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 TH S
REE
STEP

FACTS
TO MASTERING
MULTIPLICATION

First understand what fluency is, then use these

games and a sequence of strategies to help your
students develop facility and confidence.

By Gina Kling and Jennifer M. Bay-Williams

“That was the day I decided I was bad at math.”

Countless times, we have heard preservice and in-service teachers make statements such as this
after sharing vivid memories of learning multiplication facts. Timed tests; public competitive games,
such as Around the World; and visible displays of who has and has not mastered groups of facts still
resonate as experiences that led them to doubt their mathematical abilities. Others who appeared to be
successful with such activities have shared such statements as these: “We learned a song for every fact.
I can find any fact quickly, but I still need to sing the song first” and “I use the nines finger trick but have
no idea how or why it works.” Are these people truly fluent with their multiplication facts?
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 Helping students develop fluency with their
multiplication facts is arguably one of the most
important goals of teachers in grades 3–5. To
achieve this goal, we must know the answers to
these questions:
Students who learn multiplication facts through traditional
FIGU R E 1

approaches generally do not retain the facts because the

• What does fluency mean?
method attempts to move students from phase 1 directly to
• What approaches to building fluency with
phase 3 of Baroody’s (2006) three developmental phases.
multiplication facts help our students
Phases of basic fact mastery (Baroody 2006) become confident and competent
mathematical thinkers?
• What does meaningful practice look like?
Phase 1: Modeling and/or counting to find
the answer We explore each of these questions in the sec-
tions that follow.
• Solving 6 × 4 by drawing 6 groups of
4 dots and skip counting the dots Understanding fluency
Teachers have many different opinions of what
“fluency with multiplication facts” means. The
Common Core State Standards for Mathemat-
Phase 2: Deriving answers using reasoning ics (CCSSM) provide some guidance on under-
strategies based on known facts standing fluency:

• Solving 6 × 4 by thinking 5 × 4 = 20 and Fluently multiply and divide within 100,

adding one more group of 4 using strategies such as the relationship
between multiplication and division (e.g.,
knowing that 8 × 5 = 40, one knows 40 ÷ 5 = 8)
or properties of operations. By the end of
Phase 3: Mastery (efficient production of Grade 3, know from memory all products
answers) of two one-digit numbers. (3.OA.C.7, CCSSI
2010, p. 23)
• Knowing that 6 × 4 = 24
What is fluency?
CCSSM presents two significant aspects of
fluency here. First, fluently means noticing

THINGLASS/THINKSTOCK

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relationships and using strategies. Accord-
The authors suggest this sequence and these strategies for

