
d
=  0
d  C 
exp  2   1 
  t  
  C2   6 5   C2  C2  1  
 exp  t   1 (5 C1 )  C1  exp  t  t   2  
or     =0
2
  C2  
 exp  t   1
 
C  1 C 
or – 5 C1–6 exp  2  + 5 C1–6 + C1C2–5 2 exp  2  = 0
 t   t  t 
4. Dividing both sides by 5 C1–6, we get
C  1 1 C 
 exp  2   1  C2 exp  2  = 0 ...(4.6.5)
 t  5 t  t 
5. Solving eq. (4.6.5) by trial and error method, we get
C2 C2
= = 4.965
t  max t
C2 1.439  104
max t =   2898  mK
4.965 4.965
max t = 2898  mK

Que 4.7. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity

of radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer
A. Intensity of Radiation : It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a
surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of emitting
surface normal to the mean direction in space.
B. Proof :
1. Let us consider radiation from the elementary area dA 1 at the centre
of a sphere. Suppose this radiation is absorbed by a second elemental
area dA 2, a portion of the hemispherical surface.
2. The projected area of dA 1 on a plane perpendicular to the line joining
dA 1 and dA 2 = dA 1 cos .
dA
3. The solid angle subtended by dA 2 = 2 2
r
dQ12
 The intensity of radiation, I = ...(4.7.1)
dA
dA1 cos   2 2
r
Where, dQ12 is the rate of radiation heat transfer from dA 1 to dA 2.
Thermal Radiation 4–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

2
dA2 = r sin  d d

r si
n
rd

r
 d
r sin  d
dA1

 d

Fig. 4.7.1.
4. Since, dA 2 = rd (r sin  d)
or dA 2 = r2 sin  d d ...(4.7.2)
5. From eq. (4.7.1) and eq. (4.7.2), we get
dQ12 = I dA1 sin  cos  d d
6. The total radiation through the hemisphere is given by

  2 
Q = IdA1  2
 sin  cos  d d
0  0



2
= 2IdA1  sin  cos  d
0



2
= IdA1  sin 2 d
0

or, Q = I dA1
7. Since, Q = E dA 1
 EdA1 = I dA 1
or, E = I
E
I=

The above equation shows that intensity of radiation is 1/ times of the
total emissive power.

PART-2
Radiation Exchange between Diffuse Non-Black Bodies in an
Enclosure, Radiation Shield, Radiation Combined with
Conduction and Convection, Absorption and Emission in
Gaseous Medium, Solar Radiation, Green House Effect.
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2

Shape Factor : It is defined as the fraction of radiation energy leaving
one surface and falling on the other surface.
Radiation Shield : The object that reduces the radiation heat transfer
by effectively increasing the surface resistances without actually
removing any heat from the system is called radiation shield.
Irradiation : It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface
per unit time per unit area.
Radiosity : It indicates the total radiation leaving a surface per unit
time per unit area.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.8. A small convex object of area A1, temperature t1 and

emissivity 1 is enclosed within a large enclosure at temperature t2
and emissivity 2. Derive an expression for the net heat exchange
between the two objects. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
What are the different cases of radiation heat exchange between
non-black surfaces ? Explain any one of them.

Answer
A. Different Cases of Radiation Heat Exchange between
Non-Black Bodies :
1. Infinite parallel plates.
2. Infinite long concentric cylinders.
3. Small gray bodies.
4. Small body in a large enclosure.
B. Small Body in a Large Enclosure :
1. Consider a small body placed in a large enclosure.
2. The large gray enclosure acts like a black body, absorbing practically
all the radiation incident upon it and reflecting negligibly small energy
back to the small gray body.
3. In this case F1 – 2 = 1, since all the radiations emitted by the small body
would be intercepted by the outer large enclosure.
4. Thus, energy emitted by the enclosure 1 = A11 t14
Energy emitted by the enclosure 2 = A22 t24
Energy incident upon the small body 1 = F2–1 A22 t24
Thermal Radiation 4–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

Energy absorbed by the small body 1 = 1 F2–1 A22 t24

= 12A2F2–1 t24
5. The net radiant heat exchange between the small body 1 and outer
large enclosure 2,
Q12 = 1A1t14 – 12A2F2–1t24
6. If t1 = t2 and Q12 = 0, we have
A1 = A2 2 F2–1
and Q12 = 1A1  (t14 – t24)
= f1–2 A1  (t14 – t24)
Where, f1 – 2 represents the equivalent emissivity or interchange factor.

Que 4.9. What do you mean by shape factor ? Write its salient

features. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

OR
Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient features of
shape factor. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Shape Factor : It is defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is
diffused from one surface and strikes the other surface directly with
no intervening reflections.
B. Salient Features of Shape Factor :
1. When heat transfer takes place between two bodies, the shape factor
relation is given by,
A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
This is called reciprocity theorem.
2. For flat and convex surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is
zero because the energy leaving the surface never returns on the
same surface
i.e., F1–1 = F2–2 = F3–3 = ....Fii = 0.
3. For concave surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is never
zero.
4. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.
C. Proof of Reciprocity Theorem :
1. Considering heat exchange between elementary areas dA 1 and dA 2 of
two black radiating bodies, separated by a non absorbing medium and
having areas A1 and A2 and temperatures t1 and t2 respectively.
2. Let d1 be angle subtended at dA 1 by dA 2 and d2 angle subtended at
dA 2 by dA 1. Then
dA2 cos 2
d1 =
r2
dA1 cos 1
and d2 =
r2
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

A 2,t2
dA 2

Normal to dA 2
r 
2

1 Normal to dA 1

A1, t1
dA 1

Fig. 4.9.1. Radiation heat exchange between two black surfaces.

3. The energy leaving dA 1 in the direction given by the angle per unit
solid angle
= Ib1 dA 1 cos 1
Where, Ib = Black body intensity, and
dA 1 cos 1 = Projection of dA 1 on the line between the centres.
4. The rate of radiant energy leaving dA 1 and striking on dA 2 is given by,
Ib1 cos 1 cos  2 dA1 dA2
dQ1–2 = Ib1 dA 1 cos 1 d1 = ...(4.9.1)
r2
5. Now, the quantity of energy radiated by dA 2 and absorbed by dA 1 is
given by,
I cos 2 cos 1 dA2 dA1
dQ2–1 = b2 ...(4.9.2)
r2
6. The net rate of transfer of energy between dA 1 and dA 2 is
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = dQ1–2 – dQ2–1 = ( Ib1  I b2 )
r2
Eb1 E
But, Ib1 = and I b2  b2
 
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
 dQ12 = ( Eb1  Eb2 )
r 2
 dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2 4 4
or dQ12 = (t1  t2 ) ( Eb = t4)
r 2
7. The rate of total heat transfer for the total areas A1 and A2 is given by
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q12 =  dQ
12   (t14  t24 )  
A1 A2 r 2
8. Now, from eq. (4.9.1), we get
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = I b1  
A1 A2 r2
Thermal Radiation 4–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

cos 1 cos  2 dA1 dA2

Q1–2 =  t14   ...(4.9.3)
A1 A2 r 2
9. The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by
Q1 = A1 t14 ...(4.9.4)
10. On dividing eq. (4.9.3) by eq. (4.9.4), we get
Q12 1 cos 1 cos  2 dA1 dA2
=   ...(4.9.5)
Q1 A1 A1 A2 r 2
Q12
or = F1–2
Q1
Where F1–2 is surface factor or shape factor between the two radiating
surfaces.
11. Thus the amount of radiation leaving A1 and striking A2 is,
Q1–2 = F1–2 A1 t14 ...(4.9.6)
12. Similarly, from eq. (4.9.2)
cos 1 cos  2 dA1 dA2
Q2–1 =  t24   ...(4.9.7)
A1 A2 r 2
13. The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by
Q2 = A2  t24 ...(4.9.8)
14. On dividing eq. (4.9.7) by eq. (4.9.8), we get
Q21 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
A2  A1  A2
=
Q2 r 2
Q21
or = F2–1
Q2
where F2–1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A1.
15. The amount of radiation leaving A2 and arriving A1 is,
Q2–1 = F2–1 A2  t24 ...(4.9.9)
16. Thus, the net rate of heat transfer between two black surfaces A1 and
A2 is given by
Q12 = A1F1–2 t14 = A2F2–1  t24
17. When the surface are maintained at same temperature, t1 = t2, there
can be no heat exchange
 0 = (A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1) t2 [ t1 = t2 = t]
Since,  and t are both non zero quantities,
 A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1 = 0
or A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1
This is known as reciprocity theorem.
Que 4.10. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A. Diffuse Emitter :
1. A surface whose emittance is same for all directions is called a diffuse
emitter.
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–13 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. No real surface can be a diffuse emitter because electromagnetic wave

theory predicts a zero emittance at  = /2 for all materials.
3. Example : Black body.

x
dA
Fig. 4.10.1. Diffuse emitter.
B. Radiation Shape Factor : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–10B, Unit-4.
Que 4.11. Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters
10 cm and 20 cm and a length of 20 cm. Designating the open ends of
the cylinders as surfaces 3 and 4, estimate the shape factor, F3–4.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

