TG

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Lecture Sl. No. 03

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Massive Open Online Course under NPTEL

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The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Govt. of India

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Basic Principles and Calculations in

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Chemical Engineering

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Module-1: Introduction

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an er Lecture 1.3: Unit systems and
dimensions
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Prof. S. K. Majumder
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Chemical Engineering Department,

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Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Guwahati-781039, India. Phone: +913612582265 (O)
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Email: skmaju@iitg.ac.in ; skmaju@gmail.com

Welcome IIT Guwahati https://www.iitg.ac.in/chemeng/skm/home
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solution
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Dimensional analysis

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Analysis of problem with

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Present Lecture Includes:

Dimensional homogeneity and

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Unit and Dimensions

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Unit Dimensions

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 The “unit” indicates what the  The “dimension” is the

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measured quantity represents, measurable quantity that the unit

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represents.
 A measured or counted quantity

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has a numerical value and a unit  Example: length, mass, time, and

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temperature,
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 Measurable units are specific
 It also be calculated by
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values of dimensions that have
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been defined by convention, multiplying or dividing other

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dimensions,
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Example: grams for mass, seconds for

time, and centimeters for length  Example: length/time = velocity,
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length3 = volume, and

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mass/length3 = density
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Chemical engineers, like many other engineers, use values,

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units, and dimensions all the time

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Systems of Units

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 There are several systems of units, but two primary

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systems that engineers use are:

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The International System of Units (SI system) and

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The American Engineering System of Units (AES).

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 Other systems are:
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Centimeter–Gram–Second (CGS)
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Foot–Pound–Second (FPS)
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The British System of Units (British)

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Chemical engineers, like many other engineers, use values,

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units, and dimensions all the time

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Units Associated with Systems

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System Mass (m) Length (l) Time (t) Temperature (T)

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SI Kilogram (kg) Meter (m) Second (s) Kelvin (K)

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AES Degree Pound mass Foot (ft) Second (s) Fahrenheit (°F)

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(lbm)

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CGS Gram (g) Centimeter Second (s) Kelvin (K)

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(cm)
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FPS* Pound mass Foot (ft) Second (s) Degree Fahrenheit
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(lbm) (°F)
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British Slug Foot (ft) Second (s) Degree Celsius (°C)

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*Imperial system units are sometimes referred to as FPS.

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To convert a quantity expressed in terms of one unit to its equivalent in terms

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of another unit, you will need to multiply the given quantity by the
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conversion factor (new unit/old unit)

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Dimensional Homogeneity

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 An equation is called dimensionally homogeneous if the

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dimensions on both sides of the equation is equal.

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 Consequently, the units of each term in the equation

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must be the same (via conversion) as the units of other

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terms it is added to or subtracted from.
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 You can identify an invalid equation based on
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dimensional homogeneity arguments.

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Example of dimensional homogeneity

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 V = u + ft

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where, V and, u denotes velocity, f denotes acceleration and t is for

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time. The equation is dimensionally homegeneous because its

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dimension on both sides are same

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V = u + ft

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[m/s] = [m/s] + [(m/s2)(s) = [m/s]]
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But
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 S = u + t is not dimensionally homogeneous because its

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dimension on both sides are not same.

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S = u + t [ = density]
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[m] = [m/s] + [(kg/m3)(s) = kg/(m3s)]

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Exceptions of Units

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 Coefficients in physical laws don’t have units

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Example: KE = ½mu2 [=] kg·m2/s2 in SI; the coefficient “½” is unitless

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 Exponents are unitless

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Example: u2 [=] m2/s2 in SI; but the exponent “2” is unitless

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 Arguments are unitless
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Example: sin (x); while x can be in degrees or radians; sin(x) is
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unitless
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𝝆𝒖𝒅
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 Dimensionless numbers 𝐑𝐞 =
𝝁
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Example:
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Reynolds number is a measure of inertial force to viscous force of a

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flow system
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Make the equation dimensionally

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consistant

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 Suppose that the composition C varies with time, t, in the following

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manner:

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where y has the units kg/L, x has the units seconds.
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What are the units associated with a and b To make the equation
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dimensionally homogenous and consistent?