TABLE 1
ing to CCSSM, fluency is “skill in carrying out
teaching children fluency, flexibility, and reasoning strategies
procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently and
with multiplication facts.
appropriately” (CCSSI 2010, p. 6). Thus, far from
just being a measure of speed, fluency with
multiplication facts involves flexibly and accu- Sequence and strategies for teaching multiplication facts
rately using an appropriate strategy to find the
Foundational facts*
answer efficiently.
Second, note that the phrase know from 1. 2s, 5s, and 10s (begin Use story problems, arrays, skip
memory is used—not the term memorization. these late in second counting, and patterns on a
With repeated experiences working with num- grade) hundred chart and a multiplication
ber, students can come to “just know” that table to learn these facts.
2 × 6 = 12, without ever having had to memorize 2. 0s* 1’s, multiplication
squares (2 × 2, 3 × 3,
it. At this point, we say students have mastered
etc.)
their multiplication facts, as they have become
so fluent at applying their strategies that they do Derived fact strategies
so automatically, without hesitation.
3. Adding or subtracting Start with a nearby 2s, 5s, or 10s
How is fluency developed? a group fact, then subtact (or add) the
group.
Students develop fluency as they progress
through three developmental phases (Baroody Example: I don’t know 9 × 6, so I
2006) (see fig. 1). Traditional approaches to think “10 × 6 = 60” and subtract
learning multiplication facts (flash cards, one group of 6 to get 54.
drill, and timed testing) attempt to move stu-
4. Halving and doubling Look for an even factor. Find the
dents from phase 1 directly to phase 3. This fact for half of that factor, then
approach is ineffective—many students do double it.
not retain what they memorized in the long
term, moving to grade 4 and beyond still not Example: I don’t know 6 × 8, so I
think “3 × 8 = 24” and double that
knowing their facts. Even if students remem-
to get 48.
ber facts, they are unlikely to be fluent as
defined above, as they will not have learned to 5. Using a square product Look for a nearby square. Find that
flexibly apply strategies to find the answer to a fact and add on or subtact off the
multiplication fact (see fig. 1). extra group.
Research tells us that students must delib- Example: I don’t know 7 × 6. I use
erately progress through these phases, with 6 × 6 = 36 and add one more 6 to
explicit development of reasoning strategies, get 42.
which helps students master the facts and gives
them a way to regenerate a fact if they have 6. Decomposing a factor Partition one of the factors into a
forgotten it. Students make more rapid gains convenient sum of known facts, find
the two known facts, and combine
in fact mastery when emphasis is placed on
the products.
strategic thinking (National Research Council
[NRC] 2001, Cook and Dossey 1982, Heege Example: I don’t know 7 × 6.
1985, Thornton 1978). So, how do we help I break the 7 into 2 and 5, because
children progress through the three phases I know 2 × 6 and 5 × 6. Then I add
with respect to multiplication facts? Careful 12 and 30 to get 42.
sequencing and explicit attention to strategy * 0s are foundational but are not typically used for derived-fact
development is necessary. strategies.

Sequencing and developing

strategies
We are familiar with the traditional sequence of
learning multiplication facts: “master” the 0s,

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 then 1’s, then 2s, and so on. Yet, introducing mul-
tiplication facts in terms of their relative difficulty
(starting with easiest facts) and clustering them
around strategies is more effective (Thornton
1978; NRC 2001; Heege 1985; Van de Walle, Karp,
and Bay-Williams 2012). On the basis of this
research, as well as on classroom experience
using these ideas, we suggest the sequence and
strategies for fact instruction outlined in table 1.

Foundational facts
During the first few years of school, through the
meaningful practices of skip counting, working
with addition doubles, and representing mul-
tiplication and division situations and arrays,
children begin to learn the first set of multiplica-
tion facts: the 2s, 5s, and 10s (Heege 1985, Kamii
and Anderson 2003, Watanabe 2003). We recom-
mend working with these foundational facts at
the end of second grade, so that students enter-
ing third grade are fluent and ready to apply
them to derive other facts.
The multiplication squares (e.g., 3 × 3), 0s, zation “tricks,” invite students to apply their
and 1’s are the next set of foundational facts. understanding of multiplication (for example,
Instead of teaching 0s and 1’s with memori- that five groups of zero—or five “empty”
groups—would give us zero objects, so 5 × 0 = 0).
Exploring situations using these facts, drawing
In this example for connecting 3s to 2s, the context and arrays, and looking for patterns in the multipli-
FIGURE 2

structure of the stories facilitate student learning. Story cation table will help students learn these facts.
problems can connect foundational facts to other facts. We describe the facts above as “foundational”
because they lay the groundwork for derived-
There are 2 ladybugs sitting on a leaf. Each ladybug has 6 legs. fact strategies. By definition, derived-fact strate-
How many legs do they have altogether? Draw a picture to show gies are based on facts students already know.
your thinking.
Therefore, a lack of fluency with foundational
facts can lead to frustration or inefficiency when
students do not quickly “see” a known fact in the
problem they are solving, preventing them from
adopting important derived-fact strategies.

