SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE -II

(SEC-II)

DATA ANALYSIS & COMPUTER APPLICATION

Block

1
Computer fundamentals
Unit-1: Introduction to Computer System
Unit-2: Input Devices and Output Devices
Unit-3: Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices
Unit-4: Operating System and the User Interface
Unit-5: Basics of Computer Network, Internet& electronic mail
 EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr P.K.Behera (Chairman)
Reader in Computer Science
Utkal University
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. J.R.Mohanty (Member)
Professor and HOD
KIIT University
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Sh Pabitrananda Pattnaik(Member)
Scientist –E,NIC
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Sh Malaya Kumar Das (Member)
Scientist –E,NIC
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. Bhagirathi Nayak (Member)
Professor and Head(IT & System)
Sri Sri University
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr.Manoranjan Pradhan (Member)
Professor and Head(IT & System)
G.I.T.A
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Sri Aseem Kumar Patel (Convenor)
Academic Consultant (CSE)
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur,
Odisha

Course Writer
Himadri Bhusan Mohapatra Satya Sobhan Panigrahi Bhabesh Chandra Mohanty
Academic Consultant (CSE) Academic Consultant (CSE) Academic Consultant (CSE)
Odisha State Open University Odisha State Open University Odisha State Open University
(Unit-01, Unit-02) (Unit-03, Unit-04) (Unit-05)
Material Production
Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari
Registrar
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur
© OSOU, 2021. Data Analysis & Computer Application is made available
under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
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 Unit -1: Introduction to Computer Learning objectives
After the completion of this unit you should be able to know: -

1) What a computer?
2) Different functions of computer
3) Characteristics of computer
4) Generations of computer
5) Components of computer

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition
1.3 Characteristics of computer
1.4 Functions of computer
1.5 Application of computer
1.6 Classification of computer
1.7 Generation of computer
1.8 Components of computer
1.1 Introduction

Ever since Human understood the concept of communication, numbers,

and counting, their primary style to counting and data calculations with
help of sticks or lines on walls of caves. Then they moved towards
counting using ten fingers of their hands, which probably is the basis of
present decimal system.

According to the history the first computing device, which was

developed before 5000 years by China is ABACUS. By which we can
calculate simple addition and subtraction. It is still in use in south East
Asia, China and Japan.

The first mechanical calculating machine, which is capable to perform

various arithmetic operations, was developed in early 1642, which was
initiated by French scientist BLAISE PASCAL (1623-1662). This
calculating machine mainly perform only two basic operations i.e.
addition and subtraction. This was named as Pascaling.

In 1822, Charles Babbage designed the early computer called difference

engine. Which could produce logarithm tables? He improved this
machine and came out with a new idea of Analytical Engine in 1833,
which could perform the basic arithmetic functions. This machine used
punch as input output devices. He is called as "FATHER OF
COMPUTERS".

Mark One was the first electric and mechanical computer discovered by
Howard Aekain in 1939. Who work multiply is 6 sec and division in 12
sec.

The first electronic computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator

and Computer) was designed in 1946. It has capability to perform about
5,000 calculations per second. This was a huge computer which occupied
about 1,500 sq. ft and weighed about 50 tons. Which is also considered
as the 1st generation of Computer.

The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century
English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. He designed the
Analytical Engine and it was this design that the basic framework of the
computers of today are based on. In the present 21st century we depend

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on computers to fulfill our requirements at a very short period of time.
Some of the many purposes where Computers are used are

1. Email service such as Yahoo, Gmail for quick delivery of messages.

2. In hospitals for the purpose of patient care and hospital billing.
3. Telecommunications in the form of mobile phones.
4. Defense in the form of missile guidance system and other defense
activities.

(Personal Computer)

1.2 Definition

The term Computer is derived from a Latin word ‘Compute’ which

means to calculate or to manipulate.

A Computer is anything that transforms process information in a

purposeful way.
In Simple terms
A computer is a device that accepts data and instruction (in the form of
digitalized data) and process it according to the given instruction and
give the output.
OR
A computer can be described as an electronic calculating device that
accepts raw data as input, processes it and produces meaningful
information i.e. output as result.

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 1.3 Characteristics of Computer
Computer is the most powerful machine in today's world. It has become
the need in everyone's life. A computer can perform task very quickly and
accurately. Computer has its own features and characteristics. The
characteristics of computers that have made them so universally useful are
speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, storage capacity, power of
remembering, no IQ, no feeling

➢ Efficiency: The time take to process data by computer is called speed of

computer. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to
complete which is beyond of human Capacity. The speed of computer is
measured in MIPS (Millions Inch per Seconds).
➢ Speed: - In terms of speed computers can work incredibly fast to achieve
the needs of a human within a short span oftime.
➢ Accuracy: - In terms of accuracy the computer is 100 % accurate and so
computerized calculation is given importance in the field of science and
other subjects.
➢ Diligence: - Computer can work for hours without any break and
creating error.
➢ Versatility: - We can use computer to perform completely different type
of work at the same time.
➢ Storage Capacity: - Computer can store mass storage of data with
appropriate format.
➢ Reliability: The computer is a reliable electronic multipurpose and
multiprocessing machine. It processes data with high accuracy without
any mistakes.
➢ Power of Remembering: - It can remember data for us. One of the
examples includes mobile phones which retrieve phone numbers when
the name is selected or the name of the person when the mobile number
is dialed.
➢ No IQ: - Computer does not work without instructions.
➢ No feeling: - Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience,
and feeling.
➢ Artificial intelligence: The fifth-generation computer which recognizes
voice is based on artificial intelligence. The AI is applied in gaming
software, and robotics from many years, but operating system based on
AI is also in process which can recognize not only voice, but read mood
of users also. It gives suggestion and decision on complex problems.
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1.4 Functions of the Computer
The four basic functions of a computer system are as follows:
1.4.1 Data input
1.4.2 Data Processing
1.4.3 Information output
1.4.4 Data and information Storage
1.4.4.1Data input: -Receiving of accepting information from
outside sources. Some of the input devices are as shown
below.

1.4.4.2Data Processing: - The processing is done by the

computer processor. A processor is the logic circuitry that
responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a
computer. The term processor has generally replaced the
term central processing unit (CPU). The processor in a
personal computer or embedded in small devices is often
called a microprocessor.

(Microprocessor)
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 1.4.4.3 Information output: - The Output of a computer is done by
Output device. An output device is any device used to send data from a
computer to another device or user.

(Output Device)
1.4.4.4Data and information Storage: - The storage is done by a
storage devise. A storage device is any computing
hardware that is used for storing, Porting and extracting
data files and objects. It can hold and store information
both temporarily in Primary Storage Devices and

permanently in secondary storage devices which can be

internal or external to a computer.

(Primary Storage) (Secondary Storage)

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1.5 Application of Computer
Computer is used in areas which require huge amount of data to be processed
at a short period of time to give desired required output.
Where computer is used
Computer is used in many fields and they are

Research: Scientific Calculations where a human is prone to error.

1. Large scale data processing which human being cannot do
2. Getting data from dangerous locations where a human being can’t
reach or may lose life.
3. Telecommunication and many more.
4. Education: The computer provides various tool in the education
system like Computer Based Education that involves control,
delivery, and evaluation of learning
5. Health care: It used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different
diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
6. Entertainment: Audio video editing and pre and post production
activity is being done using computer system.
7. Banking: banking system is completely dependent on Computer
system. Online accounting facility, which includes checking current
balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges,
shares, and trustee records.
8. Engineering Design: One of the major areas is Computer Aided
Design that provides creation and modification of images.
9. Defense: Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks,
missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized control
systems.
10. Weather forecasting: Huge capacity computer system are used in
weather forecasting.

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Check your progress 1

Q.1. What is a computer? Describe the characteristics,

functions and application of computer?

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 1.6 Classification of Computer
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are
classified according to purpose, technology, size and capacity.
On the basis of purpose: Types of Computer
According to utilization of computer for different uses, computers are
of the following two types:
1.6.1 General Purpose
1.6.2 Special Purpose
1. General Purpose Computers: These are general purpose computers
that are used to perform a variety of tasks ranging from scientific as
well as business purpose applications. They are multi-purpose
computers that cater the needs of different people. They are
generally found in homes and offices. Their uses include
preparation of documents, letters, reports, gaming, financial
analysis, data recording and analysis etc.
2. Special Purpose Computers: Special purpose computers are
designed to perform only specialized task for which they are meant.
For example, weather forecasting, space research, air traffic control,
medical diagnostic etc. They may not have additional unnecessary
options. They are designed with specific instructions to perform a
particular type of work only.
On the basis of Technology: Types of Computer
According to the technology used, computers can be classified into three types:
1. Analog Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer (Analog +Digital)

1. Analog Computer: - An analog computer is

a form of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem
being solved.
(Analog Computer)
2. Digital: - The device capable of solving problems by processing
information in discrete form. It operates on data, including
magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary
form—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and1.
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 There are three major elements in a digital computer which help in
solving the problems they are: hardware,
software and data. The data is
processed by digital computers using
arithmetic and logical operations and
therefore, they are more reliable and
faster. They work on GIGO (Garbage
in and Garbage Out) principle and
require significant programming
efforts. The desktop PC used at home
is an example of digital computer,
other examples include note books,
work stations, smart phones etc.
(Digital Computer)

3. Hybrid (Analog + Digital): - Hybrid

computers are computers that exhibit
features of analog computers and
digital computers. The digital
component normally serves as the
controller and provides logical and
numerical operations, while the
analog component often serves as a
solver of differential equations and
other mathematically complex
equations.
(Hybrid Computer)
On the basis of Size and Capacity: Types of Computer
Computers can be as big in size as a room and as small as a hand palm.
Computers can be classified into four categories on the basis of their size
and capacity. These are:
1. Micro Computer (Personal Computer)
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Work Station
1. Micro Computers: These are small, low cost and single-user
digital computers. IBM PC (Personal Computer) and Apple
Macintosh are some examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers
include desktop computers, notebooks, laptops, tablets, smart
phones etc.

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 2. Mini Computer: Mini computers are much smaller in size than
mainframe computers but are larger than microcomputers. They are
also known as mid-range servers. In size and power, mini
computers lie between workstations and mainframes. Examples of
mini-computers are PDP 11, IBM 8000 series and VAX7500.
3. Mainframe Computer: A very large and expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple
microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves
to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs.
But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a
mainframe.
4. Super Computer: They are the most powerful and expensive
computers among digital computers category and are huge in size.
Because of their size and expense, they are very rare and used only
by large business houses, government and universities. They are the
fastest calculating device ever invented and are not used for
commercial data processing. They have huge primary memory and
the most advanced capabilities. Examples of super computers are:
CRAY-1, IBM’s Sequoia in United States, Fujitsu’s computer in
Japan, PRAM & ANURAG in India etc.
5. Work Station: A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In
this context, workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine
(client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."

Super Computer Mini Computer Mainframe Computer

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Check your progress 2

Q.1 What are the classifications of computer based on Purpose,

technology, size and capacity?

A.

Q.2 Define Computer. What are the functions of Computer System?

A.

Q.3 What are the Characteristics of Computer System?

A.

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 1.7 Generation of Computer

The evolution of computers can be divided into five generations. Each

generation represents technological evolutions over the period of time.
Each generation of computers resulted in better, cheaper and smaller
computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient than the previous
generation. The five generation
of computers with their technological advancements are discussed below.
1st Generation: - PERIOD :-( 1946-1959).
1. Used Vacuum tubes which radiated a lot of heat.
2. Worked on batch processing operating systems
3. Input devices used: - Punched Cards, paper tape, magnetic tape.
4. Output devices used: - Punched Cards, paper tape, and magnetic
tape.
5. Used machine code as programming language.
6. Consumed a lot of electricity
7. Slow input and slow output
8. Very huge in size and not portable.
Some of the examples of 1ST Generation computers are ENIAC,
EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701 and IBM-650
2nd Generation: - (1959-1965)
1. Used transistors which consumed less power.
2. More compact in size
3. More reliable and faster than the first-generation computers
4. Used magnetic core as the primary memory and magnetic tape
and magnetic disk as secondary memory.
5. Used machine, assembly language and high-level programming
languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL.
6. Used batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems.
7. Needed A/C
Some of the examples of 2nd Generation computers are IBM 1620, IBM
7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600 and UNIVAC 1108
3rd Generation (1965-1971)
1. Used Integrated Circuits.
2. More reliable and faster in comparison to the previous 2
generation computers.
3. Less heat and less maintenance.
4. Consumed less electricity
5. Costly and supported high level languages.

