Introduction to Set Theory
Set Theory is the mathematical study of collections of objects, known as
sets. In this context, the objects are referred to as elements or members.
The notion of a set is fundamental to nearly all areas of mathematics,
providing a basis for many concepts. The terminology used in set theory
includes important symbols and operations such as union, intersection, and
complement.
Body
Definitions and Symbols
Set: A well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an
object in its own right. For example, the set of natural numbers up to
10 can be written as A={1 , 2, 3 , … , 10 }.
Element of a Set: If an object belongs to a set, it is referred to as an
element. If x is an element of set A , we write x ∈ A .
Null Set: A set with no elements is known as a null or empty set,
represented by ϕ .
Subset: A set A is a subset of set B if all elements of A are also
elements of B, denoted by A ⊆ B.
Operations on Sets
The various operations on sets allow the combination, separation, or
manipulation of sets to form new sets. The fundamental set operations
include:
1. Union ( A ∪ B ): The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements
that belong to either A or B or both. It is symbolically represented as:
A ∪ B={ x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B }
Example: If A={1 , 2, 3 } and B={3 , 4 , 5 }, then A ∪ B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }.
2. Intersection ( A ∩ B ): The intersection of two sets A and B is the set
containing elements that belong to both A and B. It is written as:
A ∩ B={ x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B }
Example: For A={1 , 2, 3 } and B={3 , 4 , 5 }, A ∩ B={3 }.
3. Complement ( A′ or Ac ): The complement of a set A consists of all
elements that are in the universal set U , but not in A :
′
A ={ x : x ∉ A but x ∈ U }
Example: If U ={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } and A={1 , 2}, then A′ ={3 , 4 , 5 }.
4. Difference ( A − B ): The difference between two sets A and B is the
set of elements that belong to A but not to B:
A − B={x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
Example: For A={1 , 2, 3 } and B={2 ,3 }, A − B={1 }.
5. Disjoint Sets: Two sets A and B are disjoint if they have no elements
in common. Mathematically, A ∩ B=⌀ .
Laws of Set Theory
Several laws govern the operations of sets, ensuring consistent results
across different manipulations:
Commutative Laws:
A ∪ B=B ∪ A , A ∩ B=B ∩ A
These laws state that the order of sets in union or intersection does not
affect the result.
Associative Laws:
( A ∪ B ) ∪ C= A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) , ( A ∩ B ) ∩C= A ∩ ( B ∩C )
Grouping sets does not change the outcome of union or intersection
operations.
Distributive Laws:
A ∩ ( B ∪ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩C ) , A ∪ ( B ∩C ) =( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪C )
De Morgan’s Laws:
( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩B ′ , ( A ∩B )′ =A ′ ∪ B′
These laws relate the complement of unions and intersections.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams visually represent relationships between different sets,
showcasing unions, intersections, and complements. For example, in a
diagram, overlapping regions between circles depict common elements in
the sets, representing intersections.
Summary
Set theory is a foundational concept in mathematics that explores collections
of objects, their relationships, and operations on them. Core principles such
as union, intersection, complement, and the laws of set theory provide a
logical framework that underpins much of modern mathematical reasoning.