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Answer: The unit of a is the same as the unit of y (i.e., kg/L). Because
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the argument of an exponential function must be dimensionless, the

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figure b must have a unit s−1.

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Exercise

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rp K
Prob. 1: Consider the equation S = 7t + 8t2, where S [=] m

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and t [=] s. What are the dimensions and units of “7” and

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“8”?

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Solution: Unit of “7” is m/s and “8” is m/s2

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Prob. 2: The thermal conductivity k of a liquid metal is
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predicted via the empirical equation k = A exp (B/T), where

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k is in J/(s.m.K) and A and B are constants, T is absolute

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temperature. What are the units of A? of B?

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Solution: A has the same unit as k ie. J/(s.m.K) , B has the unit
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of T ie K
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Try youself

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rp K
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Prob.: An experimental investigation of the rate of mass transfer of SO2

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from an air stream into water indicated that the mass transfer

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coefficient could be correlated by an equation of the form:

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where kx is the mass transfer coefficient in mol/(cm2.s) and u is the
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velocity in cm/s. Does the constant K have dimensions? What are

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they? If the velocity is to be expressed in ft/s and we want to retain the

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same form of the relationship, what would be the units of K have to

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be if kx is still mol/ (cm2.s), where K is the new coefficient in the

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formula.
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Dimensional analysis

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 Sometimes experiments cannot be possible to carryout on its full

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size of units where the experiments are carried out. Example: in

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Dam, river, channels or hydraulic machines such as turbines, large

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pumps etc.

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 For the shake of economy and convenience, it is required that small

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scale models are made for test purposes
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 Certain laws of similarity must be followed in order to ensure that the
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model test data can be applied to the prototype.

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 In order to apply these laws of similaarity, one has to express the

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experimental results in terms of non dimensional factors.

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Uses of dimensional analysis

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 It is useful to find whether an equation of any flow

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phenomenon is rational or not. Generally dimensionally

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homogeneous euation is called rational equation

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 By dimensional analysis, the relationaship between various

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physical quantities in an equation can be obtained
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 Rational formulae for a flow phenomenon can be derived
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 It helps in making suitable smaller sized models in which

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experiments can be performed to predict the performaance

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of the prototypes
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Basic units reqquired for dimensional

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analysis

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rp K
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 The primary fundamental units:

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Length (L), Mass (M), and Time (T)

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 The auxiliary fundamental units: measurement of certain physical

i
quantities in electrical, thermal, illumination and elementaary particle

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disciplines are also represented by fundamental units. These units are
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used only when these particular classes are involved. These are:
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Ampere (A), Kelvin (K), Candela (cd) and mole (mol)

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 Convenient fundamental unit: For a convenience some engineers

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prefers to use quantity which is easier to measure instead of mass as

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fundamental quantity. It is mostly

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Force (F)
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In this case the system is represented by letters FLT instead of MLT

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i
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t p rof
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TG
Important Dimensions to Remember
 TG
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Methods of dimensional analysis

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There are essentially two methods for analysis

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Rayleigh’s method Buckingham’s  method

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 The method is based on the  Buckingham Pi Theorem relies on

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fundamental principle of the identification of variables

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dimensional homogeneity of involved in a process. Further, a few

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physical variables of these have to be marked as
"Repeating Variables".

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 The dependent variable is identified
 The repeating variables among

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and expressed as a product of all
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the independent variables raised to
an unknown integer exponent.
themselves should not form a non-
dimensional number
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 Equating the indices of n  If a physical process has "n"

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fundamental dimensions of the variables and from these “j" are

variables involved, n independent Repeating Variables, then the there
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equations are obtained . are "n-j" independent non-

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dimensional numbers that can

 These n equations are solved
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describe that process.

nn um

to obtain the dimensionless groups.

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Both Buckingham's method and Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis determine only the
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relevant independent dimensionless parameters of a problem, but not the exact relationship
between them.
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Rayleigh method

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The method involves the following steps:

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 Step 1: Note all the independent variables that are likely

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to influence the dependent variable.