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Some of the examples of 3rd Generation computers are: IBM-360 series,
PDP (Personal Data Processor), IBM-370/168, TDC-316, Honeywell-
6000 series

4th Generation ((1971-1980)

Microprocessor Based
1.
Uses VLSI (Very large-scale Integration Circuit) Technology
2.
Very cheap
3.
Portable and reliable
4.
Use the concept of pipeline processing
5.
No A/C required
6.
Internet was introduced in these systems
7.
Some computers of this generation were: PDP 11, DEC 10, STAR
1000, CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer), CRAY-1(Super
Computer)
5th Generation (1980- till date)

1) Used Ultra Large Scale Integrati on circuits

2) Use of high-level languages such as C, C++, Java, vb.net., c#.net
3) Use of web development and web technologies
4) High speed portable and reliable
5) Used natural language processing
6) Used parallel processing
7) More friendly user interfaces with multimedia features
8) Use of web technologies such ASP, php, JSP, J2EE,SAP
9) Used super conductor technology
10) Very powerful compact computers at cheaper rates Some of the computers of this
generation are
• Desktop
• Laptop
• Notebook

Check your progress 3

Q. What are the generations of computer?

A.

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1.8 Components of computer

The components of a computer include the following

Input unit: - The input unit is used to input data into the computer.
Keyboard is an input devise.

Processing unit: - The processing unit is used to process the data.

CPU is a processing unit.

The CPU is comprised of 3 units

a) Memory unit /cache: - During the time of processing raw data
from the RAM some data from RAM is brought from the RAM to
cache memory prior to processing to increase processing speed.
This memory keeps on filling up and gets emptied by the control
unit till all the instructions and raw data from the RAM get
emptied. RAM on the other hand gets filled up with instructions
and raw data from the virtual memory (A Portion occupied in the
hard disk) by the control unit till the program is completely
executed.

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 A BRIEF OVER VIEW HOW THE PROCESSING TAKES
PLACE IN COMPUTERTOGIVEOUTPUT

Hard disk: - A device to store huge amount of data and

instructions. Data from the input unit is taken by the control unit
and stored in hard disk or sent to RAM for processing. When
working with heavy data and instruction from hard disk RAM is a
small place and so when data and instructions are too heavy to be
stored in RAM and so they are stored in the virtual memory a
Portion of hard disk for faster execution. Instructions and data in
RAM (Random Access Memory) go to the cache memory for
processing. Instructions and data from cache memory go to the
ALU for processing. After processing from ALU the output is
generated on printer/ monitor or stored to a hard drive. Once
instruction in RAM is over they are filled from virtual memory.
The cycle continues till all instructions are executed.
b) Control Unit: -It is responsible for controlling all parts of the computer.
• Responsible in controlling the transfer of data and
instructions among other units of a computer.
• Responsible in managing and coordinating with all the
units of the computer.
• Gets instructions from the memory, interprets them, and
accordingly directs the operation of the computer.
• Responsible in communication with input/output
devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

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 •Does not process or store data.
c) Arithmetic and Logic Unit: -Arithmetic and logic section is
comprised of2 units. They are arithmetic section and logic section.
• Arithmetic unit: - Arithmetic section is used to perform all
arithmetic operation namely addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division.
• Logic Unit: - Logic unit is used to perform all
logicoperations such as comparison, selection, matching
and merging ofdata.

Output unit: - Output unit is a devise which generates the

output. Example: - Printer

(Printer)

Other units to discuss

a) Secondary storage: - The secondary storage comprises of data

that is very large in nature. Hard Disk is an example secondary
storage device
b) Virtual memory. When the program is too large to be executed
in the memory the entire program does not load but only a
Portion of it which is to be executed comes to the RAM and the
rest of it is stored in the hard disk in the form of virtual memory.
This process is called paging.
c) External storage: -External data is a storage devise to
store data externally for the following reasons.
I. Easy data migration.
II. Vital Data remains safe in case computer crashes and
everything can be rebuilt in less time by the process called
restoration.

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 III. It helps to store maximum data and keeps the computer
drives empty to store data.
Examples of external storage are:
Pen drive: - A pen drive/USB flash drive is a data storage device that
includes flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial
Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are typically
removable and rewritable physically much smaller than an
optical disc. It comes in forms 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB,
and 64 GB.
External Hard disk: - An external hard drive is a Portable storage
device that can be attached to a computer through a USB or
FireWire connection, or wirelessly. External hard drives
typically have high storage
capacities and are often used to back up computers or serve
as a network drive. Capacity 500 GB, 1GB
Google Drive /Cloud storage:-Google Drive is a file storage and
synchronization service created by Google. It allows users
to cloud, share, and edit documents, spreadsheets, and
presentations with collaborators. Google Drive
encompasses Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides, an office
suite that permits collaborative editing of documents,
spreadsheets, presentations, drawings, forms, and more.

Check your progress 4

Q.1. Describe the components of computer.

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1.9 Let Us Sum Up

A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data)
and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of
instructions on how the data is to be processed and give the output.The
characteristics of computers that have made them so universally useful are
speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, storage capacity, power of remembering
,no IQ, no feeling. The functions of computer include input, storage, processing
and output. Computer is used for scientific calculations, large scale data
processing, getting data from dangerous places and telecommunications.
Computers ane classified into analog, digital and hybrid.The generations of
computer are 1st ,2nd,3rd,4th and 5th .The broad overview of the computer is
comprised of input unit , control unit , memory unit, arithmetic logic unit and
output unit. Coming to the detailed view the computer is comprised of cpu,cpu
fan, DVD, read all in one internal, power supply SMPS, keyboard, speaker,
mouse , hard disk, sound card, VGA card, RAM,CD-RW,DVD-RW,
motherboard, monitor.

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UNIT 02: Input Devices and Output Devices

Learning objectives
After the completion of this unit you should be able to know: -

1) Explain the definitions of peripheral devices.

2) Describe different types of input dev ices like punched cards,

keyboards,
3) mouse, digitizers and scanners and output devices like printers,
plotters, video display terminals and microfilms, their broad
design, their features advantages and disadvantages.
4) Discuss the common peripheral devices, their physical
appearances and the mode of operation of these dev ices. The
student would be able to use these devices in the practical
efficiently.

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Input Devices
2.3 Check your Progress
2.4 Output Devices
2.5 Questions for Self Study
2.6 Check your progress
2.7 Let us Sum Up
2.8 References

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2.1 Introduction
The major building blocks (or functional units) of a computer system
are input unit, output unit, processing unit and the memory. These
units correspond to the basic operations performed by all computer
system.
As seen earlier, computer hardware is made up of the physical parts of
the
computer system like the electronic ICs, magnetic storage media and
the mechanical devices.
The devices which are a means of communication between the
computer and the outside world are called as peripheral devices.
Those peripheral devices which supply information i.e. data and
programs from the outside world to the computer are the input
devices. Those peripheral devices which give information from the
computer to the user or store them in secondary storage devices, like
floppy disks or tapes for future use are called output devices.
The processors which are required to convert the input data into
machine readable form and to convert the output generated by the
computer into human readable form are known as input/output (I/O)
interfaces. There are two concepts related to the way in which data is
input to the computer:
1. On-line Data Input: - Here data is directly transferred to the
computer
2. Off-line Data Input: - Here the data is not immediately
transferred to the computer.

2.2 Input Devices:

The data and instructions that a computer receives are called input.

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 (Different Input devices)
An input device is used to give instructions to the computer. It
works like our sense organs (nose, eyes, ears etc.) which takes in
information (by smelling, seeing, listening etc.) and send it to our
brain. Without the input devices we can’t do anything with
computer.
There are many input devices like keyboard, mouse, scanner,
touch-screen, joystick, light pen, MICR, OCR and OMR. We can
group these input units into following types.
Text input devices: Keyboard
Pointing devices: Mouse, touch screen, light pen
Gaming devices: Joystick
Image video input devices: scanner, web cam, OCR, MICR,
OMR
Audio input devices: microphones
Keyboard
Keyboard is the way to enter data or instruction into a computer.
It has different keys for letters of alphabet, numbers, function
keys, other keys which move cursor on the screen and special
keys. The standard keyboard has 104 keys. Keyboard can be
used to type documents and to send instructions to the CPU. The
different keys are as follows:

(Keyboard)

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  Alphanumeric keys – All of the letters and numbers on the
keyboard. A- Z and0-9.
 Punctuation keys – All of the keys associated with
punctuation such as the comma, period, semicolon,
brackets, and parenthesis and so on. Also, all of the
mathematical operators such as the plus sign, minus sign,
and equal sign.
 Special keys – All of the other keys on the computer
keyboard such as the function keys, control keys, arrow
keys, caps lock key, delete key, etc.
 Special keys on a PC Keyboard

1. Alt key – Short for Alternate, this key is like a second

Control key.

2. Arrow keys – Most keyboards have four arrow keys that

enable you to move the cursor (or insertion point) up, down,
right, or left. Used in conjunction with the Shift or Alt keys,
the arrow keys can move the cursor
more than one position at a time, but this depends on which
program is running.
3. Backspace key – Deletes the character just to the left of the
cursor (or insertion point) and moves the cursor to that
position.
4. Caps Lock key – A toggle key that, when activated, causes all
alphabetic characters to be uppercase.
5. Ctrl key – Short for Control, this key is used in conjunction
with other keys to produce control characters. The meaning of
each control character depends on which program is running.
6. Delete key – Sometimes labeled Del, deletes the character at
the current cursor position, or the selected object, but does not
move the cursor. For graphics-based applications, the delete
key deleted the character to the right of the insertion point.
7. Enter key – Used to enter commands or to move the cursor to
the beginning of the next line. Sometimes labeled Return
instead of Enter.
9. Esc key – Short for Escape, this key is used to send special
codes to devices and to exit (or escape) from programs and
tasks.

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 10. Function Keys – Special keys labeled F1 to F12. These keys
have different meaning depending on which program is
running.
Advantages of the keyboard:
 It is very easy to use a keyboard
 It offers a number of facilities
 Editing or changing the input data is very easy with the help of the keyboard
 It is relatively Inexpensive
Punch Cards
Data is recorded onto punch cards or punch tapes using standard
codes, like the Hollerith code. The pattern of these holes is interpreted
by a card reader device and converted into machine readable form. A
punch card machine is used to transcribe the data onto the card.
Characteristic of punch card
 they are cheaper
 they are reliable.
Disadvantage of punch card
The major drawback of these cards is that they cannot be reused. Also,
the cards have to be handled and stored carefully. Even if a single card
is misplaced or the arrangement of the cards gets disturbed it becomes
very difficult to rearrange them and to detect their problem. Punched
cards require large storage space since they cannot be folded.

Mouse
The mouse is the most popular pointing and cursor-control input
device. Generally, it has two buttons called left and right buttons and a
scrollbar is present at the middle. The mouse can be used to control the
position of the cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into
the computer.

Advantages:
➢ Easy to use.
➢ Not too expensive.
➢ Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
The various types of mouse in use are
➢ Mechanical mouse
➢ Optical mouse
➢ Opt mechanical mouse

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Light Pen
It is a pointing device like mouse. Its shape is like a pen. With a light
pen, we can move the pointer
and select the object by
directly touching the object by
pen on the screen. It has a
light sensitive element on
the tip of pen, which detects
the location of the pen on the
screen. We can also draw on
the screen using light pens.

(Light Pen)
Joystick:
Joystick is similar to mouse. It is mainly used in computer games. It is
also used in CAD/CAM systems and other applications. It has a stick
that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it
is controlling. It has one or more buttons
which are called trigger and are used to
trigger the action.

Track Ball
The trackball is an input device that is
mostly used in a notebook or a laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a
ball, which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball
requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes
like a ball, a button and a square.
The track ball uses a hard sphere to control cursor movement. The bail
can be rotated in any direction by hand and this is translated into a
digital signal to control the cursor movement on the screen.

Scanners
Scanners are peripheral devices used to digitize (convert to electronic
format) artwork, photographs, text, or other items from hard copy. In a
sense, a scanner works as a pair of eyes for your PC. Your eyes see an
image and translate the image into electrical impulses that travel to
and are interpreted by your brain. Similarly, a scanner captures images
and converts them to digital data that travel to and are interpreted by
the computer.

Page | 24
A scanner works by dividing an image into microscopic rows and
columns and measuring, like the film in a camera, how much light (or
lack thereof) reflects from each individual intersection of the rows and
columns. Each reflection is recorded as a dot, or picture element
(pixel). After the scanner collects information from each dot, it
compiles the result into a digital file on the computer.

There are a wide variety of scanners that work in a number of different

ways, but the technology behind them is essentially the same.

The following sections discuss the more popular types of scanners

available today.