Given : H = 20 cm, D1 = 10 cm  R1 = 5 cm,

D2 = 20 cm  R2 = 10 cm.
To Find : Shape factor, F3–4.
1. Using graph for radiation shape factor for two concentric cylinders of
finite length, we get
F2-1 = 0.4126 and F2-2 = 0.3286
2. Using the reciprocity relation, we have
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1
F1-2 = (d2/d1)F2-1 = (20/10)(0.4126) = 0.8253
3. For surface 2, we have
F2-1 + F2-2 + F2-3 + F2-4 = 1.0
4. From symmetry F2-3 = F2-4, so that
 1
F2-3 = F2-4 =   (1 – 0.4126 – 0.3286) = 0.1294
 2
5. Using reciprocity again, A2F2-3 = A3F3-2
 (20)(20)
and F3-2 = 0.1294 = 0.6901
(20 2  102 ) / 4
6. We observe that F1-1= F3-3 = F4-4 = 0 and for surface 3
F3-1 + F3-2 + F3-4 = 1.0 ...(4.11.1)
7. Now, for surface 1
F1-2 + F1-3 + F1-4 = 1.0
and from symmetry F1-3 = F1-4, so that
 1
F1-3 =   (1 – 0.8253) = 0.0874
 2
8. Using reciprocity rule, we get
Thermal Radiation 4–14 B (ME-Sem-5)

A1F1-3 = A3F3-1
 (10)(20)
F3-1 = 0.0874 = 0.233
(20 2  102 ) / 4
9. Then from eq. (4.11.1),
F3-4 = 1 – 0.233 – 0.6901 = 0.0769

Que 4.12. A small sphere (outside diameter = 60 mm) with a surface

temperature of 300 °C is located at the geometric centre of a large
sphere (inside diameter = 360 mm) with an inner surface
temperature of 15 °C. Calculate how much of heat emitted from the
large sphere inner surface is incident upon the outer surface of
the small sphere, assuming that both surfaces approach black body
behaviour. What is the net exchange of heat between the two
spheres ? AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer

Given : r1 (small sphere) = 60/2 = 30 mm = 0.03 m,

r2 (large sphere) = 360/2 = 180 mm = 0.18 m,
t1 = 300 °C = 573 K, t2 = 15 °C = 288 K
To Find : i. Amount of heat emitted from the large sphere to small
sphere.
ii. Net exchange of heat between two spheres.

1. Since all the radiation being emitted by the small sphere is incident upon
and absorbed by the inner surface of the large sphere, therefore,
configuration factor between 1 and 2 is F1–2 = 1.
2. Now, A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1 (Reciprocity theorem)
4r12 × 1 = 4 r22 × F2–1
2 2
r  0.03 
F2–1 =  1     = 0.0278
 r2   0.18 
Thus 2.78 % of the heat emitted from the inner surface of the large
sphere is incident upon the small sphere and absorbed by it.
3. Also from energy balance for the large sphere,
F2–1 + F2–2 = 1
F2–2 = 1– F2–1 = 1 – 0.0278 = 0.9722
Thus, 97.22 % of emission from the large sphere is absorbed by the
inner surface of the sphere itself.
4. Net interchange of heat between the two spheres is,
Qnet = F1–2 A1  (t14 – t24)
= 1 × 4 × (0.03)2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × [(573)4 – (288)4]
Qnet = 64.72 W
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–15 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 4.13. What do you understand by radiation shields and derive

the relation for radiation network for two parallel infinite planes
separated by one shield.

Answer
A. Radiation Shield : The shield that reduces the radiation heat transfer
by effectively increasing the surface resistances without actually
removing any heat from the system are known as radiation shield.
B. Derivation :
1. Let us consider two parallel plates, 1 and 2, each of area A(A1 = A2 = A)
at temperature t1 and t2 respectively with a radiation shield placed between
them as shown in Fig. 4.13.1.
2. With no radiation shield, the net heat exchange between the parallel
plates is given by,
A  (t14  t24 )
(Q12)net = ...(4.13.1)
1 1
 1
1  2
Radiation
1 shield 2

1 3 3 2

(Q13)net (Q32)net

Eb1 J1 J3 Eb3 J3 J2 Eb2

1 – 1 1 1 – 3 1 – 3 1 1 – 2
A11 A1F1–3 A13 A33 A3F3–2 A22

Fig. 4.13.1. Radiation network for two parallel

infinite planes separated by one shield.
3. Let the emissivity of the radiation shield is 3.
4. Now, the heat exchange between surfaces 1, 3 and 3, 2 is,
A  (t14  t34 )
(Q13)net =
1 1
 1
1 3
A  (t34  t24 )
and (Q32)net =
1 1
 1
3  2
Thermal Radiation 4–16 B (ME-Sem-5)

5. Since the radiation shield does not deliver or remove heat from the
system,
 (Q13)net = (Q32)net
A  (t14  t34 ) A  (t34  t24 )
= ...(4.13.2)
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3  2
6. On simplifying eq. (4.13.2), we get
1 1  1 1 
t14    1  t24    1
       
t34 = 3 2 1 3
...(4.13.3)
1 1  1 1 
  1     1
 3  2   1  3 
7. On putting value of t3 in the left side of eq. (4.13.2), we have
A  (t14  t24 )
(Q12)net = ...(4.13.4)
1 1  1 1 
     1       1
1 3 3 2
8. Dividing eq. (4.13.4) by eq. (4.13.1), we get
1 1
 1
 (Q12 )net  with shield = 1  2
...(4.13.5)
 (Q12 )net  without shield  1  1  1   1  1  1
  3    2 
1 3
9. If 1 = 2 = 3, then the eq. (4.13.5) reduces to
1
(Q32)net = (Q12)net
2
Que 4.14. What do you understand by “Radiation Shield” ? If n
numbers of radiation shields are used between two parallel plates,
determine the relation for heat transfer using n shields in terms of
original heat transfer (without shields). Take emissivities of all
surfaces to be . AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
A. Radiation Shield : Refer Q. 4.13, Page 4–15B, Unit-4.
B. Derivation :
1. In the general case where there are n shields, all the surface resistances
would be the same, since the emissivities are equal.
2. There will be two surface resistances for each shield and one for each
heat transfer surface.
3. There will also be (n + 1) ‘space resistances’ but the configuration factor
is unity for each infinite parallel plane.
  1 –  
Total resistance (R)n–shields = (2n  2)   (n  1)  A
    
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–17 B (ME-Sem-5)

 2 
= (n  1)   1  A ...(4.14.1)
    
4. The radiant heat transfer rate between two infinitely large parallel
plates separated by n-shields is,
1
(Q) n-shields = A (t14 – t24) ...(4.14.2)
2 
(n  1)  – 1
 
5. For no shields (n = 0), the resistance is given by,
2
(R)without shield =  – 1 A ...(4.14.3)
 
A (t14 – t24 )
and thus, (Q)without shields = ...(4.14.4)
(2 /  – 1)
6. From eq. (4.14.1) to eq. (4.14.4), we get
(Q)nshields ( R) without shields 1
= =
(Q) without shields ( R)n-shields n1

Que 4.15. A long cylindrical heater 25 mm in diameter is

maintained at 660 °C and has surface resistivity of 0.8. The heater is
located in a large room whose walls are at 27 °C. How much will the
radiant transfer from the heater be reduced if it is surrounded by a
300 mm diameter radiation shield of aluminium having an emissivity
of 0.2 ? What is the temperature of the shield ?
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10

Answer

25
Given : r1 =  12.5 mm = 0.0125 m,
2
300
r3 = = 150 mm = 0.15 m, t1 = 660 + 273 = 933 K,
2
t2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K, 1 = 0.8, 3 (shield) = 0.2.
To Find : i. Reduction in heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of shield, t3.
1. Considering L is the length of the heater, the heat lost by the heater to
the room is given by,
Q = A1 1 [t14 – t24] ...(4.15.1)
 Q = 2  r1 L × 0.8 × 5.67 × 10 – 8 × [(933)4 – (300)4]
= 2  × 0.0125 × L × 0.8 × 5.67 × (9334 – 3004) × 10 – 8
= 0.356 × L × (7577.5 – 81)
Q
or, q= = 0.356 × (7577.5 – 81) = 2668.7 W  2.67 kW/m
L
Thermal Radiation 4–18 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. When the cylinder is enclosed in a radiation shield then the heat flow is
given by
A1 (t14  t34 )
Q =  A3  3 ( t34  t24 )
1 1 r
   1 1
1   3  r3
3. As heat lost by heater to shield is further lost by shield to the room,
where suffix ‘3’ belongs to shield.
Q 2r1 (t14  t34 ) 2r3 (t34  t24 )
q =   ...(4.15.2)
L 1 1  r 1
  1 1
1   3  r3 3
r1 (t14  t34 ) r (t 4  t24 )
or = 3 3 ...(4.15.3)
1 1  r 1
  1 1
1   3  r3 3
4. Substituting the given values in eq. (4.15.3), we get
0.0125 (9334  t34 ) 0.15 (t34  3004 )
=
1  1  0.0125 1
  1 
0.8  0.2  0.15 0.2
0.0125 (9334  t34 )
= 0.03 (t34 – 3004)
1.58
9334 – t34 = 3.792 (t34 – 3004) = 3.792 t34 – 3.792 ×3004
4.792 t34 = 9334 + 3.792 × 3004 = 7.885 × 1011
t34 = 1.64 × 1011 or t3 = 636.4 K or 363.4 °C
5. Substituting the value of t3 in eq. (4.15.2), we get
2  0.15  5.67  10  8  [(636.4)4  (300)4 ]
q =
1
0.2
= 1.0688 × (1640.3 – 81) = 1666.6 W/m = 1.67 kW/m
6.  Percentage reduction in heat flow
q  q 2.67  1.67
q =  100  × 100 = 37.45 %
q 2.67