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 Step 2: If y is a variable that depends upon independent
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variables x1, x2, x3, ..., xn, then write the functional
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equation as
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Lord Rayleigh,
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British Scientist. he
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got novel prize in

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physics in 1904 Rayleigh (1892) On the question of the stability of the flow of fluid, Phil. Mag. 34, 59
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Rayleigh method

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 Step 3: Write the functional equation in the form

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t p rof
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where C is a dimensionless constant and a, b, c,

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..., m are arbitrary exponents.
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 Step 4: Express each of the quantities in the equation in

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fundamental dimensions in which the solution is

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required.
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Rayleigh method

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 Step 5: By using dimensional homogeneity, obtain a set

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of simultaneous equations involving the

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exponents a, b, c, ..., m.

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 Step 6: Solving these equations to obtain the value of
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exponents a, b, c, ..., m.
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 Step 7: Formation of dimensionless groups by the

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variables with like exponents.

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Example: Let us consider a frictional resistance (F) when a liquid is flowing

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through a pipe depends on the viscosity, density of the fluid, velocity of the flow,

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diameter of the pipe and pipe surface rughness. Derive a rational equation for the

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pipe flow in terms of dimensionless groups by Rayleigh’s method

rp K
rio S
t p rof
Solution:

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ith @
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 Step 1: Independent variables: , , v, D, 

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Dependent variable: F
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 Step 2: functional equation as
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in d
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(Eq. 1)
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 Step 3: the functional equation in the form

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(Eq. 2)
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 Step 4: Expressing each of the quantities in the equation

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m ju
in fundamental dimensions as

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rp K
rio S
t p rof
(Eq. 3)

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fo p
 Step 5: based on dimensional homogeneity, the
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simultaneous equations involving a, b, c, d, e
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(Eq. 4)
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(Eq. 5)
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(Eq. 6)
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 Step 6: Solving,

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From Eq. (4): b = 1 - a (7)

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From Eq. (6): c = 2 - a (8)

rp K
rio S
From Eq. (5): d = 1 + a + 3b – c – e

t p rof
= 1 + a + 3 - 3a – 2 + a – e (by Eqs. (7) & (8))

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=2–a–e (9)

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 Step 7: Formation of the dimensionless groups

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By eleminating b, c, d from
in d

Eq. (2)
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Dimensionless groups
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forming rational equation

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Buckingham’s Method (-theorem)

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According to the theory the functional relationship

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among variables, x1, x2, …… xn can be expresses as

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n = no. of variables

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Edgar Buckingham,

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American Physicist,
1867 - 1940
If j is the number of fundamental dimensions
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Such as M (Mass), L (Length), T (Time)

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Then
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No. of dimensionless groups can be formed = n - j

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Proved by French
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Mathematician
Joseph L. F Bertrand
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in 1878
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The dimensionless groups are expressed as

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rp K
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t p rof
x1, x2, …xj are called repeating variables;

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xj+1 are non-repeating variables

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Nos. of repeating variables
fo p
Generally, j = 3
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= Nos. of fundamental dimensions ( j )
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in d
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Functional relation among dimensionless groups is

us nt
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nn um
ca cc
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Steps of Buckingham’s method

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 Step 1: Identify the relevant variables and function

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t p rof
 Step 2: Write down dimensions

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 Step 3: Establishment of the number of independent

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weight as repeating variables

density, gravity and specific
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dimensions and non-dimensional groups

fo p

One should not choose

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 Step 4: Choosing j (= 3) dimensionally-independent
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repeating variables. Generally:

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The first representing the fluid property

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The second representing the flow charactristics

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The third representing the geometric charactristics

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 Step 5: Creating the s by non-dimensionalising the

rp K
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remaining variables and by solving the

t p rof
ou P
coefficients

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 Step 6: Seting the non-dimensional relationship