Types of scanners:
Flatbed Scanners: Flatbed scanners look and behave a lot like a
photocopier. You lay the item to be scanned on a glass plate and the
scanning head passes below the glass. Flatbed scanners are very
versatile: you can scan objects in a variety of sizes and shapes,
including pages from a book, without damaging the original. While
flatbed scanners are the best choice for a wide variety of uses, if you
plan to do a lot of text scanning (called OCR for Optical Character
Recognition) work, keep in mind that flatbeds only accommodate one
page at a time. Scanning multi-page documents can be a slow, tedious
process, because you have to manually remove one page and insert the
next.

Sheetfed Scanners: Sheetfed scanners look and act more like fax
machines. The page or item is fed into the machine, scanned, then spit
out on the other end. A sheetfed scanner is a good choice for large
volumes of text, but not for handling delicate original photographs.
Scanning directly from a book or other three-dimensional object is
impossible.

Hand Scanners: Hand scanners are a low-cost alternative to their

larger, more sophisticated counterparts. As their name implies, hand
scanners are manual devices you move over a flat surface, just as you
do your PC's mouse,

The hand scanner's advantages are many, but so are its disadvantages.
Generally, hand scanners work best for small, uncomplicated images
such as company logos or small black-and-white photographs. You
might want a hand scanner if you do not plan to use it on a regular
basis, because it usually does not require adding internal cards to your

Page | 25
CPU, and it's easily disconnected and stored away. Most hand
scanners can only scan a four-inch wide image at one time and require
a steady hand. You're usually provided with software that helps you
"sew up" a series of these 4-inch, side-by-side scans into one image,
but this is obviously not as convenient as getting the full image at
once.

Touch Screen:
A touch screen is becoming very popular input device these days. By
using touch screen monitors, user can operate a computer by simply
touching the monitor. Touch input is suitable for a wide variety of
computing applications. We can select options and give commands by
pressing different areas on the screen.

A touch panel is a transparent plate which is fitted over the CRT. Input
is registered when a finger or any other object comes in contact with
the plate.

There are two types of touch panels:

Optical touch panels
Electric touch panels
A touch screens are sensitive to the touch of a finger. A touch-screen
system is made up of a touch sensor, a controller card, and a software
driver. When we touch the screen area, the touch screens panel
registers these touch events and passes these signals to the controller.
Then the controller processes the signals and sends the data to the
processor. The software driver translates touch events into mouse
events.

(Touch Screen)

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MICR
It stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition. It is pronounced as
“my-ker”. It is character recognition technology used mainly by the
banks to facilitate the processing of cheque. You must have seen a
cheque having a number at the bottom. That number uses special
magnetic ink. Writing style is also different. Magnetic ink is used so
that character can be read into the system even when they are
overprinted by the other marks like cancellation stamp.

Characters in magnetic ink are read by a special machine. This

machine changes these characters into code, so that the computer can
verify the characters for its duplication.

OMR
It stands for Optical Mark Recognition. The popular recognition
technology is used for collecting data from “fill-in-the bubble” forms
such as educational test, surveys, assessments, evaluation and many
others multiple choice forms. OMR has been widely used in education
since the 1960s and still popular today.

Optical Character Reader (OCR): The Optical Character Reader

(OCR) can read alphabets, characters and numbers printed on paper.
These characters can be either handwritten or typed. However special
fonts are required to be used while typing. In case of handwritten data,
the characters have to be of standard predefined size. The OCR reads
each character as a collection of pixels. The light which is reflected
from the page to be scanned is converted into binary data. OCRs are
available in various sizes and speeds. These devices are expensive and
are mainly used in processing where the data volumes are large.

(Bar Code Reader)

This device is used for the data entry purposes. It uses one of the two
following methods: Matrix matching method and feature extraction
method.

In matrix matching method, When the OCR scanner reads data; Matrix
matching takes the data as a character and compares this character
with a set of stored character matrices or templates. When an image

Page | 27
match one of these prescribed matrices of dots within a given level of
similarity, the computer labels that image as the corresponding ASCII
character.

In Feature extraction method, when the OCR scans the letters, scanned
letters are condensed into their basic features. Then the basic features
of a letter are compared to a list of features stored in a program's code.
If the features match, the letter is recognized.
For example: the letter "a" is made from a circle, a line on the right
side and an arc over the middle. The arc over the middle is optional.
So, if a scanned letter had these "features" it would be correctly
identified as the letter "a" by the OCR program.

Web Cam
It is a small camera, which gives an image as an input.

Micro Phone
It is used to give voice input to the computer. It is connected to the
sound card in the computer. It provides input by converting the sound
into electrical signal.

Digitizer
A digitizer converts a graphical or pictorial data into digital form
which can be directly entered and stored in a computer. A digitizer is
also called as a graphics tablet.

There are two types of digitizers:

Image scan digitizer and flatbed digitizer
In the image scan digitizer, the entire image is scanned and reproduced
automatically. Therefore, the image scan digitizers are more powerful
as compared to flatbed digitizers. Flatbed digitizers are mainly used in
simple drawings, graphs etc.
whereas image scan digitizers are used for photographs and pictures.

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Voice Recognition Systems:
This system allows the user to talk with the computer. The Voice
Recognition System consists of a microphone or telephone into which
the operator speaks. The speech is converted into electrical signals.
The signal is input as the voice of the operator. This is matched with
an already entered pre-stored pattern of words called vocabulary.
When the closest match is found the word is recognized. Since each
operator may have a different style of speaking; all Voice Recognition
systems are highly operator dependent. Also, a separate vocabulary for
each operator is required to be maintained. The advantages of the
Voice Recognition systems are that they reduce the cost of data entry.
Also, the operator can move freely while talking into the computer.

2.3 Check your Progress

1. Fill in the blanks
a) ……………… is an example of a picking device.
b) ………………. is an example of a pointing device
c) A digitizer is also as a ……………

2. Give the full form of the following.

a) MICR b) OCR c) OMR
3. Match the following.
A B
a) Punch card 1) Computer games
b) Bar code 2) Output devices
c) Joy stick 3) Hollerith Code
d) Floppy Disk 4) Universal Product Code (UPC)

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2.4 Output Devices
Anything that provides us with information is output device. The
output device allows the compute to communicate with the outside
world by accepting data from the computer and transforming it into
user readable form. In the computer, the output is produced in the form
of binary code. Output devices, such as printer, monitor and speaker
display it in a way that we can understand. Output can be displayed on
the screen or printed on a paper or can be heard on the speaker. Printed
output is called hard copy. Output on the screen is called soft copy.

The Output devices can be categorized into following types:

 Image/video output devices: Printer, Plotter, Monitor

 Audio output devices: Speaker, headphones

Printer: It is an output device. It takes what you see on the computer

and prints it on the paper or transparent sheet. Printed output is also
termed as hard copy. Printer uses ink to put data on paper or
transparent sheet. There are different types of printers such as:

 Dot Matrix Printer

 Ink Jet Printer
 Daisy Wheel Printer
 Laser Printer

Page | 30
Speed of the printer is measured in cps (character per second), lpm
(line per minute), ppm (pages per minute). The quality of the print is
measured in dpi (dots per inch). Some printers can print in color also.
Dot matrix, ink jet and laser printers are most commonly used printers.
Printer can be classified into two categories according to the
technologies used in them. Impact printer and non-impact printer. An
impact printer uses a device to press/strike something against the
ribbon to put a character on the page. Dot matrix, daisy and line
printer are impact printers.

Non-impact printers print without having a mechanism to strike

against a sheet of paper. Inkjet, laser and thermal printer are non-
impact printer.

Dot Matrix Printer: It uses dots to form characters on a paper. Dots

are made by pins. Dot matrix printer is made up of steel pins which
strike the paper through an inked ribbon to create a pattern of tiny
dots. The quality of print depends upon the number of steel pins in the
machine.

Daisy Wheel printer: In this type of printer, the part that puts the
characters looks like a wheel. Numbers and letters are arranged in a
wheel. And the daisy wheel spins until the correct letter is in position.
Then hammer strikes the character against the ribbon, printing it on the
paper.

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Line Printer: It prints a complete
line of text at a time. It uses drum or
chain with all the characters in the
character set on it. The drum or
chain moves and prints the necessary
characters in the right place.

Ink jet printer: It prints the

character using fine jet of ink which
comes out from the tiny nozzles onto
the paper. The ink is kept in
reservoir and fed into the firing
chambers just below each nozzle.

Laser Printer: It uses a beam of light

(laser beam) to convert binary data into
print. The laser puts an electric charge in
the shape of a character on the rotating
drum. The dry ink or toner stick only to
the drum where it has been charged.
These printers are very fast. They can
print a whole page at once.

Thermal Printer: It uses heat to put the

characters on the paper. The paper has a
special coating on it. The printer uses heated
wires to turn the paper black. It is basically
used for record ECG in hospital or lab.

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Plotter: Plotter is a special type of output device designed to produce
high quality graphics in a variety of colors. A plotter is an output
device used in applications where printouts of graphs and drawings
are required. Plotters are of two types:

1) Flatbed i.e. X-Y plotter:

This plotter plots on a paper
which is fixed on a rectangular
flatbed table. One recording
pen moves in the x direction
and one in the y direction to
plot on the paper. Color
plotting is al so possible by
using pens of different colors.

2) Drum Plotter:
In this plotter the paper on
which the output is to be
obtained, is placed over a drum. The drum rotates back and forth to
produce motion. The pen is mounted horizontally across the drum and
the horizontal motion of the
pen is achieved with the help
of the pen holder.
The drum and the holder move
simultaneously to produce
output. Multi coloured printing
is possible by changing the
pens.
The speed of plotters is very
slow. Therefore, normally the
output is first sent to some

Page | 33
secondary storage device like a magnetic tape and then directed to the
plotter.
Monitor: It is a visual display unit (VDU), often called a monitor.
Computer generates data or output which can be displayed on the
monitor. It is an electrical device and looks like a television screen.
There are two types of monitors: CRT monitor and LCD Monitors.
CRT Monitor uses picture tubes also called cathode ray tube (picture
tube is used in television) to display information or image on the
screen. Generally, these monitors are large and bulky due to this
picture tube. It also requires relatively high voltage power supply.

Because of the high voltage requirement and bulky size, there are
several new technology-based monitors have been developed. They
use flat panel LCD (liquid crystal display) display in place of cathode
ray tube. They are very thin and light weight.

CRT: An electron beam is moved across a phosphor coated screen to

produce the image. The CRT can be monochrome or colored. This
screen normally has 25 lines and 80 characters.
Flat Panel Display: The most common flat panel display is the Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). This does not have a picture tube. The other
type of display is the gas plasma screen.
The Video Display Terminal:
The most popular output device in direct access processing is the
Video Display Terminal. These terminals display information
instantaneously. The monitor and the keyboard together are called a
terminal. The types of terminals are:
Dumb Terminal: This is a combination of a keyboard and monitor
which can send or receive data, but cannot process the data.
Smart Terminal: A smart terminal has an inbuilt microprocessor. It
can perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. They also have
some memory capacity. So, they can store the data before sending to
the processor. They can also control the cursor movement.
Intelligent Terminal: This type of terminal also has an inbuilt
microprocessor which can be programmed by the user. These
terminals also have limited processing capability.
They can communicate with other terminals and processors.

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Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
This technology is used to record the computer output as microscopic
filmed images.
Information is recorded on a roll of
microfilm. A microfilm recorder displays
the information onto a screen. An inbuilt
camera then takes pictures of this
information. A microfilm reader is used to
view this information. COM devices are
normally used in application where there are
large volumes of data.
COM devices are much faster than the
normal printers. Also, since the size of these
films is very small the space required for storage is very less as compared
to printed output.
However, since COM systems are highly sophisticated they are relatively
expensive and are mainly used where there are high volumes of data.
Speaker: Speakers are output devices which produce sound. They are
just like stereo speakers. A speaker is a device that produces computer
output as sound Speakers are common devices in computer systems
Examples include:

 Built-in speaker
 Two-device set speakers
 Surround sound speakers

2.5 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY

1. Define: Peripheral Devices, Input Devices, Output Devices

2. Write Short notes on: Punched Cards, Keyboard, Optical Scanner,

Plotter.

3. What are impact printers? Describe any two types of impact printers.

4. What is COM?

5. Describe the various types of computer terminals.

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2.6 Check Your Progress:

Q.1 What is the function of an Input device? Identify five different types
of Input devices.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

Q.2 What do you mean by VDU? Explain with example.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

Q.3 What is a terminal? Name any two types of terminals.

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.

Q.4 What is an impact printer? Name one impact printer.

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

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2.7 Let us Sum Up
The devices of the computer system which are a means of communication
between the computer system and the outside world are called as peripheral
devices.
Those devices which accept data from the user are input devices, and those
devices that give information from the computer to the user or store it in
secondary storage devices for later use are output devices.
Input Output Interfaces are the processors which convert the data input by
the user into a form which can be understood by the computer and also
convert output generated by the computer into a human readable form. Data
can be entered in the computer directly i.e. online or after first preparing it
and entering later i.e. offline.