Derived facts
The foundational facts, learned and understood,
can then be used for learning all other multipli-
A third ladybug lands on the leaf. How many legs are there
cation facts (phase 2). Carefully chosen contexts
altogether now? Explain how you can use your first picture to
help you figure this out. and sequencing can allow particular strategies
to emerge. Figure 2 presents an example for con-
necting 3s to 2s, where the context and structure
of the stories facilitate students making this con-
nection. Students can use 2s, 5s, and 10s facts to
solve nearby facts, such as 3s, 4s, 6s, and 9s. For
example, all 6 facts (6 × n) can be found by start-
ing with five groups of the other factor, plus one
more group of that factor (5 × n + n). The key is to

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LUCADP/THINKSTOCK

help students think of how they can work from

A sequence of multiplication stories suggests using doubling
FIGURE 3

the first fact to derive the second, related fact, as

to find the final product.
opposed to starting over and drawing an entirely
new picture (see fig. 2). Your class is building a sandbox for the 1st graders. The sandbox will
Facts that include even factors (e.g., 4s, 6s, be 2 feet wide and 8 feet long. What is the area of the sandbox?
and 8s) can be found through halving and then Draw a sketch of the sandbox and write a number model to show
doubling. This has been shown to be a powerful how you found the area.
strategy (Flowers and Rubenstein 2011, Heege
1985, Thornton 1978). A sequence of multiplica-
tion stories suggest using doubling to find the
final product (see fig. 3). The area representation
helps students visualize how doubling one of the
factors leads to doubling the area, or product.
With sufficient experiences with halving/
doubling relationships, students learn to work
flexibly to apply this understanding to unknown
facts. For example, for 6 × 7, students can think, You decide to make the sandbox 4 feet wide and 8 feet long instead.
“Half of 6 is 3, and I know that 3 × 7 = 21, so I How can you use your work from the first problem to figure out the
double 21 and get 42.” new area? Explain, using sketches and words to show your thinking.
Multiplication squares can also be used to
solve related facts, an effective approach for
some of the most challenging facts, such as 7 × 8
or 6 × 7. Students can apply their understand-
ing of adding or subtracting a group to a nearby
square, such as by solving 7 × 8 by starting with
8 × 8 = 64 and subtracting one group of 8 to
get 56.
Finally, any fact can be found by decompos-
ing one of the factors to create known facts and
then recomposing the entire product. This strat-
egy is grounded in number sense and will serve
students well as they look for efficient ways to
solve multidigit multiplication problems. When

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 Array and area models and equal-groups interpretations work well for the early

FIGU R E 4
stages of learning the decomposing strategy, when using a representation is a
crucial part of a student’s process.

(a) Using an equal-groups interpretation to decompose the fact 7 × 8

I think of 7 × 8 as 7 groups of 8 things. I don’t know what 5 × 8 = 40

that is, so I start with 5 groups of 8 things, which is 40.

I have to have 7 groups in the end, so I need to add 2 more 2 × 8 = 16

groups of 8 things. I know that 2 groups of 8 things is 16.

So, to find 7 groups of 8 things, I add 40 + 16, which is 56. 7×8 =

5×8+2×8=
40 + 16 = 56

(b) Using an array representation to decompose the fact 6 × 4

I can split my 6 × 4 array into two smaller arrays, one that is 4 × 4 and one that is 2 × 4.
I know that 4 × 4 =16 and 2 × 4 = 8. I then add the smaller products of 16 and 8 and
get 24 for my answer.

(c) Using an area representation to decompose the fact 7 × 6

5 5 × 6 = 30

2 2 × 6 = 12

7×6 = 5×6+2×6
= 30 + 12
= 42

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 Students need meaningful practice to move from fluency to