Que 4.16. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large

parallel planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to reduce
the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
Given : p = 0.8,  = 0.05
To Find : Number of shields.
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–19 B (ME-Sem-5)

p    p
Fig. 4.16.1.
1. Let, there are n shields between two parallel planes.
2. Then, increase in surface resistance = 2n and increase in space
resistance = n + 1.
3. Total resistance with n shields,
1  P  1   1 1  P
(Rth)n =  2n   (n  1)  
P    F P
 1  P   1   n  1
(Rth)n = 2   2n  
  P     F
4. On putting the given values,
 1  0.8   1  0.05  n  1
(Rth)n = 2    2n   
 0.8   0.05  1
( For large parallel planes; F = 1)
= 0.5 + 38n + n + 1
(Rth)n = 1.5 + 39n
5. Heat exchange per unit area with shields between two surfaces,
(t14  t24 )
(q)n =
( Rth ) n
(t14  t24 )
(q)n = ...(4.16.1)
1.5  39n
6. When, there is no shield between surfaces, heat transfer per unit
area,
( t14  t24 )
q=
 1  P  1
2 
  P  F
( t14  t24 ) (t14  t24 )
q= 
 1  0.8  1.5
2 1
 0.8 
7. Since, it is given that
1
(q)n = ×q
75
(t14  t24 ) 1 (t14  t24 )
= 
1.5  3.9 n 75 1.5
Thermal Radiation 4–20 B (ME-Sem-5)

(1.5 + 39n) = 1.5 × 75

n = 2.846
n  3 shields

Que 4.17. Consider two large parallel plates one at t1 = 727 °C with
emis sivity  1 = 0.8 and other at 227 °C with emiss ivity
 2 = 0.4. An aluminium radiation shield with an emissivity,
s = 0.05 on both sides is placed between the plates. Calculate the
percentage reduction in heat transfer rate between the two plates
as a result of shield. Use = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
Given : t1 = 727 °C = 727 + 273 = 1000 K, 1 = 0.8,
t2 = 227 °C = 227 + 273 = 500 K, 2 = 0.4,
s = 3 = 0.05,  = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4
To Find : Percentage reduction in heat transfer.
1. Without shield,
Q12 (per unit area)
 1000  4  500  4 
5.67      
 (t14 t24 )  100  100   53156 = 19329 W
= = 
1 1 1 1 2.75
 1  1
1 2 0.8 0.4
2. With shield,
(Q13)net = (Q32 ) net
A  ( t14  t34 ) A  ( t34  t24 )
=
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3 2
4 4 4 4
 1000   t3   t3   500 
       
 100   100  =  100   100 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.8 0.05 0.05 0.4

10000  x 4 x 4  625  t3 
=  Assuming,  x
1.25  20  1 20  2.5  1  100 
20.25 4
10000 – x4 = ( x  625)
21.5
10000 – x4 = 0.942 (x4 – 625)
= 0.942 x4 – 588.75
1.942 x4 = 10588.75 or x = 8.59
T3 = 100 × 8.59 = 859 K
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–21 B (ME-Sem-5)

Radiation shield
Plate Plate

1 3 3 2

1 3  3 2

1000 K 500 K
Fig. 4.17.1.
 1000  4  859  4 
5.67      
3. (Q13)net (per unit area) =  100  100  
1 1
 1
0.8 0.05
4555.3
= × 5.67 = 1273.2 W
20.25
4. Reduction in heat flow due to shield,
(Q12)net – (Q13)net = 19329 – 1273.2 = 18055.8 W
18055.8
5. Percentage reduction in heat transfer = = 93.41 %
19329
Que 4.18. Derive the expression for radiation combined with
convection.

Answer
1. Total heat transfer by both radiation and convection is given by,
q = qconv. + qrad.
= hconv. (tg – tw) + hrad. (tg – tw)
= (hconv. + hrad.) (tg – tw)
Where, tg = Gas temperature,
tw = Wall temperature,
hrad. = Radiation heat transfer coefficient, and
hconv. = Convection heat transfer coefficient.
2. The radiation heat transfer coefficient (h rad) is defined as,
(tg – tw) hrad. =  [tg4 – tw4]
  (t g4  tw4 )
or hrad. = =  (tg2 + tw2) (tg + tw)
(t g – tw )
3. Now, the hrad. value for the case of two large parallel plates is given by
Q  ( t14  t24 )
= = hrad. (t1 – t2)
A 1 1
 –1
1 2
Thermal Radiation 4–22 B (ME-Sem-5)

 ( t12  t2 2 ) (t1  t2 )
hrad. =
1 1
 –1
1  2

Que 4.19. Derive an expression for monochromatic transmittivity

and monochromatic absorptivity of gas.

Answer
1. Consider a beam of monochromatic radiation with intensity I0 entering
a gas layer of thickness L as shown in Fig. 4.19.1.
Gas layer

I0 IL

x
dx
L
Fig. 4.19.1. Monochromatic radiation
passing through an absorbing gas.
2. As the beam passes through the gas layer, its intensity gets reduced and
the decrease is given by
dIx = – k Ixdx ...(4.19.1)
Where, Ix = Monochromatic intensity at a distance x, and
k = Monochromatic absorption coefficient,
3. Integrating eq. (4.19.1) between the limits x = 0 and x = L, we get
x  L dI x L
x
x0 Ix = x 0 – k dx
I L
ln = – kL
Io
IL = Io e–kL ...(4.19.2)
Where, IL = Radiation intensity at x = L.
4. The ratio IL / Io is the monochromatic transmittivity  of the gas.
5. In general, the gases do not reflect radiant energy i.e., their reflectivity
is zero, therefore,
 +  = 1 or,  = 1 –  = 1 – e–k L
The quantity (1 – e–k L) represents the monochromatic absorptivity of
the gas.
Que 4.20. Write a short note on solar radiation.
Heat & Mass Transfer 4–23 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
1. Solar radiation consists of energy that is emitted by various layers of the
sun.
2. It is a function of geometrical relation between the surface and the sun
which is continuously changing on a daily and annual basis.
3. Solar radiation reaching the earth surface is partly reflected, some of
the energy is absorbed and the remainder being shared thermally to the
land masses and oceans, chemically in vegetation through the process
of photosynthesis and mechanically in the form of wind.
4. The approximate distribution of the flow of sun’s energy to the earth’s
surface is :
i. 9 % is scattered.
ii. 15 % is absorbed in the atmosphere and out of it 4 % reaches the earth’s
surface by convection.
iii. 43 % is transmitted to the earth directly and by diffuse radiation.
iv. 33 % is reflected back to space.

Que 4.21. What is the green house effect ? Why is it a matter of

great concern among environmental scientists ?

Answer
A. Green House Effect :
1. The green house effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a
planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapours, etc., called green house gases.
2. They transfer this energy to other components of the atmosphere and it
is re-radiated in all directions.
3. This transfer of energy to the surface increases the temperature of
environment and leads to global warming.
B. Reason to Consider it as a Matter of Great Concern : It is matter
of great concern among environmental scientists because of the following
reasons :
1. If the emission of green house gases continues, the global temperature
will increase.
2. It results in floods.
3. Global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Thermal Radiation 4–24 B (ME-Sem-5)

Q. 1. What do you understand by radiation heat transfer ? Also

write the surface emission properties.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.1.
Q. 2. What do you mean by black body ? Also write the properties
of black body.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.
Q. 3. Define the properties :
i. Emissivity. ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity. iv. Transmissivity.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.4.
Q. 4.Explain the following terms :
a.Kirchhoff’s law,
b.Planck’s law,
c.Stefan-Boltzmann law, and
d.Wein’s displacement law.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.6.
Q. 5. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity of
radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.7.
Q. 6. What are the different cases of radiation heat exchange
between non-black surfaces ? Explain any one of them.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8.
Q. 7. Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient
features of shape factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.9.
Q. 8. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.10.
Q. 9. What do you understand by “Radiation Shield” ? If n
numbers of radiation shields are used between two parallel
plates, determine the relation for heat transfer using n
shields in terms of original heat transfer (without shields).
Take emissivities of all surfaces to be .
Ans. Refer Q. 4.14.
Q. 10. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large parallel
planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to
reduce the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.16.


Heat & Mass Transfer 5–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

5 Heat Exchanger

Part-1 ............................................................................ (5–2B to 5–23B)

• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Fouling Factors
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method
• Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Compact Heat Exchangers

A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 5–2B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 5–2B

Part-2 .......................................................................... (5–23B to 5–33B)

• Introduction to Condensation Phenomena
• Heat Transfer Relations for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical
Surface and on Outside & Inside of a Horizontal Tube
• Effect of Non-Condensable Gases
• Dropwise Condensation • Boiling Modes
• Pool Boiling • Hysteresis in Boiling Curve
• Forced Convection Boiling • Heat Pipes

A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 5–24B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 5–24B

Part-3 ......................................................................... (5–34B to 5–41B)

• Introduction
• Fick’s Law of Diffusion
• Steady State Equimolar Counter Diffusion
• Steady State Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film

A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 5–34B

B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 5–34B
Heat Exchanger 5–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Types of Heat Exchangers, Fouling Factors, Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient, Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
Method, Effectiveness-NTU Method, Compact Heat Exchangers.

CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1

Heat Exchanger : It is a device in which heat transfer takes place
between two fluids at different temperatures i.e., hot fluid and cold
fluid.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) : It is
defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give
the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under various
conditions of temperature difference.
Fouling or Scaling : The phenomenon of rust formation and
deposition of fluid impurities is called fouling. The reciprocal of scale
heat transfer coefficient, hs is called the fouling factor.
1 1 1
Rf =  
hs U dirty U clean

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. What is heat exchanger ? Give the general classification

of heat exchanger.
OR
Discuss the general arrangement of parallel flow, counter flow
and cross flow heat exchangers. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
A. Heat Exchanger :
1. It is a device in which heat transfer takes place between two fluids at
different temperature i.e., hot fluid and cold fluid.
2. Example : Boilers, condensers, intercoolers, preheaters, regenerators,
automobile radiators, etc.
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

Non-condensable
gas
Hot water
Container

Steam

Cold water
Fig. 5.1.1. Heat exchanger.
B. Classification of Heat Exchanger : The classification of heat
exchanger is as follows :
a. Classification according to Nature of Heat Exchange :
i. Direct Contact Heat Exchangers :
1. In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by
direct mixing of hot and cold fluids.
2. Example : Cooling tower, jet condenser, etc.
ii. Indirect Contact Heat Exchangers :
1. In indirect contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place
by indirect contact of hot and cold fluids i.e., there is a wall between
two fluids.
2. Example : Gas turbine, IC engines, etc.
b. Classification according to Relative Direction of Fluid Motion :
i. Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a parallel flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluid flow in the
same directions.
2. Example : Water heaters, oil coolers, etc.
t
tc1 th1
(temperature)

Hot fluid
Cold
th1 t h2
Hot th2
Cold tc2
Cold fluid
tc1 L (length)
tc2

Fig. 5.1.2. Parallel flow heat exchanger.

ii. Counter Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a counter flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids flow in the
opposite directions.
Heat Exchanger 5–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. This type of heat exchanger gives maximum rate of heat transfer

for a given surface area.
tc2

Cold
th1 Hot t h2
Cold

t
t c1
th1

Hot fluid
tc2

th2

Cold fluid tc1

L
Fig. 5.1.3. Counter flow heat exchanger.

iii. Cross Flow Heat Exchangers :

1. In a cross flow heat exchanger, the two fluids cross each other at
right angle.
2. Example : Automobile radiators, cooling unit of refrigeration system,
etc.
Cold fluid (in)
(Unmixed stream)
Baffles

Hot fluid
(in) Hot fluid
(Unmixed (out)
stream)

Cold fluid (out)

Fig. 5.1.4. Cross flow heat exchanger.
c. Class ification according to Design and Constructional
Features :
i. Concentric Tubes :
1. In concentric tubes, there are two tubes carrying hot fluid and cold
fluid and the direction of flow may be parallel or counter.
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

ii Shell and Tube :

1. In shell and tube type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids flows
through a bundle of tubes enclosed in a shell.
Baffle Hot fluid (out)
Shell plate Tubes

Hot
fluid
(in)

Cold fluid (out) Cold fluid (in)

(a) One-shell pass and two-tube pass heat exchanger.
Shell fluid

Baffles

Tube fluid

(b) Two-shell pass and four-tube pass heat exchanger.

Fig. 5.1.5. Shell and tube heat exchangers.
iii. Multiple Shell and Tube Passes :
1. In multiple shell and tube passes, there are two or more shells
which are used to increase the overall heat transfer.
iv. Compact Heat Exchangers :
1. These are special purpose heat exchangers and have a very large
transfer surface area per unit volume of the exchanger.
2. These are generally employed when convective heat transfer
coefficient associated with one of the fluids is much smaller than
that associated with the other fluid.
3. Example : Plate fin, flattened fin tube exchangers, etc.
d. Classification according to Physical State of Fluids :
i. Evaporator :
1. In evaporators, the cold fluid remains at constant temperature
while the temperature of hot fluid decreases from inlet to outlet.
Heat Exchanger 5–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

ii. Condenser :
1. In condenser, the hot fluid remains at constant temperature while
the temperature of cold fluid increases from inlet to outlet.
t
t
t h1 = t h2
th1 th2 th1
th = constant  = t h– t c
tc2

tc = constant th2
 = th – tc
tc1 tc1 tc2
tc1 = tc2
L L
1 2 1 2
(a) Temperature distribution (b) Temperature distribution
in a condenser. in an evaporator.
Fig. 5.1.6.

Que 5.2. What do you mean by fouling in heat exchangers ?

Briefly explain the fouling factor.

Answer
A. Fouling :
1. The phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of fluid impurities
is called fouling.
2. Due to these surface deposits the thermal resistance is increased and
eventually the performance of the heat exchanger lowers.
B. Fouling Factor :
1. Since it is difficult to ascertain the thickness and thermal conductivity
of the scale deposits, the effect of scale on heat flow is considered by
specifying an equivalent scale heat transfer coefficient hs.
2. The reciprocal of scale heat transfer coefficient, hs is called the fouling
factor, Rf .
1
Thus Rf =
hs
3. Fouling factors are determined experimentally by testing the heat
exchanger in both the clean and dirty conditions. The fouling factor, Rf
is thus defined as :
1 1 1
Rf =    
h
 s U dirty U clean

4. If hsi and hso be the heat transfer coefficients for the scale deposited on
the inside and outside surfaces respectively, then the thermal resistance
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

to scale formation on the inside surface (Rsi) and outside surface (Rso)
are given by
1
Rsi =
Ai hsi
1
Rso =
A0 hso

Que 5.3. What do you understand by overall heat transfer

coefficient ? Write its expression for plane wall and cylindrical
surfaces ?

Answer
A. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient : It is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
B. Expression for Plane Wall and Cylindrical Surface :
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient for two fluids separated by a plane
wall is given by :
1
U=
1 l 1
 
hi k h0
2. The overall heat transfer coefficient for fluids which are separated by a
tube wall is given by :
i. For inner surface :
1
Ui =
1 ri  r0   ri  1
 ln      
hi k  ri   r0  h0
ii. For outer surface :
1
U0 =
 r0  1 r0  r0  1
 r  h  k ln  r   h
i c i 0

Que 5.4. What are assumptions made to derive expression for

LMTD ? Derive expression for logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) for parallel flow heat exchanger.
Heat Exchanger 5–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
A. Assumptions for LMTD Expression :
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is constant.
2. Steady flow condition.
3. Constant specific heat and mass flow rates of both fluids.
4. Heat exchanger should be perfectly insulated.
5. Change in potential and kinetic energies are negligible.
6. Axial conduction along the tubes of the heat exchanger is negligible.
B. Expression for LMTD for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger :

Annulus surrounding
the pipe
Cold Pipe
Hot
Cold
(a) Flow arrangement.
th1 Ho
t fl
uid dth
Temperature

th2
 1 = t h1 – t c1  dQ  2 = th2 – tc2
tc2
uid
d fl
C ol
dtc
dA

tc1

1 Area 2
(b) Temperature distribution
Fig. 5.4.1. Calculation of LMTD for a parallel flow heat exchanger.

1. Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate

of flow of heat through the elementary area is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) = UdAt
2. The energy balance over a differential area dA is given by,
 
dQ = – mh C ph dth = mc C pc dtc
= UdA (th – tc) ...(5.4.1)
 dQ dQ
or dth = 

mh C ph Ch
dQ dQ
and, dtc = 

mc C pc Cc
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

 1 1 
 dth – dtc = – dQ   
C
 h C c

 1 1 
d = – dQ    ...(5.4.2)
C
 h C c

Where, Ch = Heat capacity of hot fluid.

Cc = Heat capacity of cold fluid.
 
mh and mc = Mass flow rates of hot and cold fluid, and
Cph and Cpc = Specific heat of hot and cold fluid.
3. Substituting the value of dQ from eq. (5.4.1) in eq. (5.4.2), we get

 1 1 
d = – UdA (th – tc)   
 Ch Cc 
 1 1 
or d = – UdA    
C
 h C c

d  1 1 
or = – UdA    ...(5.4.3)
 C
 h C c

4. Integrating the eq. (5.4.3) between inlet and outlet conditions, we get
2
d 1 1  A A
 =     UdA
  Ch Cc 
A 0
1

   1 1 
or ln  2  =  UA    ...(5.4.4)
 1  C
 h C c 

5. Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,
Q = Ch (th1 – th2) = Cc (tc2 – tc1)
1 t t
or = h1 h 2 ...(5.4.5)
Ch Q
1 t t
= c2 c1 ...(5.4.6)
Cc Q

1 1
6. Substituting the value of and from eq. (5.4.5) and eq. (5.4.6) in
Ch Cc
eq. (5.4.4), we get
  t  t t t 
ln  2  = – UA  h1 h 2  c2 c1 
 1   Q Q 
UA UA
= [( th 2  tc 2 )  (th1  tc1 )] = (2  1 )
Q Q
Heat Exchanger 5–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

UA (2  1 )
Q=
 
ln  2 
 1 
or Q = UA m
Where, m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD).
  1   2
m = 2  1
 2   
ln   ln  1 
 1   2 

Que 5.5. Derive expression for LMTD for counter flow heat
exchanger.