Page | 37
2.8 References

1. Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications – P.K

Sinha

2. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/

3. https://learn.saylor.org/mod/book/view.php?id=22047&chapterid=4
9#:~:text=Input%20and%20output%20devices%20allow,Keyboard

4. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/informationliteracy/chapter/comp
uter-devices/

5. https://press.rebus.community/programmingfundamentals/chapter/in
put-and-output/

Page | 38
UNIT-03: Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices
Learning Objective
This chapter “Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices” will enable
you to
 Explain what is a storage unit and the criteria according to which the
different
 types of storage are ranked.
 Describe various types of storage devices and their storage capacities.
 Discuss various concepts related to memory of the computer

UNIT STRUCTURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Representation of data concepts and data processing
3.3 Basic data types
3.4 Computer Memory Units
3.5 Storage Unit
3.6 Characteristics of Storage units
3.7 Primary Storage
3.8 Check your Progress
3.9 Secondary Storage Devices
3.10 Check your Progress
3.11 Let us Sum Up
3.12 Questions for Self Study
3.13 References

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3.1 Introduction
In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs
(sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic
device. The term primary memory is used for the information in physical
systems which function at high-speed (i.e. RAM), as a distinction from
secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and data storage
which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity.
Computer memory is a temporary storage area. It holds the data and
instructions that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before a program
can run, the program is loaded from storage into the memory. This allows the
CPU direct access to the computer program. Memory is needed in all
computers.
A computer is usually a binary digital electronics device. Binary means it has
only two states. On or Off. Zero or One. In a binary digital computer
transistor are used to switch the electricity on and off. The computer's
memory is made from lots of transistors.
Each on/off setting in the computer's memory is called a binary digit or bit.
A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is made from two nibbles of
four bits each. Computer scientists made up the words bit and byte. The word
bit is short for binary digit. It takes bi from binary and adds the t from digit.
A collection of bits was called a bite. The computer scientists changed the
spelling to byte to avoid confusion. When the computer scientists needed a
word for half a byte, they thought nibble, as in half a bite, would be a fun
word to choose.

3.2 Representation of data concepts and data processing

Data is distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special way. All
software is divided into two general categories: data and programs. Programs
are collections of instructions for manipulating data.
Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers or text on pieces of paper,
as bits and bytes stored in electronic memory, or as facts stored in a person's
mind.

Page | 40
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any
further information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means
"unstructured facts and figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed
data. To process the data and convert into information, a computer is used.
Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information.
In practice, however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of
the word.
In programming, classification of a particular type of information. It is easy
for humans to distinguish between different types of data. We can usually
tell at a glance whether a number is a percentage, a time, or an amount of
money. We do this through special symbols -- %, :, and $ -- that indicate the
data's type. Similarly, a computer uses special internal codes to keep track of
the different types of data it processes.

3.3 Basic data types

Most programming languages require the programmer to declare the data
type of every data object, and most database systems require the user to
specify the type of each data field. The available data types vary from one
programming language to another, and from one database application to
another, but the following usually exist in one form or another:
integer: In more common parlance, whole number; a number that has no
fractional part.
floating-point: A number with a decimal point. For example, 3 is an integer,
but 3.5 is a floating-point number.
character (text): Readable text Storage of data as files Computer data
storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of
computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a
core function and fundamental component of computers. The central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer is what manipulates data by performing
computations.
A modern digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system.
Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can
be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value
of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits.

Page | 41
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology
consisting of computer components and recording media used to retain
digital data. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers.
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is what manipulates data by
performing computations.

3.4 Computer Memory Units

Computer memory Units. Memory unit is: the amount of data that can be
stored in the storage unit. That in which storage capacity is expressed in terms
of Bytes.
Bits and Bytes
Bits − A bit is a smallest possible unit of data that a computer can recognize
or use. Computer usually uses bits in groups.
Bytes − group of eight bits is called a byte. Half a byte is called a nibble.

Page | 42
 Sl. No. Unit Description
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1
representing a passive or an active
1 Bit (Binary Digit)
state of a component in an electric
circuit.

2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

A group of 8 bits is called byte. A

3 Byte byte is the smallest unit which can
represent a data item or a character.

5 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

6 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
7 Giga Byte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
8 Tera Byte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
9 Peta Byte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Text Code
Text code is format used commonly to represent alphabets, punctuation
marks and other symbols. Four most popular text code systems are −

 EBCDIC
 ASCII
 Extended ASCII
 Unicode

EBCDIC
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code is an 8-bit code that
defines 256 symbols. Given below is the EBCDIC Tabular column

Page | 43
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange is an 8-bit code that
specifies character values from 0 to 127.

Decimal Decimal
ASCII Code Character ASCII Code Character
Value Value

0000 0000 0 Null prompt 0000 0100 4 End of transmit

0000 0001 1 Start of heading 0000 0101 5 Enquiry

0000 0010 2 Start of text 0000 0110 6 Acknowledge

0000 0011 3 End of text 0000 0111 7 Audible bell

0000 1000 8 Backspace

0000 1001 9 Horizontal tab

0000 1010 10 Line Feed

Page | 44
Unicode
Unicode Worldwide Character Standard uses 4 to 32 bits to represent letters,
numbers and symbol.

3.5 Storage Unit

Storage Unit: A storage unit is that part of the computer system which is used
to store the data and instructions to be processed. There are two types of
storage:
1) Primary storage
2) Secondary storage.
Primary memory is also known as internal memory. This is a section of the
CPU which holds program instructions, input data and intermediate results.
Primary memory is also known as main memory.
Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is
used mainly for permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.

3.6 Characteristics of Storage units:

The storage units have special characteristics which decide the:
 Speed of operation of the computer,
 Its efficiency,
 Cost and
 The amount of data which the computer can store.
The storage unit of the computer is graded according to the following
characteristics (whether primary or secondary):

Page | 45
• Access time:
This is the time required to locate and retrieve a particular data from the
storage unit. A fast access to data and programs always yields higher
efficiency.
• Storage Capacity:
Storage capacity is the amount of data that can be stored by a storage unit.
Large capacity of data storage is always desirable.
As seen earlier, the smallest unit of data which the computer understands is
the bit. A group of 8 bits forms a byte. The storage capacity of a computer
system is defined in terms of bytes or words. One kilobyte (1 KB) is 2^ or
1024 bytes, eg. 4 KB memory implies that it can store 4 x 1024 bytes or
characters.
Storage capacities of primary and secondary units are measured in Kilobytes,
megabytes, gigabytes.
• Cost:
Low cost storage media are always desirable.
Thus, storage units with faster access time, higher storage capacity and low
costs are the ones which are considered to be of a superior nature.

3.7 Primary Storage

Primary storage is characterized by faster access time, less storage capacity
and higher costs as compared to secondary storage units. Primary storage or
main memory is that part of the computer system which stores the programs,
data and intermediate results during the program execution.
A primary storage comes as an integral part of all computer systems. It
comprises of a number of small locations. Each location has a unique number
assigned to it. This is called as the address of the location and it is used to
identify the location.
Each location has a capacity to store a fixed number of bits. The number of
bits that a location can store is called as word length. Each location contains
the same number of bits.
Normally, primary memory size ranges from a few kilobytes on small
computers to several thousand kilo bytes and megabytes on larger machines.

Page | 46
The primary storage is volatile. Whenever the power is turned off the data is
lost. Primary storage is also called Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM
means it is possible to randomly select and use any storage location for
storage and retrieval of data. RAM is also called a read/write memory
because data can both be read from and written onto these units. When the
power is switched off the data stored in the RAM is lost.

Organization of Primary storage unit

• ROM: ROM is Read Only Memory. In this type of memory, the data
is permanently stored. The information can only be read and new data
cannot be written onto this memory. However, the contents of the
ROM are not lost even when the power is turned off i.e. this memory
is non-volatile. Such memories are also called as field stores, or
permanent stores.
There are a number of high-level functions which are required to be
performed by the computer system. Such functions are performed by
writing special programs called micro programs. Micro programs
generally execute the low-level machine functions. These programs
are mainly used as a substitute for hardware. Such programs can be
stored on ROMs and be used again and again. This results in reducing
the hardware of the system. ROM helps to increase the efficiency of
the CPU as it can perform specialized tasks. ROM comes in the form
of a chip. Once information is stored on a ROM chip it cannot be
changed or altered.
 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory. These are
ROMs which can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is
used to enter the program on the PROM.

Page | 47
 Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM
cannot be altered.
PROM is nonvolatile i.e. data is not lost when power is switched off.
• EPROM: Another type of memory is the Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory.
It is possible to erase the data which has been previously stored on
an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.
 Cache Memory:
This is a very special type of high-speed memory. This memory
cannot be accessed by the user. The main function of this cache
memory is to make the programs and data available to the CPU very
fast.
Access time of memory is generally very high as compared to the
execution time of the GPU. Therefore, a cache, which is a very small
but fast memory, is used between the CPU and the main memory.
This memory also called a high-speed buffer.
A cache stores those segments of programs and data which are
frequently needed. It makes available this data to the CPU at a very
fast rate thus increasing the efficiency.
 Registers:
Registers are used to retain information temporarily. These are
special memory units which are not actual parts of the main memory,
but allow efficient movement of information between the various
units of the computer system. The registers receive information, hold
it temporarily and make it available as and when required.
A computer uses a number of registers, where each register performs
a specific function. Some of the common registers are:
1. Memory Address Register (MAR): The function of this register
is to hold the address of the current or active memory location.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the
contents of the address from which data is read or to which data
has been written.
3. Program Control Register: It holds the address of the next
instruction to be executed.

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 4. Accumulator Register: It holds the initial data, the intermediate
results and the final data of the program under execution.
5. Instruction Register: This register holds the current instruction
being executed.
6. Input/output Register: The function of this register is to
communicate with the Input/output devices.
The storage capacity of primary storage is limited. It is normally not
sufficient to accommodate all the data. Therefore, secondary storage medium
is used to store large volumes of data. The cost of secondary memory is much
less as compared to primary memory; however, access time of primary
memory is very fast. The data stored on secondary storage is transferred to
the primary storage as and when required.
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary memory. Secondary storage is used
for storing copies of data and programs. This is a non-volatile memory and
is stored external to the computer.

3.8 Check your Progress

a) Name the two types of storage:
.............................................................................................................
b) Name the characteristics according to which the storage devices are
ranked
.............................................................................................................
c) Give the names of any two registers used by the computer:
............................................................................................................
2. Give the full form of: a. RAM b.ROM c. PROM d. EPROM

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3.9 Secondary Storage Devices
Information stored on secondary storage devices can be accessed in two ways:
 Sequential Access and
 Direct Access:
Sequential Access Devices:
Sequential or serial access
In sequential access data can be accessed only in the sequence in which it has
been stored. Typical sequential access storage device is the magnetic tape.
These types of devices are useful in applications like pay slip printing where
the data is to be accessed one after the other.
Types of Access Devices:
a) Punch Paper Tape:
Punched paper tapes were the early devices of data storage. Data is coded
onto a paper tape as a combination of punched holes across the width of the
tape. Each row on the tape represents one character. The data has to be coded
on the tapes using special coding systems. The punched paper tapes are a
low-cost storage medium and their storage capacity is unlimited. However,
the paper is susceptible to wear and tear and mishandling. Nowadays,
punched paper tapes are rarely being used wear and tear and mishandling.
Nowadays, punched paper tapes are rarely being used.

Sequential Access Devices: Paper tape, magnetic tapes

b) Magnetic Tape:
A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar which is coated with a thin layer of iron
oxide material on one side. This tape is stored on a cassette or cartridge, or
reel. The iron oxide material can be magnetized and the data is recorded on
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the tape in the form of magnetized and non-magnetized spots. A magnetic
tape drive is used to read data from the tape or write information to the tape.
The tape drive has a read/write head to access or store information
respectively.
Magnetic tape is a read write device where the data can be written as well as
erased and new data recorded on the same area. The tape is divided into
vertical columns and horizontal rows. The columns are called frames and the
rows are called tracks.
Special computer codes are used for recording data on the tape. One character
is recorded on each frame. Most modern tapes have 9 tracks, and use the
EBCDIC code for data representation. The actual number of characters that
can be stored on an inch of a tape is known as the density of the tape.
The storage capacity of magnetic tapes is very large. This capacity is
measured in terms of bytes per inch. Most common tape densities are 800
bpi, 1600 bpi.
Nowadays tapes with much higher densities of the order of 6000 bpi are also
available.
The records in a tape can be of any size. Also, all the records in a given file
need not be same in length. Thus, the tapes can store fixed length and v
variable length records. In between two consecutive records the computer
automatically keeps a fraction of the tape blank. This blank space is called
the Interlock gap, while reading from the tape, the drive takes a finite amount
of time to physically stop when the end of the record is reached. Therefore,
this interlock gap is created to avoid loss of any data of the subsequent record
that may have been stored while the drive mechanism comes to a halt.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes:
- High data density and virtually unlimited storage
- Low in cost
- Easy to handle and portable from one computer to another.
Limitations are:
- Support only Sequential access
- Tapes are sensitive to dust; humidity and temperature, hence require
proper storage facilities.