TABL E 2
mastery. CCSSM 3.OA.B.5: “Apply properties of operations as
children first begin decomposing, using a repre-
strategies to multiply and divide.”
sentation is key to keeping track of their process;
equal groups interpretations, array models, and
area models all work well for this purpose (see Applying the properties of multiplication
fig. 4).
Commutative Important to all facts. If 6 × 4 = 24 is known,
property of then 4 × 6 = 24 is also known. This cuts the
Properties of multiplication
multiplication learning of facts in half.
Underlying all these strategies are the proper-
ties of multiplication, namely the Commuta- Associative Used in derived facts, like doubling. A student
tive, Associative, and Distributive Properties. property of sees 6 × 9 and thinks (2 × 3) × 9, which is
In grade 3, the related Common Core standard multiplication the same as 2 × (3 × 9), which is 2 × 27, 54.
does not say that students must be able to name
Distributive A student realizes that 8 × 7 = 8 × (5 + 2)
the properties but to apply them. Students apply
property of and uses this to find the answer, thinking
these properties intuitively as they attempt to multiplication (8 × 5) + (8 × 2) = 40 + 16 = 56.
make facts easier to solve (see table 2). Children over addition
will need frequent opportunities to explore,
apply, and discuss multiplication strategies and
properties throughout the year to move from
fluency with strategies to mastery of all facts. Game play can encourage mathematical efficiency without
FIGURE 5

This presents the need for meaningful practice. producing the anxiety of timed tests. These are examples of
array cards cut from grid paper.
Meaningful practice
There is no doubt that practicing multiplication
facts is essential for mastering them (phase 3).
To maximize precious class time spent practic-
ing facts, embedding that practice in worthwhile
mathematical activities is important. Drilling
isolated facts may, over time, lead to memoriza-
tion of those facts, but that is the only gain. In
contrast, meaningful practice involves helping
students learn their facts through rich, engaging
mathematical activities that provide the addi-
tional benefits of promoting problem solving,
reasoning, and communicating mathematical
thinking. Meaningful practice of multiplica-
tion facts begins with the use of related prob-
lems like the examples given above. It can be
sustained throughout the year by reminding
students to think of strategies they know when
solving an unknown fact and by expecting stu- array cards, use centimeter grid paper. Label
dents to articulate those strategies verbally and each one with the facts written both ways (e.g.,
in writing. 3 × 8 and 8 × 3). Depending on the activity, you
Multiplication fact games provide meaning- may also write the product on the back of each
ful (and enjoyable) practice. Games involve card (see fig. 5).
many calculations in which efficiency is encour-
aged, without the stress of timed tests. Some Strive to derive
games focus on particular fact strategies, This game mimics the thinking that students
whereas others provide general practice of all use in deriving facts, because students first
facts. Here we share three of our favorite multi- see the actual fact and then visually partition
plication games (see the more4u box at the end it into two facts to find the derived facts and
of this article for additional games). Several of the answer. The first time students play this
the games refer to array cards. To make a set of game, they could focus on using a particular

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 In the Cover It
game, two players
take turns drawing
array cards to find
a combination of
two that will cover
the original array.
For example, if the
7 × 8 array were

JENNIFER M. BAY-WILLIAMS
pulled and covered
by 5 × 8 and 2 × 8
arrays, students
would record 7 × 8
= 5 × 8 + 2 × 8.