Answer
Annulus surrounding
the pipe

Cold Pipe

Hot

Cold

(a) Flow arrangement.

th1 Ho
tf
lu i
d
1
th
tc2 C dth
o ld
flu
Temperature

id  th2
dQ
tc 2
tc1
dA

dtc

Area
(b) Temperature distribution.
Fig. 5.5.1. Calculation of LMTD for a counter flow heat exchanger.
1. Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate
of flow of heat through this elementary area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) = UdAt ...(5.5.1)
2. The energy balance over dA is,
 
dQ = – mh C ph dth = – mc C pc dtc ...(5.5.2)
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

3. Temperature of both fluids is :

 dQ  dQ
dth = 

mh C ph Ch

 dQ  dQ
and, dtc = 

mc C pc Cc

1 1
dth – dtc = – dQ   
C
 h Cc

1 1
or d = – dQ    ...(5.5.3)
C
 h C c
4. Putting value of dQ from eq. (5.5.1) in eq. (5.5.3),
1 1 1 1
d = – UdA (th – tc)    = – UdA   
C
 h Cc  C h Cc

d 1 1
or, = – UdA    ...(5.5.4)
 C
 h Cc
5. On integrating eq. (5.5.4) from A = 0 to A = A, we have
   1 1
ln  2  = – UA    ...(5.5.5)

 1 C
 h C c

6. Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,
Q = Ch (th1 – th2) = Cc (tc2 – tc1)
1 t t
or = h1 h 2
Ch Q
1 t t
or = c2 c1
Cc Q
1 1
7. Substituting the values of and in eq. (5.5.5), we get
Ch Cc
  t  t t t 
ln  2  = – UA  h1 h 2  c2 c1 
 1   Q Q 
 UA
= [(th1  tc2 )  (th 2  tc1 )]
Q
 UA UA
= (1  2 )  (2  1 )
Q Q
UA (2  1 )
or Q=
 
ln  2 
 1 
or Q = UA m
Where, m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD).
Heat Exchanger 5–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

 2  1   2
m =  1
 2   
ln   ln  1 
 1   2 

Que 5.6. Under what conditions is the effectiveness – NTU method

definitely preferred over the LMTD method in heat exchanger
analysis ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. In the thermal analysis of various types of heat exchangers LMTD
method has been used.
2. This method is pretty simple and can be used in the design of heat
exchangers when all the terminal temperatures are known or easily
determined.
3. The difficulty arises if the temperatures of the fluids entering or leaving
the heat exchanger are not known.
4. This type of situation is encountered in the selection of a heat exchanger
or when the exchanger is to be run at off design conditions.
5. In such cases, it is preferable to utilise an altogether different method
known as the effectiveness-NTU method.

Que 5.7. Write down the significance of NTU method in heat

exchanger. Derive an expression of effectiveness for counter flow
heat exchanger by using NTU method. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
A. Significance of NTU Method :
1. A heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD, when inlet and outlet
conditions are specified.
2. When the problem is to determine the inlet or exit temperature for a
particular heat exchanger, the analysis is performed easily by using a
method based on effectiveness of the heat exchanger (concept first
proposed by Nusselt) and number of transfer units (NTU).
B. Effectiveness for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger :
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA of the heat exchanger is
given by
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(5.7.1)
 
= – mC ph dth = – mC pc dtc
= – Ch dth = – Cc dtc ...(5.7.2)
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–13 B (ME-Sem-5)

2. From eq. (5.7.2), we have

dQ dQ
dth = – and dtc = –
Ch Cc
1 1 1 1 
 d (th – tc) = – dQ     dQ    ...(5.7.3)
C
 h C c C
 c Ch

3. Substituting the value of dQ from eq. (5.7.1) in eq. (5.7.3), we get

d (th  tc ) 1 1 
= U dA    ...(5.7.4)
th  tc C
 c C h

4. On integrating the eq. (5.7.4), we get

t  t  1 1 
ln  h2 c1  = UA   
t  t
 h1 c2  C
 c Ch

 t  t  UA  C 
ln  h2 c1  = 1 c
 th1  tc2  Cc  Ch 
th2  tc1
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(5.7.5)
th1  tc2
5. The expression for effectiveness is :
Ch (th1  th2 ) Cc (tc2  tc1 )
= =
Cmin (th1  tc1 ) Cmin (th1  tc1 )
 Cmin (th1  tc1 )
Hence, th2 = th1 – ...(5.7.6)
Ch
 Cmin (th1  tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(5.7.7)
Cc
6. Substituting values from eq. (5.7.6) and eq. (5.7.7) in eq. (5.7.5) we get,

  Cmin (th1  tc1 ) 

 th1  Ch   tc1
  = exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
  Cmin (th1  tc1 ) 
th1   tc1  
 Cc 
  Cmin 
(th1  tc1 ) 1 
 Ch 
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
  Cmin 
(th1  tc1 ) 1 
 Cc 
 Cmin
1
Ch
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(5.7.8)
 Cmin
1
Cc
Heat Exchanger 5–14 B (ME-Sem-5)

7. Assume Cc < Ch, Cc = Cmin and Ch = Cmax. Substituting these values in

eq. (5.7.8), we get,
 Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
 Cmin
1
Cmin
 Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
1
 Cmin
1– = exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
Cmax
– exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}] 
1 – exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
C 
=   min  exp{(UA / Cmin )(1  Cmin / Cmax )}
C
 max 
1  exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]
or =
Cmin
 exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]  1
=
C
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]  min
Cmax
1  exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]
=
C
1  min exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1  (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
...(5.7.9)
Since Cmin / Cmax = R and UA/Cmin = NTU
1  exp[ NTU (1  R)]
Hence, =
1  R exp[  NTU (1  R)]

Que 5.8. Derive an expression of effectiveness for parallel flow

heat exchanger by using NTU method. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5

OR
Derive an expression for effectiveness by NTU method for parallel
flow. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(5.8.1)
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–15 B (ME-Sem-5)

 
= – m Cph dth = m Cpc dtc
= – Ch dth = Ccdtc ...(5.8.2)
2. From eq. (5.8.2), we get
 dQ dQ
dth = and dtc = ...(5.8.3)
Ch Cc
 1 1
d(th – tc) = – dQ    ...(5.8.4)
 Ch Cc 
3. Putting the value of dQ from eq. (5.8.1) in eq. (5.8.4), we have
d(th  tc )  1 1 
= – UdA    ...(5.8.5)
(th  tc )  Ch Cc 
4. On integrating the eq. (5.8.5), we get
 (th2  tc2 )   1 1 
ln   = – UA   
 (th1  tc1 )   Ch Cc 
 (th2  tc2 )  UA  Ch 
ln 
( t  t )
 = 1  
 h1 c1  Ch  Cc 
 (th2  tc2 )   UA   C   
h

( t  t )
 = exp   1      ...(5.8.6)
 h1 c1   Ch   Cc   
5. The expression of effectiveness is :
Ch (th1  th2 ) Cc (tc2  tc1 )
= =
Cmin ( th1  tc1 ) Cmin ( th1  tc1 )
 Cmin (th1  tc1 )
So, th2 = th1 – ...(5.8.7)
Ch
 Cmin (th1  tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(5.8.8)
Cc
6. On putting value of th2 and tc2 from eq. (5.8.7) and (5.8.8) in eq. (5.8.6),
we get
1   1 1 
(th1  tc1 )   Cmin (th1  tc1 )   
(th1  tc1 )  C
 h Cc 

  UA   C 
= exp      1 h
C
  h   Cc  

 1 1   UA  Ch  
or 1 –  Cmin    = exp     1  
C
 h Cc  C
  h  Cc  
  UA   Ch 
1  exp     1  C 
  Ch   c 
or = ...(5.8.9)
 1 1 
Cmin   
 Ch Cc 
Heat Exchanger 5–16 B (ME-Sem-5)

7. If Cc > Ch, then Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc, hence eq. (5.8.9) will be,
  UA   Cmin  
1  exp     1  
  Cmin   Cmax  
= ...(5.8.10)
C 
1   min 
 Cmax 
8. If Cc < Ch, then Cmin = Cc and Cmax = Ch, hence eq. (5.8.9) will be,
  UA   Cmax 
1  exp     1  C 
=   Cmax   min 
...(5.8.11)
C 
1   min 
 Cmax 
9. On rearranging eq. (5.8.10) and eq. (5.8.11), we have
  UA   Cmin  
1  exp     1  C 
  C 
min  max  
= ...(5.8.12)
C 
1   min 
 Cmax 
Cmin UA
Since, R= and = NTU
Cmax Cmin
1  exp   (NTU)(1  R)
  =
1 R
Que 5.9. After a long time in service, a counter flow oil cooler is
checked to ascertain if its performance has deteriorated due to
fouling. In the test a standard oil flowing at 2.0 kg/s is cooled from
420 K to 380 K by a water supply of 1.0 kg/s at 300 K at inlet. If the
heat transfer surface is 3.33 m2 and the design value of the overall
heat transfer coefficient is 930 W/m 2-K, how much has it been
reduced by fouling ? Take Cp of oil as 2330 J/kg-K, Cp of water
4 174 J/kg-K. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10

Answer
.
Given : mh = 2 kg/s, th1 = 420 K, th2 = 380 K, A = 3.33 m2,
.
mc = 1 kg/s, tc2 = 300 K, U = 930 W/m2-K, (Cp)h = 2330 J/kg-K,
(Cp)c = 4174 J/kg-K
To Find : Reduction in overall heat transfer coefficient due to fouling.