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Direct Access Storage Devices
Random or direct access
In random access the data at any location on the storage unit can be accessed
directly without having to follow the sequence in which it has been stored.
Typical dev ices that support direct access are the magnetic disk and
magnetic drum.
a) Magnetic Disk: A magnetic disk is a thin metallic/Mylar platter circular
in shape.
It is coated on both sides with magnetic material. A number of these disks
are mounted on a disk pack, on a central shaft. Thus, all the disks in the disk
pack move at the same speed, simultaneously in the same direction. These
disks are also called as hard disks or fixed disks. Hard disk can be
permanently installed in the drive or can also be in the form of a removable
cartridge. The data are recorded as magnetic spots on the coating of the disk.
The presence of a magnetic spot represents1 and the absence represents a 0.
The standard binary code, 8 -bit EBCDIC is used for recording data on the
disk. Information is stored on both the surfaces of the disk. Each disk is
divided into a number of concentric circles called tracks. All the
corresponding tracks in all the surfaces are together called a cylinder.
Information is not stored on the outer surface of the upper plate and the lower
surface of the bottom plate.

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In some of the disks the outer tracks contain more data bits since the outer
circumference is greater. However, in most of the disks each track stores the
same number of characters. This means that the inner tracks, with a smaller
circumference are more densely packed than the outer tracks.
Magnetic disk is a random or direct access storage device. The data is read
from or written onto the disk surface with the use of read/write heads. These
heads are of flying type. They do not come in actual contact with the surface
of the disk.
There are two types of disk systems:
1) Moving head System:
This consists of one read/write head for each disk surface. This head is
mounted on an access arm which moves in and out. Thus, each head moves
horizontally across the surface of the disk and can access each track
individually.
2) Fixed head System:
In this system the access arm does not move. A large number of read/write
heads one for each track are distributed over the surface of the disk. In this
system the data access becomes very fast. However, extra space is needed to
accommodate all the heads. The time required to access the data stored on
the disk depends upon the following factors:
• The seek time - the time required for positioning the read/write head
over the appropriate track
• The latency time - the time required to spin the required data under
the head. This time is also called the search time.
b) Floppy Disks:
Floppy disks are made up of flexible Mylar coated
with iron oxide. This disk is enclosed in a square
plastic jacket to protect the surface of the disk
from dust. A floppy disk is to be inserted in the
floppy disk drive of the computer system to read
or write information. The read/write head of the
drive makes a direct contact with the floppy disk.
While accessing or storing data, Floppy disks
come in various sizes

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  8 inch floppy disks
 51/4 inch floppy disks
 31/2 inch floppy disks
A floppy disk can be single sided or double sided i.e. data can be written on
a Floppy disk: 51/4 inch and 31/2-inch single side or on both the sides. A
double-sided disk drive is required to read data from a double-sided disk.
This disk drive has two heads, one for each side. A single sided drive has
only one head. Floppy disks can also be single side double density and double
side double density depending upon their storage capacity.
Floppy disks are a very popular storage medium since they are small in size,
relatively cheap and can store data on line. Floppy disks are also very
portable. They can be carried form one place to another very easily.
c) Winchester Disk: In a Winchester, the disks are permanently enclosed in
a sealed container. The disks are coated with a special lubricant to reduce
friction with the read/write head. This technology allows for an increase in
the number of tracks on the disk, and higher storage density. Winchester
disks are fast and highly reliable. They are used extensively in
microcomputers.
d) Magnetic Drum: This is a cylinder whose outer surface is coated with a
thin layer of magnetic material. A motor rotates on the cylinder at a constant
speed. Data is recorded on the tracks of the drum as magnetized spots. A set
of stationary read/write heads are positioned slightly away from the surface
of the drum. Data is read from and written onto this drum with the help of
these heads. The drum rotates are relatively fast speeds of the order of a
several thousand rotations per minute. Magnetic drums have faster data
transfer rates as compared to disks. However, their storage capacity is
limited. Magnetic drums are rarely used today.
Optical Devices
Optical Disk: An optical disk is made up of a rotating disk which is coated
with a thin reflective metal. To record data on the optical disk, a laser beam
is focused on the surface of the spinning disk. The laser beam is turned on
and off at varying rates! Due to this, tiny holes (pits) are burnt into the metal
coating along the tracks.

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When data stored on the optical disk is to
be read, a less powerful laser beam is
focused on the disk surface. The storage
capacity of these devices is tremendous; the
Fig. Optical disk access time is relatively
fast. The biggest drawback of the optical
disk is that it is a permanent storage device.
data once written cannot be erased.
Therefore, it is a read only storage medium.
A typical example of the optical disk is the
CD-ROM.
a) Optical Card:
The optical card has an optical laser encoded strip which can store
approximately 2 megabytes of data. These cards are the size of a credit
card. Optical cards find use only in specific areas like storing credit
records or medical histories of people.
b) Optical Tape:
Optical tapes are similar to magnetic tapes in appearance. However
optical laser techniques are used to write data on the tapes. Like
optical disks optical tapes too are read only storage devices.

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3.10 Check your Progress
1. What are the methods with which the data on the secondary storage
devices can be accessed?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
...........
2. Name any two sequential access devices.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.....................................................................................
3. Name any two direct access storage devices.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
....................................................................................
4. Name any two optical devices. Name the factors which determine the
time required to access data stored on the disk.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................

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3.11 Let us Sum Up
The storage unit is that part of the computer system which stores the data and
instructions. The two types of storage are primary storage and secondary
storage. The characteristics of the storage unit are access time, storage
capacity and cost.
Primary storage is an integral part of all computer systems. Primary storage
is also called as Random-Access Memory. This memory is volatile. The data
stored on this memory is lost when the power is turned off. There are special
types of memories which come in the form of chips. Micro programs which
perform low level machine functions and which are used as a substitute for
hardware are stored on such chips.
Such memories are called field stores or permanent stores or Read Only
Memory (ROM). Data can be permanently stored in this type of memory.
Other similar memories are PROM, EPROM. Cache memory is a special
type of high-speed memory. Special memory units are used in computers
which are not a part of the main memory. These units hold data temporarily.
These units are called registers, e.g. Memory Address Register, Instruction
Register etc.
Secondary storage devices are used to store large amounts of data.
Secondary storage devices are cheaper as compared to primary storage.
However, their data access time is less. Secondary storage is nonvolatile and
stored external to the computer. There are two ways in which data can be
accessed from the secondary devices, sequential access and random access.
Punched paper tape, magnetic tape is
sequential access devices. Punched paper tapes are nowadays rarely being
used.
Magnetic tapes can store unlimited data and have a high data density. They
are also low in cost and portable. But since information can be accessed only
sequentially, they are slow.
Direct access or random-access devices allow the access of data from any
storage location randomly, without having to follow the sequence in which
it has been stored. Magnetic disk is made of a thin Mylar platter and coated
on both sides by magnetic material. Data is recorded as magnetic spots on
this disk. A number of such disks are mounted on a disk pack. Each disk is
divided into a number of concentric circles called tracks. All the
corresponding tracks in all the surfaces together are called as a cylinder.

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These disks are also called hard disks and can be permanently installed in a
disk drive in the computer. Floppy disks are made of flexible mylar coated
with iron oxide. The floppy disks come in various sizes like 8-inch, 5-inch,
3 inch. Floppy disks are relatively cheap and can store data online. They are
also very portable. Winchester disks are permanently enclosed in a sealed
container. A
magnetic drum is a cylinder whose outer surface is coated with magnetic
material. The drums have faster data transfer rate as compared to disks.
However, their storage capacity is limited.
Optical laser techniques are used to write data onto optical dev ices like
optical disks, optical tapes and optical cards. The storage capacities of these
dev ices are tremendous. But these are permanent storage devices.

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3.12 Questions for Self Study
1. Discuss what storage units are. What are the types of storage units?
Describe the characteristics of the storage units.
2. Discuss what is volatile and non-volatile memory.
3. Define registers. Write in short about the most commonly used
registers in the computer systems.
4. Explain the methods by which data on a secondary storage device can
be accessed.
5. Describe any two sequential access devices.
6. Describe any two direct access storage devices.
7. What are moving head systems and fixed head systems?
8. Discuss any two types of optical storage devices.

3.13 References

1. http://en.wikipedia.org
2. https://www.evidhya.com/tutorials/Computer-Basics
3. https://www.log2base2.com/storage/how-data-is-stored-in-
computer-memory.html
4. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/zeliite115/chapter/reading-
random-access-memory/

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UNIT-04: Operating System and the User Interface

UNIT STRUCTURE
Learning Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Software and its Types

4.3 Operating System Concept

4.4 Function of Operating System

4.5 Classification of Operating System

4.6 Common Windows based Operating Systems

4.7 Common Linux based Operating Systems

4.8 What is the difference between UNIX and Linux?

4.9 User Interfaces of OS

4.10 Let Us Sum Up

4.11 References

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UNIT-04 Operating System and the User Interface
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Define an operating system and understand the functions of the
system
 Discuss terms like resident and transient programs, throughput,
response time etc.
 Explain the different processing techniques
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A computer system performs all its work with the help of two essential
resources namely hardware, software.
In order to complete any task or job and to produce meaningful output, both
hardware and software are required. If hardware is the ‘heart’ of a computer
system, software is its ‘soul’. A computer system can produce reliable
output only if its hardware and software work in proper coordination.
The common hardware resources are input/output devices, memory, storage
device, CPU etc. The operating system acts as a manager of the above
hardware resources and allocates them to specific programs and users.
For example when we buy a blank CD, it is only hardware and if we want
to watch a particular movie or listen to a particular song then we have to
upload the CD with that movie or that song. The movie or song that is
uploaded on the blank CD is a program/software. Similarly if we want to
edit the photographs on a computer system we need to install ‘Adobe
Photoshop’ or any other software meant for photograph editing on the
computer system.

4.2 Software and its Types

Software is a set of sequenced instructions written in a programming
language understood by the computer to solve a specific problem and
perform basic functions. It is the software that not only controls, integrates
and manages the hardware components of a computer system but also
accomplishes specific tasks. It is the software that tells the computer what

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to do and how to do it. Software makes it possible for users to easily use the
computer system. Therefore, the usability and efficiency of a computer
system depends on its software.
The software is generally classified into two categories:
1. Application Software
2. System Software
1. Application software: - An application software is a computer
program designed to perform a group of coordinated functions,
tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an
application software include MS Word, MS Excel.
2. System Software: - System Software is designed to manage the
system resources and it also provides a platform for Application
Software to run. The System Software creates an interface
between the hardware of the system and the user. It makes the
systems understand, the command entered by the user. It also acts
as an interface between Application Software and hardware.
Example of System Software includes Operating System like
Windows, Linux and software of printers, scanners, Interpreters,
Compilers and Assemblers, Linkers and Loaders, System
Utilities etc.

(Types of Software)

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4.3 Operating System Concept

An operating system is the system software that manages and controls the
activities of the computer. Operating System makes a computer system
user friendly. It becomes easier for the user to communicate. It is the most
important program that runs on a computer system and execution of all
other programs depends on it. It is a set of integrated programs that
supervises overall functioning of the computer system by controlling the
resources such as CPU, memory, input-output devices and overall flow of
information within the system. It provides an interface between machine
and its users.
Operating system’s programs are stored in the memory of computer. It is
the first layer of software that is loaded into computer’s memory when
computer starts up. All other programs are uploaded after it. In addition to
this, operating system also ensures that different programs being executed
at the same time do not interfere with each other. Examples of operating
system are: DOS (Disk Operating System), Windows 8, UNIX, LINUX
etc.
The operating system acts as an interface between the humans and the
computer. The operating system ensures smooth and efficient operation of
a computer.
An Operating system is basically an
intermediary agent between the user
and the computer hardware.
 Manages the computer’s
resources.
 It’s a resource allocator.
 It is also used to control
programs to prevent errors
and improper computer use.
 It is interrupt driven.

(Users and Processes access the Computer’s resources through the

Operating System)

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In other word An Operating system is defined as an integrated set of
programs which manage the various resources and operations of a computer
system. The operating system acts as an interface between the humans and
the computer. The operating system ensures smooth and efficient operation
of a computer.