fact, for example, Strive to Derive from 5. The

These Strive to Derive game instructions focus on using the 2s,
FIGURE 6

figure 6 instructions focus on using 2s, 5s, and

5s, and 10s facts so that students begin thinking about which
10s so that students begin thinking about which
foundational facts can help them with the 3s, 6s, and 9s facts.
foundational facts can help them with the 3s,
Strive to Derive game instructions
6s, and 9s. The game can decrease or increase
in challenge by changing the values on the dice.
Materials The challenge of derived facts is to avoid getting
• Array cards (use arrays for 3s, 4s, 6s, and 9s) bogged down in the step of choosing a known
fact. The more this game is played, the more
• Uncooked spaghetti or thin sticks quickly students find a known fact and are able
• Two teacher-labeled dice, one with 3, 3, 6, 6, 9, 9; the other with to use it to solve the given problem (see fig. 6).
0, 1, 4, 6, 7, 8
Number of players
Cover it
In this two-player matching game, students
2–4 spread selected array cards so that all are vis-
Instructions ible (adapted from Russell and Economopoulos
2008). Player 1 pulls an array from the middle
1. Spread the array cards out so they can be seen. and gives it to player 2, who must find two arrays
2. Players alternate taking a turn. Player 1 rolls the dice, then— that exactly cover the array he or she received. If
player 2 does this successfully, he or she keeps
a. finds that array;
the three array cards. If player 2 cannot find a
b. partitions the array (using uncooked spaghetti) into two pair, player 1 gets a chance and can also win
arrays, one of them being a 2, 5, or 10 fact; the cards. Players switch roles and continue.
c. says or writes how to find the fact that he or she rolled. Students say or write the combinations that they
have found to cover the original array.
Example
Lisa rolls a 6 and a 7. She pulls the 6 × 7 array card. She places Multiplication Tetris®
spaghetti to show 5 × 7 and 1 × 7. She then says, “Six times seven Tetris has entertained us for many years. Stu-
is five times seven, thirty-five, and one more seven, forty-two.” dents love this mathematized version of Tetris.
Optional The goal is to stay in the game the longest by
having room on your grid paper to fit a given
Students can record their arrays: 6 × 7 = 5 × 7 + 7 = 42. rectangle. The teacher rolls two dice (regular
3. If a player is able to illustrate and explain the fact using a derived dice, ten-sided dice, or teacher-labeled dice to
fact, he or she scores a point. emphasize particular facts such as 2s, 5s, and
10s). If the teacher rolls a 4 and a 6, each student
4. The player returns the array card to the middle of the table. Play
goes to the next player.
decides where and in what orientation to best
fit a 4 × 6 rectangle on the grid paper. Students
5. Play to ten points. trace either a 4 × 6 or a 6 × 4 array on their paper
and write the multiplication fact. The teacher

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 Multiplication Tetris helps students see multiplication facts

FIGU R E 7
as arrays. As the game boards show, students apply different
strategies to placing their arrays.

continues to roll, and students mark out the

called rectangle somewhere on their grid (see
fig. 7). When a student cannot fit a rectangle
with the dimensions rolled, he or she is out of
the game. The last students in the game are the
winners. This game helps students see the facts
as arrays while also reinforcing the commutativ-
ity of each fact (4 × 6 = 6 × 4 = 24).
You may have noticed that the grids in
figure 7 do not follow the conventional record-
ing of rows × columns. These students had been
focusing on the commutative property, and as
they turned their rectangles to fit them on the
page, they were thinking of 7 × 8 and 8 × 7 inter-
changeably. This is consistent with recommen-
dations from CCSSM Progressions documents,
which state the following:

In the Array situations, the roles of the factors

do not differ. One factor tells the number of
rows in the array, and the other factor tells
the number of columns in the situation. But
rows and columns depend on the orientation
of the array. If an array is rotated 90º, the rows
JENNIFER M. BAY-WILLIAMS

Multiplication Tetris can

strengthen a student’s concept
of the commutativity property
of each fact. Here, MacKenna
decides where to place her array.