1. Heat balance over the exchanger is given as,

Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gain by cold fluid
 
( m Cp)h (th1 – th2) = ( m Cp)c (tc1 – tc2)
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–17 B (ME-Sem-5)

2 × 2330 × (420 – 380) = 1 × 4174 × (tc1 – 300)

420

th
380 tc1

t(K)
tc
300
L
0
Fig. 5.9.1.
 tc1 = 344.7 K
2. We know that,

(th1  tc1 )  (th 2  tc2 )

m =
t t 
ln  h1 c1 
 th 2  tc2 

(420  344.7)  (380  300) 75.3  80

= = = 77.6
ln [(420  344.7) / (380  300)]  75.3 
ln 
 80 
3. Heat exchange due to fouling, Q = UA m

Q (mC p ) h (th1 – th2 )
U = 
Am Am

2  2330  (420 – 380) 186400

= = = 721 W/m2-K
3.33  77.6 3.33  77.6

U  U  930  721
4. Reduction in U due to fouling =   100 = 22.5 %
U 930

Que 5.10. A counter flow heat exchanger is us ed to cool

lubricating oil of a large industrial gas turbine engine. The oil
flows through the tube at 0.19 kg/s (Cp = 2.18 kJ/kg-K) and the coolant
water flows in the annulus in the opposite direction at the rate of
0.15 kg/s (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg-K). The oil enters at 425 K and leaves at
345 K while the coolant enters at 285 K. How long must the tube be
made to perform this duty if the heat transfer coefficient from oil
to tube s urface is 2250 W/m 2-K and from tube to water is
5650 W/m2-K ? The tube has a mean diameter of 12.5 mm and its wall
presents negligible resistance to heat transfer.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Heat Exchanger 5–18 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer

Given : mo = 0.19 kg/s, mw = 0.15 kg/s, to1 = 425 K, to2 = 345 K,

Co = 2.18 kJ/kg-K, Cw = 4.18 kJ/kg-K, tw1 = 285 K, ho = 2250 W/m2-K,
hw = 5650 W/m2-K, d = 12.5 mm
To Find : Length of the tube.
1. Heat balance over the exchanger is given as,
Heat lost by oil = Heat gained by water
mo Co (to1 – to2) = mw Cw (tw2 – tw1)
0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345) = 0.15 × 4.18 × (tw2 – 285)
 Outlet temperature of water,
0.19  2.18  80
tw2 = 285 + = 337.85 K
0.15  4.18
2. By applying energy balance on the oil, the heat transfer is given by
Q = mo Co (to1 – to2) = 0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345)
= 33.136 kJ/s = 33.136 × 103 J/s
3. For counter flow heat exchanger,
1 = to1 – tw2 = 425 – 337.85 = 87.15 K
2 = to2 – tw1 = 345 – 285 = 60 K
 Log-mean temperature difference is,
1  2 87.15  60
m =  = 72.73 K
log e (1 / 2 ) log e (87.15 / 60)
4. Let, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient between oil and water.
1 1 1
We know that, = 
U h 0 hw
h0 hw 2250  5650
U=  = 1609.18 W/m2-K
h0  hw 2250  5650
5. Also we know that, Q = U A m
Q 33.136  103
 A=  = 0.2829 m2
U m 1609.18  72.79
6. Required length of the tube is given by,
A 0.2829
l=  = 7.21 m
d   12.5  103

Que 5.11. Engine oil (Cp = 2100 J/kg-°C) is to be heated from 20 °C

to 60 °C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s in a 2 cm diameter thin walled copper
tube by condensing steam outside at a temperature of 130 °C
(h fg = 2174 kJ/kg) for an overall heat transfer coefficient of
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–19 B (ME-Sem-5)

650 W/m2-°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer and the length of
the tube required to achieve it. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer


Given : CPo = 2100 J/kg-ºC, toi = 20 ºC, toe = 60 ºC, mo = 0.3 kg/s
d = 2 cm = 0.02 m, twi = 130 ºC, U = 650 W/m2-ºC, hfg = 2174 kJ/kg
To Find : i. Rate of heat transfer.
ii. Length of the tube.
1. We know that, heat transfer rate

Q = mo CPo (toe – toi)
= 0.3 × 2100 × (60 – 20) = 25200 W
Q = 25.2 kW
1  2
2. LMTD is given as, m =
 
ln  1 
 2 
Where, 1 = twi – toi = 130 – 20 = 110 ºC
and 2 = twi – toe = 130 – 60 = 70 ºC
110  70
 m = = 88.5 ºC
 110 
ln  
 70 
3. We know that, Q= UAm
Q 25200
A= 
U m 650  88.5
A= 0.438 m2
4. Also, A= dl
A 0.438
l= 
d   2.0  10 2
l = 6.97 m
l  7.0 m
Que 5.12. A steam condenser is transferring 250 kW of thermal
energy at a condensing temperature of 65 °C. The cooling water
enters the condenser at 20 °C with a flow rate of 7500 kg/hr. Calculate
the LMTD. If overall heat transfer coefficient for the condenser
surface is 1250 W/m2 -°C. What surface area is required to handle
this load ? What error would be introduced if the arithmetic mean
temperature difference is used rather than the log mean temperature
difference ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Heat Exchanger 5–20 B (ME-Sem-5)

Answer
.
Given : Q = 250 kW, th1 = th2 = 65 °C, tc1 = 20 °C, mc = 7500 kg/hr,
U = 1250 W/m2-°C.
To Find : i. LMTD.
ii. Surface area.
iii. Error.
1. For the condensing steam, the temperature remains constant
throughout the flow passage, i.e.,
th1 = th2 = 65 °C
2. We know that energy balance on the cooling water gives,
.
Q = mc Cc (tc2 – tc1)

7500
250 =  4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
3600
Exit temperature of cooling water,
250  3600
tc2 = 20 + = 48.67 °C
7500  4.186
3. Log mean temperature difference,
1  2
m =
log e (1 / 2 )
Where, 1 = th1 – tc1 = 65 – 20 = 45 °C
2 = th2 – tc2 = 65 – 48.67 = 16.33 °C
45  16.33
 m = = 28.28 °C
log e (45 / 16.33)
4. Now, we know that Q = UAm
 Area required to handle the load is,

Q 250  103
A=  = 7.07 m2
U m 1250  28.28
5. The arithmetic mean temperature difference is
1  2 45  16.33
 =  = 30.66 °C
2 2
Q 250  103
 A =  = 6.52 m2
U  1250  30.66
A A 7.07  6.52
6. Error =  100  × 100 = 7.77 %
A 7.07
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–21 B (ME-Sem-5)

Que 5.13. A chemical having specific heat of 3.3 kJ/kg-K flowing at

the rate of 20000 kg/hr enters a parallel flow heat exchanger at
120 °C. The flow rate of cooling water is 50000 kg/hr with an inlet
temperature of 20 °C. The heat transfer area is 10 m2 and the overall
heat transfer coefficient is 1050 W/m2-°C. Determine :
a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
Specific heat of the water is 4.186 kJ/kg.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
20000
h =
Given : Cph = 3.3 kJ/kg-K, m = 5.56 kg/s, th1 = 120 °C,
3600
50000
c =
m = 13.89 kg/s, Cpc = 4.186 kJ/kg-K, tc1 = 20 °C, A = 10 m2,
3600
U = 1050 W/m2-C°
To Find : a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.

1. Hot fluid capacity rate,  h Cph = 5.56 × 3.3 = 18.35

Ch = m
 c Cpc = 13.89 × 4.186 = 58.14
Cold fluid capacity rate, Cc = m
We find that, Ch < C c
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
5.56 × 3.3 × (120 – th2) = 13.89 × 4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
or, (120 – th2) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20) ...(5.13.1)
UA 1050  10
3. Now, NTU =  = 0.572
Cmin 18.35  1000
th1
H ot fluid
(chem ical) th2
Temp.

Cold flu id tc2

(water)
tc1
Area/length

Water
Chemical
Water

Fig. 5.13.1.
Heat Exchanger 5–22 B (ME-Sem-5)

1  exp[  NTU(1  R)]

4. Effectiveness, =
1 R
1  exp[ 0.572(1  0.316)]
 =
(1  0.316)
 Cmin 18.35 
 R  C 
58.14
 0.316

max

1  0.471
= = 0.402
1.316
Ch (th1  th2 )
5. Also, =
Cmin ( th1  tc1 )
(120  th 2 )
or, 0.402 = ( Ch = Cmin)
(120  20)
or, th2 = 120 – 0.402 (120 – 20) = 79.8 °C
6. Substituting the value of th2 in eq. (5.13.1), we get
(120 – 79.8) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20)
(120  79.8)
 tc2 = + 20 = 32.7 °C
3.17
Que 5.14. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is
heated from 25 °C to 65 °C by an oil with a specific heat of
1.45 kJ/kg-K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled from
230 °C to 160 °C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is
420 W/m2-°C. Calculate the following :
i. the rate of heat transfer,
ii. the mass flow rate of water, and
iii. the surface area of the heat exchanger.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
.
Given : tc1 = 25 °C, tc2 = 65 °C, Cph = 1.45 kJ/kg-K, mh = 0.9 kg/s,
th1 = 230 °C, th2 = 160 °C, U = 420 W/m2-°C
To Find : i. The rate of heat transfer.
ii. The mass flow rate of water.
iii. The surface area of the heat exchanger.
1. The rate of heat transfer,

Q = mh C ph (th1  th2 )
Q = 0.9 × 1.45 × (230 – 160) = 91.35 kJ/s
2. Heat lost by oil (hot fluid) = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
Heat & Mass Transfer 5–23 B (ME-Sem-5)

 
mh C ph (th1  th2 ) = mh C pc (tc 2  tc1 )

91.35 = mc × 4.187 × (65 – 25)
 91.35
Mass flow rate of water, mc = = 0.545 kg/s
4.187  (65  25)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
th1 = 230 °C Oil 160 °C( th2)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
(a) Flow arrangement
th1 = 230 °C