4.4 Function of Operating System

The primary objective of operating system is to make computer system

convenient to use and the secondary objective is to use computer hardware
in an efficient manner. The functioning of different operating systems
varies from each other, but generally there are some common types of
functions performed by all operating systems. The main functions usually
performed by most of the operating systems are as follows:
1. It boots the computer
2. User interface: it provide user interface i.e. command line,
graphical user interface (GUI)
3. Process Management: Creation, detection, deletion, Suspension,
resumption of processes and handling of errors
4. Storage management: Keeping track of memory parts currently in
use, Allocates and de-allocates memory space as when needed by
programs while their execution
5. Resource management: Managing the various peripheral devices
e.g. mouse, keyboard
6. Data management: Keep a track of the data on the storage devices.
It the operating system that only knows where the data is stored on
the disk and makes it available to application programs.
7. System management: Manage the basic working of a computer
system thereby making it even more efficient. Operating Systems
performs the following functions under System management:
a) Security Management
b) Command Interpretation
c) Job Accounting
d) Overall System Performance
e) Maintain Usage Records

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4.5 Classification of Operating System

Operating system can be classified into various types on the basis of several
criteria, viz. number of simultaneously active programs, number of users
working simultaneously, number of processors in the computer system, etc.
There are several types of operating systems:
1. Batch Processing Operating System
2. Single User Operating System
3. Multi-user Operating System
4. Multi-Tasking Operating System
5. Multi-Processing Operating System
6. Multi-Threading Operating System
7. Real Time Operating System
8. Embedded Operating System
9. Distributed Operating System
1. Batch Processing Operating System: These operating systems were
used to execute various tasks and requests in batches. Similar data and
programs were first collected and bundled by the operator and then
executed together. All the collected tasks to be processed were first
placed in a queue on some priority basis and their execution takes place.
These operating systems were particularly suitable for processing large
amount of similar data needing similar processing. Payroll and billing
systems are the examples where such kind of operating system is
required.

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2. Single User Operating System: This is the simplest operating system
and is used on computer systems which are meant to be used by a single
user at a given point of time. They are generally used for personal
computers and hand held devices like mobile. They may be single
tasking or multitasking operating system. DOS, Windows 7, Windows
Vista etc. are examples of single user operating system.
3. Multi-user Operating System: This an operating system on which
many users can work simultaneously. This is generally used on a
network of computers and allows users to share the same resources, data
and application programs. It allows all the users to communicate with
each other. Some multi user operating systems support even hundreds
and thousands of users at a time to use computer resources. This requires
fairly large amount of RAM and each computer runs so fast that the user
feels that he is the only user of the computer. Examples of multi user
operating system are UNIX, Linux and Solaris etc.
4. Multi-Tasking Operating System: It refers to an operating system that
allows computer system to work on multiple tasks or jobs at the same
time by dividing the processor’s time between different jobs. The
objective was to keep most of the hardware operating most of the
possible time, so that one can best use the available hardware devices in
a given period of time. In this kind of operating system, the processor is
switched between two or more programs at a time. For example, the user
can work on a word document and at the same time have an internet
session and do some calculations in excel. These operating systems run
on a single CPU. Examples of multi-tasking operating system include
Window’s 7, window’s Vista, Apple Macintosh’s Mac X-tiger etc.
5. Multi-Processing Operating System: These operating systems are
capable to run on a computer system having more than one processor
(CPU). They work on parallel processing technology where two or more
programs can run simultaneously. The processing speed of such an
operating system is very fast so as to handle the execution of different
processes of same program or independent programs on different
processors.
6. Multi-Threading Operating System: Threads are the small parts of a
program and are generally referred to as the simplest units of a process.
In a multi-threading operating system different parts of the same
program called threads run simultaneously in a particular sequence at a
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 very high speed. The programmer should design the program very
carefully and with cautious such that all the threads can run at the same
time without interfering with each other.
7. Real Time Operating System: Real time operating systems are those
systems that respond instantaneously to the input. The response time is
predetermined at the time of designing the operating system and the time
taken to respond is just a fraction of a second. They are basically used
to control complex systems that require a lot of processing such as
machinery and industrial systems. Such operating systems are
embedded systems in devices and applications requiring critical time
reaction for example air traffic control, railway reservation,
telecommunications and robotic functions etc.
8. Embedded Operating System: The operating used on mobile devices
and consumer electronics items is called embedded operating system.
They are designed to operate on small machines like Air-Conditioners,
washing machines, micro-waves etc. They are compact in size, very
efficient in handling routine work with a limited number of resources.
They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are
very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD
and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. The
operating systems thus contribute to the simplification of the human
interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking
application programs with the hardware, thus achieving an easy user
access to the computers.
9. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a
group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single
computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development
of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with
each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations
are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group
work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. A distributed
operating system is one which appears as a centralized operating system
for a single machine to its user but it runs on multiple independent
computers. The user views the system as a virtual uniprocessor and not
as a collection of distinct machines. In this kind of system, processing is
carried out independently at more than one location, but with shared and
controlled access to common facilities. In this operating system,
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 software and data may be distributed around the system, programs and
files may be stored on different storage devices which are located in
different geographic locations and may be accessed from different
computer terminals.

4.6 Common Windows based Operating Systems

Originally the operating system was created by each company

that manufactured a processor and motherboard. So each
operating system was proprietary, that is, unique to each
manufacturer. The three most common operating systems for personal
computers are Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux.
There are various types of OS available in the market.
Some are given below.
The winner in the PC market was MS-DOS,
Microsoft's Disk Operating System, and its twin at IBM, PC-DOS, also
written by Microsoft. Now it's hard to recall those days
when each computer had its own unique operating system.
More on DOS Commands.
Windows 95 and Windows 98 are actual operating
systems on their own. The previous versions of
Windows use DOS as the operating system and adding a
graphical user interface which will do multitasking. But
with Windows 95 Microsoft released an operating system
that can take advantage of the 32-bit processors.
Windows Me (Windows Millennium Edition) is an
upgrade of Windows 98, release date Sept. 14, 2000.
The system resources required for this operating system are
significantly higher than previous versions of Windows.
Windows NT (the NT apparently came from New
Technology) is an operating system for client-server type
networks. The latest version of NT has a user interface that is practically
identical to Windows 95. Since Windows NT is designed for the higher
demands of networks, it has higher demands itself for disk space and
memory.
Windows 2000 is an upgrade of Windows NT rather than of Windows 98.

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Windows 2000 Professional is the Windows operating system for
business desktop and laptop systems. It is used to run software applications,
connect to internet and intranet sites, and access files, printers, and network
resources. Built on Windows NT@ technology and the easy-
to-use, familiar Windows@ 98 user interface, Widows 2000
Professional gives business users increased flexibility.
Windows XP is an upgrade to Windows 2000. It comes in
two versions - Home and Professional. The Professional version contains
all the features of the Home version plus more business features, like
networking and security features.
Windows XP, an operating system introduced in 2001 from Microsoft’s
Windows family of operating Systems, the previous version of Windows
being Windows Me. Microsoft called the release its most• important
product since Windows 95. Along with a redesigned look and feel to
the user interface, the new operating system is built 01). The Windows
2000 kernel, giving the user a more stable and reliable environment than
previous versions of Windows. Windows XP comes in two version, home
and Professional. The company has focused on mobility for both editions,
including plug and play features for connecting. To wireless n e t w o r k s.
The operating system also utilizes IEEE 802.11 x wireless security standard.
There are numerous version of MS-DOS and Windows operating systems
designed for personal computers (PCs). The versions are as follows
1. MS-DOS - Microsoft Disk Operating System (1981)
2. Windows 1.0 – 2.0 (1985-1992)
3. Windows 3.0 – 3.1 (1990–1994)
4. Windows 95 (August 1995)
5. Windows 98 (June 1998)
6. Windows ME - Millennium Edition (September 2000)
7. Windows NT 31. - 4.0 (1993-1996)
8. Windows 2000 (February 2000)
9. Windows XP (October 2001)
10. Windows Vista (November 2006)
11. Windows 7 (October, 2009)
12. Windows 8 (2012)
13. Windows 10 (2015)

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Apple’s macOS is running on Apple laptops and desktops as the successor
of the popular operating system OS X. Because of its research into AT&T’s
Bell Labs in the 1960s on the historic UNIX family of operating systems,
macOS shares certain features with other Unix-related systems, including
Linux. Although the graphical interfaces are different, many of the
programming interfaces and command-line features are similar. Signature
elements in macOS include the dock used to check for programs and files
that are commonly used, single keyboard keys, including the Command key.
macOS is famous for its user-friendly functionalities like Siri, Apple’s video
chatting software, FaceTime and a natural-voice personal assistant.
Linux is a family of open-source operating systems which is similar to UNIX
built under the development and distribution model of free and open-source
software. Linux’s popular feature is the Linux kernel, the first operating
system kernel released by Linus Torvalds on September 17, 1991. The
operating system is loading itself into memory and begins to control the
computer’s resources. After that, it offers certain tools for other applications
that the client wants to run. Most of the embedded systems run Linux today.
Electronic gadgets such as internet router, washing machine, TV,
refrigerator, etc can be run on Linux. Hence Linux is also one of the most
popular operating systems nowadays.

4.7 Common Linux based Operating Systems

A Linux distribution (often abbreviated as distro) is an operating system

made from a software collection, which is based upon the Linux kernel and,
often, a package management system.
Most of us get our version of Linux by downloading a distribution from a
web site, and using the included installer. Using this method greatly
simplifies the process of getting Linux up and running on a computer.
In many ways, Linux is similar to other operating systems you may have used
before, such as Windows, macOS (formerly OS X), or iOS. Like other
operating systems, Linux has a graphical interface, and the same types of
software you are accustomed to, such as word processors, photo editors,
video editors, and so on. In many cases, a software’s creator may have made
a Linux version of the same program you use on other systems. In short: if
you can use a computer or other electronic device, you can use Linux.
But Linux also is different from other operating systems in many important
ways. First, and perhaps most importantly, Linux is open source software.

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The code used to create Linux is free and available to the public to view, edit,
and—for users with the appropriate skills—to contribute to.
Linux is also different in that, although the core pieces of the Linux operating
system are generally common, there are many distributions of Linux, which
include different software options. This means that Linux is incredibly
customizable, because not just applications, such as word processors and web
browsers, can be swapped out. Linux users also can choose core components,
such as which system displays graphics, and other user-interface
components.
Linux has a number of different versions to suit nearly any type of user. From
new users to hard-core users, you will find a “flavor” of Linux to match your
needs. These versions are called distributions (or, in the short form,
“distros.”) Nearly every distribution of Linux can be downloaded for free,
burned onto disk (or USB thumb drive), and installed on as many machines
as you like.
The most popular Linux distributions are:
1. Ubuntu Linux 6. Arch Linux
2. Fedora 7. Deepin
3. Debian 8. Redhat
4. OpenSUSE 9. Gentoo
5. Linux Mint 10. Kali Linux
Each distribution has a different take on the desktop. Some are for very
modern user interfaces (such as Ubuntu’s Unity, above, and Deepin’s Deepin
Desktop), whereas others stick with a more traditional desktop environment
(openSUSE uses K Desktop Environment (KDE).

4.8 What is the difference between Unix and Linux?

You may have heard of Unix, which is an operating system developed in the
1970s at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others. Unix and
Linux are similar in many ways, and in fact, Linux was originally created to
be indistinguishable from Unix. Both have similar tools for interfacing with
the system, programming tools, filesystem layouts, and other key
components. However, not all Unices are free and open source.
Over the years, a number of different operating systems have been created
that attempted to be “unix-like” or “unix-compatible,” but Linux has been
the most successful, far surpassing its predecessors in popularity.