www.nctm.org Vol. 21, No. 9 | teaching children mathematics • May 2015 557
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 become columns and the columns become BI BLI O GRA P HY
rows. This is useful for seeing the commuta- Baroody, Arthur J. 2006. “Why Children Have
tive property for multiplication. (Common Difficulties Mastering the Basic Number
Core Standards Writing Team 2011, p. 24) Combinations and How to Help Them.”
Teaching Children Mathematics 13 (August):
Final thoughts 22–31.
There is no question that the CCSSM expecta- Bay-Williams, Jennifer M., and Gina Kling. 2014.
tion for mastery with all multiplication facts “Enriching Addition and Subtraction Fact
by the end of third grade is a daunting task. Mastery through Games.” Teaching Children
Decades of drill and timed testing have failed Mathematics 21 (November): 238–47.
our students, often leading to a lack of fluency Bell, Max, John Bretzlauf, Amy Dillard, Andy
and a negative disposition toward mathemat- Isaacs, Kathleen Pitvorec, Jean Bell, Mary Ellen
ics. Even in cases where students are able to Dairyko, Robert Hartfield, James McBride, and
successfully complete tasks, such as timed Pater Saecker. 2012. Everyday Mathematics:
tests, one might question the value of such Common Core State Standards ed. Chicago,
assessments. Does a perfect score on a timed IL: McGraw-Hill.
test really tell us anything about that student’s Common Core Standards Writing Team. 2011.
understanding? Do we actually know if he or Progressions Documents for the Common
she is fluent as defined in this article? Couldn’t Core Math Standards: Draft K–5 Progression
we learn more by carefully observing and ques- on Counting and Cardinality and Operations
tioning students as they engage in meaningful and Algebraic Thinking. http://ime.math
practice playing games, in class discussions of .arizona.edu/progressions/
strategies, or even through brief interviews with Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI).
individual students (Kling and Bay-Williams 2010. Common Core State Standards for
2014)? Such questions are worthy of care- Mathematics (CCSSM). Washington, DC:
ful consideration as one reflects on possible National Governors Association Center for
paths toward multiplication fact mastery. It is Best Practices and the Council of Chief State
our hope that by following these three steps School Officers. http://www.corestandards
(understanding fluency, thoughtful sequencing .org/wp-content/uploads/Math_Standards.pdf
and development of strategies, and meaning- Cook, Cathy J., and John A. Dossey. 1982. “Basic
ful practice), teachers can better support their Fact Thinking Strategies for Multiplication—
students as they develop mathematically Revisited.” Journal for Research in
robust, flexible understandings of multi- Mathematics Education 13 (3): 163–71.
plication facts and beyond. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/748553
Flowers, Judith M., and Rheta N. Rubenstein.
2010/2011. “Multiplication Fact Fluency Using
Doubles.” Mathematics Teaching in the Mid-
dle School 16 (December/January): 296–303.
Heege, Hans Ter. 1985. “The Acquisition of Basic
Multiplication Skills.” Educational Studies in
Mathematics 16 (4): 375–88. doi:http://dx.doi
.org/10.1007/BF00417193
Kamii, Constance, and Catherine Anderson.
2003. “Multiplication Games: How We
Made and Used Them.” Teaching Children
Mathematics 10 (November): 135–41.
Kling, Gina, and Jennifer M. Bay-Williams. 2014.
“Assessing Basic Fact Fluency.” Teaching
LUCADP/THINKSTOCK

Children Mathematics 20 (April): 488–97.

National Research Council (NRC). 2001. Adding
It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics,
edited by Jeremy Kilpatrick, Jane Swafford,

558 May 2015 • teaching children mathematics | Vol. 21, No. 9 www.nctm.org
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 and Bradford Findell. Washington, DC: The authors thank Mrs. George and her fourth
National Academies Press. graders at Crestwood Elementary School in
Russell, Susan Jo, and Karen Economopoulos. Kentucky, and Ellen Dairyko and Amanda
2008. Investigations in Number, Data, and Ruch at the University of Chicago for their
Space. 2nd ed. New York: Pearson. contributions to this article.
Thornton, Carol A. 1978. “Emphasizing Thinking
Strategies in Basic Fact Instruction.” Journal Gina Kling, of Western
Michigan University,
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gina.garza-kling@
214–27. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/748999
wmich.edu, and
Van de Walle, John. A., Karen S. Karp, and
Jennifer M.
Jennifer M. Bay-Williams. 2012. Elementary
Bay-Williams, j.baywilliams@louisville.edu, of the
and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching
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Developmentally: Professional Development
helping children develop fluency with their basic facts.
Edition for Mathematics Coaches and Other
Teacher Leaders. New York: Pearson.
Watanabe, Tad. 2003. “Teaching Multiplication:
An Analysis of Elementary School Mathemat-
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United States.” The Elementary School Journal
Access an appendix of additional games by
104 (2): 111–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086 navigating to the article online.
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