1 Oil
(h o
t fl
tc2 = 65 °C uid
)
W ate
r ( c ol
d fluid th2 = 160 °C
) 2
tc1 = 25 °C

Area/Length
(b) Temperature distribution.
Fig. 5.14.1. Counter-flow heat exchanger.
3. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by,
1  2 (th1  tc2 )  ( th2  tc1 )
m = =
ln (1 / 2 ) ln [(th1  tc2 ) / (th2  tc1 )]
(230 65)  (160  25)
=
ln [(230  65) / (160  25)]
165  135
m = =149.5 °C
ln [(165 / 135)]
4. We know that, Q = UAm

Q 91.35  103
 A=  = 1.45 m2
U  m 420  149.5

PART-2
Introduction to Condensation Phenomena, Heat Transfer Relations
for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical Surface and on Outside
& Inside of a Horizontal Tube, Effect of Non-Condensable Gases,
Dropwise Condensation, Boiling Modes, Pool Boiling, Hystersis
in Boiling Curve, Forced Convection Boiling, Heat Pipes.
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–1 B (ME-Sem-5)

1 Introduction to
Heat Transfer
(2 Marks Questions)

1.1. What is the significance of heat transfer ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. The discipline of the heat transfer encompasses a great many
fascinating areas like :
1. Proper functioning of valves and other controls operated by
temperature changes, thermal control of space vehicles.
2. Refrigeration and air conditioning units and many other cooling
and heating appliances.

1.2. Discuss the mechanism of thermal conduction in gases,

liquids and solids. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. In solids, the thermal conduction takes place by lattice vibration
and by transport of free electrons.
2. In case of gases, the thermal conduction takes place by the moment
of molecules exchanging their energy and momentum.
3. In liquids, the mechanism of heat is nearer to that of gases. However,
the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular forces
come into play.

1.3. What are free convection and forced convection ?

Ans. Free or natural convection occurs when the fluid circulates by
virtue of the natural difference in densities of hot and cold fluids.
When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be
forced convection.

1.4. What do you mean by thermal conductivity ? Why good

electrical conductor materials are als o good heat
conductors ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 B (ME-Sem-5)

Ans. Thermal Conductivity : It is a physical property of the substance

and is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat through
it. It is generally denoted by k and its unit is W/m-K.
Good Electrical Conductor Materials are also Good Heat
Conductors : Since, the ratio of the thermal and electrical
conductivities for all metals is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal, therefore the material which are good
conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.

1.5. Write down the effect of temperature and pressure on

thermal conductivity. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity :
In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity decreases with
increase in temperature while in case of gases, thermal conductivity
increases with increase in temperature.
Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity :
Thermal conductivity of fluid and solid increases with increase in
pressure.

1.6. What do you mean by convective heat transfer coefficient ?

Ans. Convective heat transfer coefficient may be defined as the amount
of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the
fluid and unit area of surface in unit time. It is generally denoted by
h and its unit is W/m2-K.

1.7. What is the physical significance of thermal diffusivity ?

Ans. The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how
fast heat is propagated or it diffuses through a material during
changes of temperature with time.

1.8. What do you mean by thermal contact resistance ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Thermal contact resistance is a thermal resistance to heat flow at
the interface between two materials because of surface roughness
and void spaces at contact surfaces.

1.9. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer

coefficient ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Overall heat transfer coefficient is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–3 B (ME-Sem-5)

1.10. What do you mean by critical thickness of insulation ?

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The thickness of insulation upto which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical thickness of
insulation. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called as critical
radius.

1.11. Describe the modes of heat transfer for heat loss from a
thermos flask.
Ans.
1. Convection heat loss from fluid to flask inner surface.
2. Conduction heat loss from inner surface of flask to outermost
surface of flask.
3. Radiation heat loss from outer surface of flask to atmosphere.

1.12. What do you mean by thermal capacity ?

Ans. Thermal capacity is the amount of heat that a material can hold.
Mathematically,
Thermal capacity = c
Where, c = Specific heat of material.

1.13. What is the practical application of critical radius of

insulation ?
Ans. Following are the applications of critical radius of insulation :
1. Insulation of electric cables, and
2. In steam and refrigeration pipes.

1.14. Why are heat radiations invisible to the eye ?

Ans. The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves,
hence they are invisible to the eye.

1.15. Why does thermal conductivity exist in fluids ?

Ans. Thermal conductivity exists in fluid due to lattice vibrational waves.

1.16. Why does the value of thermal conductivity tend to decrease

with temperature in case of liquids ?
Ans. In case of liquids, the value of thermal conductivity tends to decrease
with temperature increase (water being on exception) due to
decrease in density with increase in temperature.


2 Marks Questions SQ–4 B (ME-Sem-5)

2 Fins and
Transient Conduction
(2 Marks Questions)

2.1. What do you mean by fins ?

Ans. Fins are basically extended surfaces and are used to increase the
heat transfer rate between the surface and adjoining fluid by
increasing the effective surface area.
2.2. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Fin Effectiveness : It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate
with fin to the heat transfer rate without fin.
fin = Qfin/Qwithout fin
Efficiency of Fin (fin) : It is defined as the ratio of actual heat
transferred by fin to maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin
area were at base temperature.
fin = Qfin/Qmax
2.3. Write down the conditions for fins to be effective.
Ans. Following are the conditions for fins to be effective :
1. Thermal conductivity (k) should be large.
2. Heat transfer coefficient (h) should be small.
3. Thickness of the fin should be small.
2.4. Explain the significance of Heisler’s charts.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. From Heisler chart, the value of Bi (Biot number) and Fo (Fourier
number) are calculated on the basis of characteristic parameter S
which is semi-thickness in case of plates and surface radius in case
of cylinder and spheres.
2. Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature
distribution.
2.5. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problem.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–5 B (ME-Sem-5)

Ans. Assumptions made in lumped heat capacity method for analysis of

transient heat conduction are as follows :
1. The internal resistance is negligible in comparison with surface
resistance.
2. The temperature throughout the solid is considered to be uniform
at a given time.
2.6. What do you mean by Biot number ?
Ans. Biot number is defined as the ratio of internal (conduction) resistance
to surface (convection) resistance.
2.7. What do you mean by Fourier number ?

Ans. The non-dimensional number is called the Fourier number. It
Lc2
signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect
through a solid.
2.8. What is the criteria of lumped heat capacity analysis ?
Ans. If Biot number (Bi) < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity approach can be
used to advantage with simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes.
2.9. Define response time of a thermocouple. What does it
signify ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Response Time of Thermocouple : It is defined as the time
required for the thermocouple to attain the source temperature.
t  ta  hAs 
Significance : It is evident from equation  exp    ,
ti  ta  VC 

hAs
that larger the quantity , faster the exponential term will
VC
approach zero or more rapid will be the response of the
temperature measuring device.
2.10. Define sensitivity.
Ans. Sensitivity is defined as the time required by a thermocouple to
reach its 63.2 % of the value of initial temperature difference is
called its sensitivity.
2.11. Why are thin and closely spaced fins always preferred ?

Ans. Since,
Pk
fin =
hA
If the ratio of P (perimeter) and A (cross-sectional area) is increased
the effectiveness of the fin is improved. Due to this reason, thin
and closely spaced fins are preferred.


2 Marks Questions SQ–6 B (ME-Sem-5)

3 Forced & Natural

Convection
(2 Marks Questions)

3.1. Define thermal boundary layer thickness.

Ans. Thermal boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance away
from the surface where temperature difference is 99 % of the
temperature difference between the surface and free stream
temperature of the fluid.

3.2. What do you mean by boundary layer ?

Ans. The layer of fluid adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary
layer. Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion
between the boundary and the fluid.

3.3. Write the assumptions made for momentum equation for

hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Ans. Following are the assumptions :
1. The flow is steady and incompressible.
2. The viscosity of fluid is constant.
3. Viscous shear forces in the Y-direction are negligible.
4. Fluid is continuous in space and time.

3.4. Define Prandtl number. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Prandtl number is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity () to
thermal diffusivity ().
Mathematically,
 c p
Pr = 
 k

3.5. What do you mean by Grashof number ?

Ans. Grashof number is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia
force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
Mathematically,
(Inertia force) × (Buoyancy force)
Gr =
(Viscous force)2
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–7 B (ME-Sem-5)

gtL3
Gr =
2

3.6. Write down the significance of Reynold’s and Nusselt

number. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Significance of Reynold’s Number : Higher the value of Re,
greater will be the relative contribution of inertia effect. Smaller
the value of Re, the greater will be relative magnitude of viscous
stresses.
Significance of Nusselt Number : The Nusselt number is a
convenient measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient.
For a given value of Nusselt number, the convective heat transfer
coefficient is directly proportional to thermal conductivity of the
fluid and inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.

3.7. What do you mean by skin friction coefficient ?

Ans. Skin friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of shear stress o at
1
the plate to the dynamic head U 2 caused by free stream velocity.
2

3.8. What do you mean by edge of the boundary layer ?

Ans. Edge of the boundary layer is the locus of the points in the boundary
layer where local fluid velocity is 99 % of free stream velocity.

3.9. What do you mean by hydrodynamic entry length and fully

developed region ?
Ans. Hydrodynamic Entry Length : It is that part of the tube where
boundary layer grows and the velocity distribution changes with
the length of the tube.
Fully Developed Region : The part of the tube where velocity
distribution does not change with the length of the tube is known
as fully developed region.