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4.9 User Interfaces of OS

A User interface (UI) facilitates communication between an application and

its user by acting as an intermediary between them. Each application
including the operating system is provided with a specific UI for effective
communication. The two basic function of a user interface of an application
is to take the inputs from the user and to provide the output to the users.
However, the types of inputs taken by the UI and the types of output provided
by the UI may vary from one application to another.
Basically, A user interface (UI) refers to the part of an operating system,
program, or device that allows a user to enter and receive information.
A user interface of any operating system can be classified into one of the
following types:

 Graphical user interface (GUI)

 Command line user interface (CLI)
1) Graphical user interface (GUI)
The graphical user interface is a type of GUI that enables the users to interact
with the operating system by means of point-and-click operations. GUI
contains several icons representing pictorial representation of the variables
such as a file, directory, and device. The graphical icon provided in the UI
can be manipulated by the users using a suitable pointing device such as a
mouse, trackball, touch screen and light pen. The other input devices like
keyboard can also be used to manipulate these graphical icons. GUIs are
considered to be very user- friendly interface because each object is
represented with a corresponding icon. Unlike the other UIs the users need
not provide text command for executing tasks.
Some advantages of GUI
based operating system
The GUI interface is easy
to understand and even the
new users can operate on
them on their own.
The GUI interface
visually acknowledges
and confirms each type of
activities performed by

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the users. For example when the user deletes a file in the Windows operating
system, then the operating system asks for the confirmation before deleting
it.
The GUI interface enables the users to perform a number of tasks at the same
time. This features of the operating system are also known as multitasking.
Most GUIs have the following basic components:

 a start menu with program groups

 a taskbar showing running programs
 a desktop
 Various icons and shortcuts.
2) Command line Interface (CLI)
Command line interface is a type of UI that enables the users to interact with
the operating system by issuing some specific commands. In order to perform
a task in this interface, the user needs to type a command at the command
line. When the user enters the key, the command line interpreter received a
command. The software program that is responsible for receiving and
processing the commands issued by the user. After processing the command
are called command line interpreter, the command line interpreter displays
the command prompt again along with the output of the previous command
issued by the user. The disadvantages of the CLI is that the user needs to
remember a lot to interact with the operating system. Therefore these types
of interface are not considered very friendly from the users perspective.

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 Command line interface
Example: In order to perform a task, we need to type a command at the
command prompt denoted by C:\> to copy a text file, say al.text, from the C
drive of our computer system. To the D drive, we need to type the copy
command at the command prompt.

4.10 Let Us Sum Up

An Operating System is defined as an integrated set of programs which
manage the various resources and operations of a computer system. It is the
interface between the user and the computer. The functions of the operating
system are Processor Management: It assigns the processor to the various
tasks which are being executed by the computer.
Memory Management: Allocation of main memory and other storage to all
the programs and data.
Input/output Management: Management of I/O devices and their
assignment to various programs.
File Management: Managing the storage and transfer of files from various
storage devices.
Data Security and Integrity: Ensure that data and programs do not interfere
with one another.
An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is
responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the
sharing of computer resources. There are meagerly 5 types of Operating
System Real-time Operating System, Multi-user and Single-user Operating
Systems, Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems Distributed
Operating System, Embedded System.

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4.11 References

1. https://opensource.com/resources/linux
2. https://www.lions-wing.net/lessons/distributions/dist.html
3. https://blogs.helsinki.fi/students-digital-skills/1-introduction-to-the-
use-of-computers/1-1-computer-functionality/operating-system-and-
user-interface/
4. https://www.includehelp.com/operating-systems/types-functions-of-
user-interfaces-of-operating-systems.aspx
5. https://www.includehelp.com/operating-systems/types-functions-of-
user-interfaces-of-operating-systems.aspx
6. http://en.wikipedia.org,
7. http://learning-unix.blogspot.in,
8. http://www.mywikibiz.com (Links)

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UNIT-5: Basics of Computer Network, Internet & E-Mail

UNIT STRUCTURE

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Computer Network
5.2.1 Use (Applications) of computer networks
5.2.2 Computer Networks Components
5.2.3 Unique identifiers of network
5.3 Typesiof computer network.
5.3.1 Difference between LAN, MAN and WAN.
5.4 Whatiis web?
5.5 World Wide Web
5.6 Web browser
5.6.1 Typesiof web browser
5.7 What is Internet?
5.8 How does Internet works?
5.9 Some of the most popular internet services
5.9.1 Internet Surfing
5.9.2 Chatting on Internet
5.9.3 Email iaddresses iand mail iservers
5.9.4 Types of email accounts
5.10 Steps ito writeian e-mail
5.11 Let us Sum Up

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LearningiObjectives
Afterigoing through thisiunitiyou should be able to
• To be certain about the computer network.
• To beiuseiof network.
• To be able toiuseiof essential computer network components.
• To be icertain iabout ithe iinternet iand iits iservices.
• To be use iof iinternet isurfing.
• To be istudy ithe different itype iof E-Mail iaccounts. i i
• To be iable ito know ithe mail ioperation iand isteps. i

5.1 Introduction
There is something about technology that allows people and their
computers to communicate with each other that makes networking a
fascinating field, both technically and intellectually. Network is a collection
of computers (nodes) and transmission channels (links) that allow people to
communicate over distances, large and small. A bluetoothipersonal area
network may simply connectiyourihomei PC withiits. Aniunder sea
fiberioptic cable may traverse aniocean. Theiinternet and telephone
networks span theiglobe. The iInternet iisian iincreasingly iimportant part
of everyday life ifor people iaround ithe world. But iif you've inever used
the iInternet before, iall iof ithis inew iinformation might ifeelia bit
confusing iat ifirst.
Throughout ithis itutorial, we'll itry ito ianswer isome basic questions you
may have iabout ithe iInternet iand how iit's used. When you're done, you'll
haveia good understanding iof how ithe iInternet works, how ito iconnect
ito ithe iInternet, iand how ito browse ithe web.

5.2 Computer Network

• A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.
• The physical connection between networked computing devices are
established using either cable mediaior wireless media.
• The best-known computer network used worldwide is called as Internet.

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 Figure i1: Computer Network

Advantages of Computer Networks

• File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing
and remote file access. A person sitting atione workstation that is
connected to a network can easily view filesi present ion another
workstation, provided heiis authorized to do so.
• Resource sharing
All computers in the network can sharei resources such asi printers, fax
machines, modems, and scanners.
• Better connectivity and communications
It allows users to connect and communicate with each other
easily.iVarious communication applications included E-mail and
groupware areiused.Through E-mail, members of a network can send
message and ensure safe delivery of data to other members, eveniin
their absence.
• Internet access
Computer networks provide iinternet service over the entire network.
Every single computer attached to the network can experience the high-
speed internet.
• Entertainment
Manyigames andiother meansiof entertainment are easily available ion
the iinternet. Furthermore, iLocal area networks (LANs)ioffers and

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 facilitates other ways iof enjoyments, such as many iplayers are
connected through iLAN and play ai particular game with each other
from remote location.

• Inexpensive system
Shared resources meanireductioniinihardware costs. Shared files
meanireductioniin memory requirement, which indirectly means
reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software can
beiinstalledionlyionce ion the server and made available across all
connected computers ati once. This saves the expense of buying and
installing the same software as many times for as many users.
• Flexible access
Aiuser canilog ion to a computer anywhere ion the network and access
ihis files. Thisi offers flexibility to theiuser as to whereihe should be
during the courseiofihisiroutine.
• Instant and multiple access
Computer networks can process multiply by manyiofiusers that means
they can access the same information at the same time. Immediate
commands such asi printing commands can be made with theihelpiof
computer networks.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

• Lack of data security and privacy
Because there would been huge number of people who would be using a
computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a
certain user’s security would be always at risk. There might even be
illegal activities that would occure, which you need to be careful about
and aware of.
• Presence of computer viruses and malwares
If even one computer ion a network gets affected by a virus, there is a
possible threat for the other systems getting affected too. Viruses can
spread ion a network easily, because of the inter connectivity of
workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with common resources are
the perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply.
• Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients,
the client users lack any freedom what so ever. Centralized decision

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 making can sometimes difficult, how a client user wants to use his
own computer.
• Lack of Robustness
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down,
the entire system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device
or a central linking server that fails, the entire network would also come
to a standstill.
• Need an efficient handler
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires
high technical skills and know-how of its operations and administration.
A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that the
responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions
and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and
connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average technician
who does not have advanced knowledge.

5.2.1 Usei(Applications)iof Computer Networks

• Financial services
Nowadays, almost all the financial services dependion the computer
network.iYou can access the financial services across the world.For
example,aiuser can transfer money fromioneiplace to another byiusing
the electronic fund transfer feature.We caniuse networkingiinivarious
financial areas such as ATM, foreign exchange and creditihistory
search.
• Business
Nowadays, most of the worksiof businesses are doneiover the
computers. To exchange the data andiideas, we need an effective data
andiresources sharing features. To do this, we need to connect the
computer with eachiother through a network. For example, a
ipersoniofione departmentiof aniorganization can shareior access the
electronic dataiofiother department through network.
• Email services
A computer networkiprovidesiyou the facility to send or receive mails
across theiglobeiin few seconds.

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• Mobile applications
Byiusing the mobile applications, such as cellularior
wirelessiphones, we can communicate (exchangeiouriviews
andiideas) withioneiother.
• Directory services
Itiprovides the facility to store files ion a centralized location
toiincrease the speediof searchioperation worldwide.
• Teleconferencing
It containsivoice conferencing andivideo conferencing which are
basediin networking.iIn teleconferencing theiparticipants need not to
beipresented at the sameilocation.

5.2.2 Computer Network Components

• Switches: Switches work as a controller which connects computers,
printers, and other hardware devices to a network in a campusior a
building. It allows devices on your network to communicate with each
other, as well as withiother networks. It helps you to share resources and
reduce the costing of any organization.

• Routers:iRoutersihelpiyou to connect with multiple networks.iIt

enablesiyou to share a singleiinternet connection with multiple devices
and saves money.This networking component acts as a dispatcher,
which allowsiyou to analyze data sent across a network.iIt automatically
selects the bestiroute for data to travel and sendiit ioniits way.
• Servers: Servers are computers thatihold sharediprograms, files, and the
networkioperating system. Servers allow access to networkiresources to
all theiusersiof the network.
• Clients: Clients are computer devices which access andiuses the
network as well as shares networkiresources. They are alsoiusersiof the
network, as they can send andireceiveirequests from the server.
o Transmission Media: Transmission mediaiis a carrieriused
toiinterconnect computersiin a network, such as coaxial cable, twisted-
pair wire, andioptical fiber cable.iItiis also known asilinks,
channels,iorilines.

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o AccessiPoints: Accessipoints allow devices to connect to the wireless
network without cables. A wireless network allowsiyou to bring new
devices andiprovides flexible support to mobileiusers.
• Shared Data: Shared data are data whichiis shared between the clients
such as data files,iprinter accessiprograms, and email.
• NetworkiInterface Card: NetworkiInterface card sends,ireceives data,
and controls data flow between the computer and the network.
• LocaliOperating System: Ailocal iOS whichihelpsipersonal computers
to access files,iprint to ailocaliprinter andiusesioneior more disk and CD
drives which areilocated ion the computer.
• NetworkiOperating System:The networkioperating
systemiisaniprogram whichiruns ion computers and servers.iIt allows
the computers to communicateivia network.

• Protocol: Aiprotocoliis the setiof definedirules that allows two entities

to communicate across the network.Some standardiprotocolsiused for
thisipurpose areiIP, TCP,iUDP, FTP, etc.
• Hub:iHubiis a device that splits network connection into multiple
computers.iIt acts a distribution center so whenever a computer requests
anyiinformation from a computerior from the networkiit sends
theirequest to theihub through a cable.Theihub willireceive theirequest
and transmitiit to the entire network.
• LAN cable:iLocal Area Networki(LAN) cableiis also called as
ethernetior data cable.iItiisiused for connecting a device to theiinternet.
• OSI:iOSI stands foriOpen systemsiInterconnection.iItiis aireference
model which allowsiyou to specify standards for communications.
5.2.3 iUniqueiIdentifiersiof Network
Belowigiven are someiunique networkiidentifiers:
• Host name: Every deviceiof the networkiis associated with aiunique
device, whichiis calledihost name.
• IP Address:iIPi(InternetiProtocol) addressiis as aiuniqueiidentifier for
each device ion theiInternet.iLengthiof theiIP addressiis i32-bits.iIPv6
addressiis i64 bits.
• DNS Server: DNS stands for domain name system.iItiis a server which
translatesiURLior web addressesiinto their correspondingiIP addresses.

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 • MAC Address: MACi(Media Access Control Address)iis known as
aiphysical addressiis aiuniqueiidentifieriof eachihost andiis
associated with then ICi(NetworkiInterface Card).iGeneralilengthiof
MAC addressiis i: i12-digit/ i6 bytes/ i48 bits
• Port:iPortiis ailogical channel which allows networkiusers to
sendiorireceive data to an application. Everyihost canihave multiple
applicationsirunning. Eachiof these applications areiidentifiediusing
theiport number ion which they areirunning.
• ARP:ARP stands for addressiResolutioniProtocol whichihelps
networkiusers to convert theiIP addressiintoiits
correspondingiPhysical address.
• RARP:iReverse AddressiResolutioniProtocoligives aniIP addressiof
the device withigiven aiphysical address asiinput.