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 Step 7: Rearrange (if required) for convenience. In this
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case, you are free to replace any of the s by
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in d

a power of that , or by a product with the

it un

other s, provided retaining the same number

e is
us nt

of independent dimensionless groups

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nn um
ca cc
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Example problem: Let us consider a frictional resistance (F) when a liquid

on er
si d
is m
is flowing through a pipe depends on the viscosity, density of the fluid, velocity of

m ju
the flow, diameter of the pipe and pipe surface rughness. Derive a rational

er Ma
equation for the pipe flow in terms of dimensionless groups by Buckingham’s

rp K
method

rio S
t p rof
Solution:

ou P
ith @
 Step 1: Relevant variables and function: f(F, , , v, D, )=0

w ght
i
 Step 2: Dimensions:

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fo p
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an er
in d
it un

 Step 3:
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Number of relevant variables: n = 6

ot e
nn um

Number of independent dimensions: j = 3 (M, L and T)

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Number of non-dimensional groups (s): n – j = 3

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 Step 4: Choosing j (= 3) dimensionally-independent

is m
m ju
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repeating variables as:

rp K
fluid property: 

rio S
t p rof
flow charactristics: v

ou P
ith @
geometric chaaractristics: D

w ght
i
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fo p
 Step 5: Creating the s as:
y co Remember if n = j, you have
an er
to consider j = j-1. Example: if
in d

n=3, but j=3, then n-j =0, i.e,

it un

no dimensionless groups will

e is

be formed. So in this case, j

us nt

should be 3-1 = 2. In this case,

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nn um

you have to pick 2 repeating

variables.
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Yo is sides

For
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ca cc
nn um
ot e
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in d
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fo p
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i
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ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
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m ju
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TG
Solving coefficients by considering the dimensions of both
 Th
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For
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Similarly

ca cc
nn um
ot e
us nt
e is
it un
in d
an er
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fo p
r m yr
i
w ght
ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
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m ju
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TG
 Th
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For
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Similarly

ca cc
nn um
ot e
us nt
e is
it un
in d
an er
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fo p
r m yr
i
w ght
ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
er Ma
m ju
is m
si d
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TG
 Th

Or
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u do
ca cc
nn um
ot e
us nt
e is
it un
in d
an er
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fo p
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i
w ght
 Step 7: Rearrangement

ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
er Ma
m ju
is m
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TG
 Step 6: Setting the non-dimensional relationship
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Example: Flow resistance of a sphere

on er
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is m
m ju
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 The drag D of a sphere is influenced by, sphere diameter d, flow velocity U,

rp K
fluid density p and fluid viscosity .

rio S
 Two dimensionless group (n-j = 5-3 = 2): l, 2

t p rof
ou P
 Obtain l, 2 by Buckingham method, with , v and d as repeating

ith @
variables:

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i
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fo p
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an er
in d
it un
e is
us nt
ot e
nn um
ca cc
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 Th
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u do
ca cc
nn um
ot e
us nt
e is
it un
in d
an er
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fo p
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i
w ght
ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
er Ma
m ju
is m
si d
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. , II
TG
Some Significant Dimensionless
Number (which are must to remember)
 Th
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ca cc
nn um
ot e
us nt
e is
it un
in d
an er
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fo p
r m yr
i
w ght
ith @
ou P
t p rof
rio S
rp K
er Ma
m ju
is m
si d
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TG
Some Significant Dimensionless
Number (which are must to remember)
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Further reading......

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m ju
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rp K
Text Books:

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t p rof
 R. M. Felder, Ronald W. Rousseau, Lisa G. Bullard, Elementary

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Principles of Chemical Processes, 4th Ed., John Wiley & Sons,

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Asia, 2017.

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 D. M. Himmelblau, J. B. Riggs, Basic Principles and Calculations in

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Chemical Engineering, 7/8th Ed., Prentice Hall of India, 2012.
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Reference Books:
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 N. Chopey, Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations,

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4th Ed., Mc-Graw Hill, 2012.

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 Olaf, K.M. Watson and R. A. R. Hougen, Chemical Process

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Principles, Part 1: Material and Energy Balances, 2nd Ed., John

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Wiley & Sons, 2004.

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Physical and chemical properties