3.10. What do you mean by Buckingham- theorem ?

Ans. Buckingham- theorem states that in a physical system involving n
variables having m fundamental dimensions, the number of
independent dimensionless group that can be formed is (n – m).
The dimensionless groups that formed is called  terms and is
represented by the notation 1, 2, 3,.........., n–m.

3.11. Write the examples of heat transfer by free convection.

Ans. Following are the examples of heat transfer by free convection :
1. Heating of water in a pot by gas flame.
2. Heating of room by a heater coil.
2 Marks Questions SQ–8 B (ME-Sem-5)

3. Cooling of electric motors, cylinders of automobile etc.

4. Cooling of electronic equipments.

3.12. Define volume coefficient of thermal expansion.

Ans. The physical property denoting the thermal expansion of the fluid
is known as volume coefficient of thermal expansion ().

3.13. What is the criterion to identify type of flow in free

convection ?
Ans. A dimensionless parameter, known as Rayleigh number, decides
the type of fluid motion, which is defined as,
Ra = Gr Pr
If, Ra < 109  Flow is laminar.
If, Ra > 109  Flow is considered as turbulent flow.

3.14. Why are turbulent boundary layers thicker than laminar

boundary layers ?
Ans. Turbulent boundary layers are thicker than laminar boundary layers
because in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution is
much more uniform due to intermingling of fluid particles between
different layers of the fluid.

3.15. Why is heat transfer smaller in free convection as compared

to forced convection ?
Ans. Heat transfer in free convection process is quite smaller as compared
to forced convection because flow velocity in free convection is
much smaller than forced convection.


Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–9 B (ME-Sem-5)

4 Thermal Radiation
(2 Marks Questions)

4.1. What do you mean by radiation heat transfer ?

Ans. Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy across
a system boundary by means of an electromagnetic mechanism
which is caused solely by a temperature difference. It does not
require a medium.

4.2. Write the factors upon which the rate of emission of

radiation by a surface depends.
Ans. Following are the factors :
1. The temperature of the surface,
2. The nature of the surface, and
3. The wavelength or frequency of radiation.

4.3. What is intensity of radiation ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of energy leaving a
surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the
emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.

4.4. Define emissivity.

Ans. Emissivity () is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to
radiate heat. It is also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of
a body to the emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.

4.5. Define the term “Irradiation” and “Radiosity”.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Irradiation : It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a
surface per unit time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
Radiosity : It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a
surface per unit time per unit area.
2 Marks Questions SQ–10 B (ME-Sem-5)

4.6. Define all radiative properties of the surface and also explain
relation between them. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Following are the radiation properties of surfaces :
i. Total emissive power (E) :
Eb =  T4 W/m2
Eb =  AT4 W
ii. Monochromatic emissive power.

E= E  d W/ m 2
0
iii. Intensity of radiation.
iv. Radiosity.
v. Irradiation.
2. Relation between total emissive power and monochromatic emissive
power is given as :
E
=
Eb

4.7. State Wien’s displacement law. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02

Ans. Wien’s displacement law states that the product of max and T is
constant.
Mathematically,
max T = constant

4.8. What do you mean by solid angle ?

Ans. Solid angle is defined as a portion of the space inside a sphere
enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of the cone at the
centre of the sphere.

4.9. A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at

wavelength of 0.5 m. Calculate its surface temperature and
emissive power. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
1. From Wien’s displacement law,
maxT = 2898 mK
or, maxT = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
Since, max = 0.5 m
0.5 × T = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
T = 5.796 × 10 – 3 K
2. From Boltzmann law,
Eb = T4
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–11 B (ME-Sem-5)

= 5.67 × 10 – 8 × (5.796 × 10 – 3)4

= 6.3987 × 10 – 17 W/m2

4.10. What do you mean by Lambert’s cosine law ?

Ans. Lambert’s cosine law states that the total emissive power E from a
radiating plane surface in any direction is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle of emission.
Mathematically,
E = En cos 
4.11. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Black Body : A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it.
i.e.,  = 1,  = 0,  = 0
White Body : If all the incident radiation falling on the body is
reflected, it is called a white body.
 = 1,  = 0 and  = 0
Gray Body : It is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a
surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
i.e.,  = () = constant
Opaque Body : When no incident radiation is transmitted through
the body, it is called an opaque body.
i.e.,  = 0 and  +  = 1

4.12. What do you mean by reciprocity theorem ?

Ans. Reciprocity theorem indicates that the net radiant interchange may
be evaluated by computing one way configuration factor from either
surface to the other.
Mathematically,
A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1

4.13. What is radiation shield ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. A radiation shield is a barrier wall of low emissivity placed between
two surfaces which reduce the radiation between the bodies.

4.14. Write a short note on solar radiation.

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Solar radiation consists of energy that is emitted by various layers
of the sun. Solar radiation is a function of geometrical relation
between the surface and the sun which is continuously changing
on a daily and annual basis.
2 Marks Questions SQ–12 B (ME-Sem-5)

4.15. What is green house effect ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. The green house effect is a process by which radiative energy
leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases like
carbon dioxide, methane, water vapours, etc., called green house
gases. They transfer this energy to other components of the
atmosphere and it is re-radiated in all directions. This transfer of
energy to the surface increases the temperature of environment
and leads to global warming.

4.16. Why does a concave surface have a shape factor with itself ?
Ans. A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant
energy coming out from the one part of the surface is intercepted
by the other part of the same surface. The shape factor of a surface
with respect to itself is F1–1.

4.17. Why a flat or convex surface has a zero shape factor with
respect to itself ?
Ans. For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself
is zero (i.e., F1–1 = 0). This is due to the fact that for any part of flat
or convex surface, one cannot see/view any other part of the same
surface.

4.18. Why is the shape factor of a convex surface always unity

with its enclosure ?
Ans. The shape factor of a convex surface, with its enclosure is always
unity because all the heat radiated from a convex surface is
intercepted by its enclosure.


Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–13 B (ME-Sem-5)

5 Heat Exchanger
(2 Marks Questions)

5.1. What do you mean by heat exchanger ?

Ans. Heat exchanger may be defined as equipment which transfers the
energy from a hot fluid to a cold fluid, with maximum rate and
minimum investment and running cost.

5.2. How heat exchangers are classified ?

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Heat exchangers are classified as follows :
a. Classification According to Nature of Heat Exchanger :
1. Direct contact heat exchanger.
2. Indirect contact heat exchanger.
b. Classification According to Relative Direction of Fluid :
1. Parallel flow.
2. Counter flow.
3. Cross flow.
c. Classification According to Design and Constructional
Features :
1. Concentric tubes.
2. Shell and tube.
3. Multiple shell and tube passes.
d. Classification According to Physical State of Fluids :
1. Evaporator.
2. Condenser.

5.3. Counter flow heat exchanger is most preferred. Why ?

AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. LMTD for a counter flow unit is always greater than that for a
parallel flow unit, hence counter flow heat exchanger can transfer
more heat than parallel flow one. For this reason, the counter flow
arrangement is usually used.
2 Marks Questions SQ–14 B (ME-Sem-5)

5.4. What do you mean by logarithmic mean temperature

difference (LMTD) ?
Ans. LMTD is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant,
would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under
variable condition of temperature difference.

5.5. How can you prevent the fouling ?

Ans. The following methods may be used to keep fouling minimum :
1. Design of heat exchanger,
2. Treatment of process system, and
3. By using cleaning system.

5.6. What do you mean by fouling factor in analysis of heat

exchanger ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The reciprocal of scale heat transfer coefficient is called fouling
factor.
1 1 1
Rf = = –
hs U dirty Uclean

5.7. Define capacity ratio.

Ans. The ratio of the products of the mass flow rate and the heat capacity
of the fluids is termed as capacity ratio R.
Mathematically,
(mC p )min
R=
(mC p ) max

5.8. What do you mean by number of transfer unit ?

Ans. The grouping of the term (UA)/Cmin is a dimensionless expression
called the number of transfer units (NTU). It is a measure of
effectiveness of the heat exchanger.

5.9. Define condensation and their types.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Condensation : It is define as a process in which vapour phase of
a substance changes to liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of
vapourisation.
Types of Condensation :
1. Filmwise condensation.
2. Dropwise condensation.

5.10. What do you mean by boiling ?

Ans. Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase
change from liquid to vapour state. It is also defined as evaporation
at a solid-liquid surface.
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–15 B (ME-Sem-5)

5.11. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
1. The value of critical heat flux The value of critical heat flux of
of water is 1.3 MW/m2 at 1 water reaches upto 35 MW/m2
atm. at 1 atm.
2. It is easy. It is more complicated.

5.12. What are the uses of heat pipe ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Spacecraft,
2. Cooking,
3. Permafrost cooling, and
4. Computer system, etc.

5.13. Write the limitations of Fick’s law.

Ans.
1. Fick’s expression is valid only when mass diffusion occurs.
2. Mass transfer process is very fast in gases as compared to liquid and
slowest in solids.
3. Mass transfer process strongly depends upon molecular spacing
and the mobility.
4. It does not consider temperature gradient, pressure gradient or
any effect of internal for except the concentration gradient.

5.14. Why is a counter flow more advantageous for a gas turbine

heat exchanger ?
Ans. The maximum effectiveness for parallel flow heat exchanger is
50 %. For counter flow, this limit is 100 %. For this reason, a counter
flow is usually more advantageous for gas turbine heat exchangers.