5.3 TypesIof Computer Networks

LANi(Local Area Network)
• Itiisiprivately-owned networks within a single buildingior
campusiofiup to a few kilometersiin size.
• They are widelyiused to connectipersonal computers and
workstationsiin companyioffices and factories to
shareiresourcesi(e.g.,iprinters) and exchangeiinformation.
• LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
• IniLAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.
• Different typesiof topologies such as Bus,iRing, Star and Tree
areiused.
• The data transferirates foriLANiisiup to i10iGbits/s.
• They transfer data atihigh speeds.iHigh transmission irate
areipossibleiiniLAN becauseiof the short distance betweenivarious
computer networks.
• They existiinailimitedigeographical area.
Advantages
• LAN transfers data atihigh speed.
• LAN technologyiisigenerallyiless expensive.

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 Figure i2:iLocal area network
MANi(Metropolitan Area Network)
• MANiis ailargeriversioniofiLAN which covers an area
thatiisilarger than the covered byiLAN but smaller than the area
covered by WAN.
• A metropolitan area networkior MAN covers a city.The best-
known exampleiof a MANiis the cable television network
availableiin many cities.
• MAN connects twoior moreiLANs.
• At first, the companies beganijumpingiinto the business,igetting
contracts from cityigovernments to wireiup an entire city.
• The next step was televisioniprogramming and even entire channels
designed for cableionly.

Figure i3: Metropolitan Area Network

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WANi(Wide Area Network)
• WAN spans ailargeigeographical area,ioften a countryioriregion.
• WANilinks different metropolitan’s countries and national
boundaries there by enabling easy communication.
• It may beilocated entirely withiin a stateior a countryioriit may
beiinterconnected around the world.
• It contains a collectioniof machinesiintended forirunningiuseri(i.e.,
application)iprograms.We will follow traditionaliusage and call
these machinesihosts.
• The communication between differentiusersiof WANiis
establishediusingileased telephoneilinesior satelliteilinks and
similar channels.

Figure i4: Wide Area Network

5.3.1 Difference betweeniLAN, MAN andWAN

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Area covered Covers small Coversilarger thaniLAN Coversilarge
area.ii.e. & smaller than WAN area
within building
Errorirates Lowest Moderate Highest
Transmission High speed Moderate speed Low speed
speed
Equipment Inexpensive Moderate expensive Most
cost expensive
Designi& Easy Moderate Difficult
maintenance

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5.4 What is Web?
The World Wide Webiusually called the web for short is a collectioniof
different websitesiyou can access through theiInternet. A websiteiis
madeiupiofirelated text,iimages, andiotheriresources.Websites
caniresembleiother formsiof media like newspaper articlesior
televisioniprogramsior they can beiinteractiveiin a way that'siunique to
computers. Theipurposeiof a website can be almost anything: a
newsiplatform, an advertisement, anionlineilibrary, a forum for
sharingiimagesior an educational site.

5.5 World Wide Web

World Wide Web, whichiis also known as a web,iis a collectioniof
websitesior webipages storediin web servers and connected toilocal
computers through theiinternet. these websites contain textipages,
digitaliimages, audios,ivideos, etc.iUsers can access the contentiof these
sites from anyipartiof the worldiover theiinternetiusing their devices such
as computers,ilaptops, celliphones, etc. The WWW, along withiinternet,
enables theiretrieval and displayiof text and media toiyour device.

5.6 Web Browser

Web browseriis a common term whichiis frequentlyiused byipeople while
discussing theiInternet.iHowever, the exact definitioniof a web browseriis
known by fewionly.
A software applicationiused to accessiinformation ion the World Wide
Webiis called a web browser.When aiuserirequests someiinformation, the
web browser fetches the data from a web server and then displays the
webpage ion theiuser’s screen. A web browser, whichiis commonly known
as a browser,iis aiprogram that displays text, data,ipictures,ivideos,
animation, and more.iItiprovides a softwareiinterface that allowsiyou to
clickihyperlinkediresources ion the world wide web.Wheniyou double
click the browseriiconiinstalled ioniyour computer toilaunchiit,iyouiget
connected to the World Wide Web and can searchiGoogleior
typeaiURLiinto the address bar.

In the beginning, browsers wereiusedionly for browsing due to

theirilimitedipotential. Today, they are more advanced; along with
browsingiyou caniuse them for E-mailing, transferring multimedia
files,iusing social media sites, andiparticipatingiinionline

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discussionigroups and more. Someiof the commonlyiused
browsersiincludeiGoogle Chrome, Mozilla Firefox,iInternet Explorer,
Safari, and more.
5.6.1 Types of Web Browser
The functionsiof all web browsers are the same.Thus, more than the
different types there are different web browsers whichihave beeniusediover
theiyears.
Discussed below are different web browser examples and their specific
features:
➢ World Wide Web

• The first web browser ever

• Launchediin i1990
• It wasilater namedi“Nexus” to avoid any confusion with the
world wide web
• Had theivery basic features andilessiinteractiveiin
termsiofigraphicaliinterface
• Did notihave the featureiof bookmark
➢ Mosaic

• It wasilaunchediin i1993
• The second web browser which wasilaunched
• Had a betterigraphicaliinterface.iImages, text andigraphics
could all beiintegrated
• It was developed at the National Center for super computing
applications
• The team which wasiresponsible for creating mosaic wasilead
by marc and reessen
• It was namedi“the world’s firstipopular browser”
➢ Netscape Navigator

• It wasireleasediin i1994
• In the i1990s,iit was the dominant browseriin termsiofiusage
share
• Moreiversionsiof this browser wereilaunched by netscape
• Itihad an advancedilicensing scheme and allowed freeiusage for non-
commercialipurposes

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iInternet Explorer
• It wasilaunchediin i1995 by microsoft
• By i2003,iitihas attained almost i95%iofiusage share
andihad become the mostipopular browsersiof all
• Close to i10iversionsiofiInternet Explorer wereireleased
by microsoft and wereiupdatedigradually
• It wasiincludediin the microsoft windowsioperating
system.i
• In i2015,iit wasireplaced withi“Microsoft Edge”, asiit became the
default browser ion Windows i10
➢ Firefox

• It wasiintroducediin i2002 and was developed by mozilla

foundation
• Firefoxiovertook theiusage share fromiInternet Explorer
and became the dominant browser during i2003-04
• Location-aware browsing was made available with firefox
• This browser was also made available for mobileiphones,
tablets, etc.
➢ Google Chrome

• It wasilaunchediin i2008 byiGoogle

• Itiis a cross-platform web browser
• Multiple features fromiold browsers were amalgamated to
form better and newer features
• To save computers from malware,iGoogle developed the
ad-blocking feature to keep theiuser data safe and secure
• Incognito modeiisiprovided whereiprivate searchingiis
available where no cookiesiorihistoryiis saved
• Till date,iitihas the bestiuseriinterface

5.7 What is iInternet?

i
• The iinternet iisia itype iof world-wide icomputer inetwork.
• The iinternet iis ithe icollection iof iinfinite inumbers iof iconnected
icomputers ithat iare ispread iacross ithe world.
• We ican ialso isay ithat, ithe iInternet iisia icomputer inetwork ithat
iinterconnects hundreds iof millions iof icomputing devices
ithroughout ithe world.

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• It iis establishedias ithe largest inetwork iand isometimes icalled
inetwork iof inetwork ithat iconsists iof inumerous iacademic, business
iand governmentinetworks, which itogether icarry various iinformation.
• Internet iisia global icomputer inetwork providing ia variety iof
iinformation iand icommunication ifacilities, iconsisting iof
iinterconnected inetworks using istandardized icommunication
protocols.
• When itwo icomputers iare iconnected iover ithe iInternet, ithey ican
isend iand receive iall kinds iof iinformation isuchias itext, graphics,
voice, video, iand icomputer programs.

Figure i1: iSome pieces iof ithe iInternet

5.8 How does Internet work?

At ithis point you may be wondering, how does ithe iInternet work?iThe
exact ianswer iis pretty icomplicated iand would itake ia while ito
explain.iInstead, let's look iat isome iof ithe most iimportant ithings you
should know.
It's iimportant ito realize ithat ithe iInternet iis ia global inetwork iof
physical icables, which ican iinclude icopper itelephone wires, iTV icables,
and ifiber ioptic icables. Even wireless iconnections like wi-Fi iand i3G/4G
rely ion ithese physical icables ito iaccess ithe iInternet.
When you visitia website, your icomputer isends ia request iover ithese
wires ito ia iserver. iA iserver iis where websites iare istored, iand iit works
a lot like your icomputer's hard drive.iOnce ithe request iarrives, ithe server
retrieves ithe website iand isends ithe icorrect data back ito your icomputer.

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5.9 Some of the most popular internet services

1. Communication iServices
2. Information Retrieval iServices
3. World Wide Web iServices
4. Web iServices
5. Directory iServices
6. Automatic iNetwork iAddress iConfiguration
7. NetworkManagement iServices
8. Time iServices
9. Usenet
10. NewsGroup
11. Ecommerce

Let's explain each iof ithem iin brief.

1)iCommunication iServices:
Communication iis ione iof ithe most popular iservices iof ithe internet.We
iare using iinternet-based icommunication iservices every day ito icontact
ifamily iand ifriends.iIt iis ialso known ias iInternet Telephony.iSome iof
ithe iinternet icommunication iservices iare Instant messaging, iInternet
iTelephony, iandVOIP, email, iIRC, videoconferencing, etc. let's look iat
ithem ione by ione.

a)iInstant Messaging

Instant Messagingi(IM) iis ia itype iof ionline ichat ithat ioffers itext
icommunication iover ithe iinternet iin real-time.Because iof iits real-time
inature, iit iis icontinuously becoming ione iof ithe ifastest-growing iforms
iof iinternet icommunication iservices.iThere iare many iinstant messengers
ithat iare providing iinstant messaging.iSome iof ithem iare iFacebook,
whatsApp, iSkype, hangout, qq, weChat, etc. iAmong ithose, whatsApp has
ithe highest inumber iof user iactively engaging i(report gathered ifrom
iStatTube YouTube ichannel).

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 Figure i2:Instant Messaging

b)Email
Email istands ifor electronic mail.iIt iis ia paperless method iof isending
messages i(text, ifiles, ior iimages) ifrom ione person ito ianother ior many
people iat ithe isame itime using ithe iinternet.iIn i1996, ithere was more e-
mail ithan postal mail being isent.

Some iof ithe iimportant ifeatures iof email iare:

I. Instant iCommunications.
II. One ito iOne ior iOne ito many icommunications
III. Free iand easily iaccessible, ionly required iis iinternet iconnections.
Some iof ithe most popular emailprovider’s iare gmail, microsoft iOutlook,
iAOL mail, iZoho mail, ifast mail, hush mail. MSN, yahoo mail, etc.

c)iInternet iTelephony iand VoIP

In itraditional itelephony, we isent phone icalls, ifax, voicemail iover
landlines, but iin iInternet iTelephony ithat istuff iare done using ithe
internet.in iinternet itelephony iour voice which iis iin ianalog voice gets
iconverted iinto digital voice i(binary iform) which gets ithe transfer iover
ithe iinternet ias iIP packets ifrom ione phone ito another.iSo, here voice
packets iare itransferred iover ithe network.iInternet iTelephony iis ialso
icalled iIP iTelephony i(IPT).

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 Figure-3: Internet iTelephony iand VoIP

VOIP iisia isubset iof iIP iTelephony.iIt iis just ia itechnology used by
iInternet itelephony ifor digitizing ithe ianalog isignal.
d)Video iConferencing
Video iconferencing iis iinternet iservices where itwo ior more people
located iin iseparate geographical locations do live iaudio-video
communication.iSo, iit iis real-time iconferencing iservices iof ithe
iinternet.iFor proper ifunctioning iof ithe video iconference, iit may require
ia high bandwidth iof ithe iinternet iat ithe isender iand receiver isides.

The basic requirement ifor performing good video iconferencing:

• Good iinternet iconnection iat ithe isender iand receiver isides.

• Webcams ion both isidesi(sender iand receiver).

• Computer iscreen, iTV, projector ifor displaying video.
• Good video iconferencing isoftware like webex meetings,
iClickMeeting, iZoom, BlueJeans, join me, iZoho, iSkype, iTeam
etc.
2)iInformation Retrieval iServices: i
One reason whyia icomputer inetwork isuch ias ithe internet has been
icreated was, ito iallow users ito iaccess remote icomputers iand itransfer
ifiles ifrom ione machine ito ianother.iThis iinternet iservice iincludes
iFTP, iFTPS, iSFTP i(Simple iFile iTransfer protocol), iTelnet, iSSH iFile
iTtransfer Protocol, iTrivial iFile iTransfer Protocol, etc.
a)iFTP
FTP istands ifor iFile iTransfer protocol.iIt iis ian iinternet utility isoftware
which iis used ifor uploading iand downloading ifiles.iFTP enables iaccess
ito remote icomputer ifolders iand iallows ifiles iand ifolders ito be
itransferred between different icomputers.iFTP iconsists iof iaiclient-server
isystem iarchitecture utilizing different icontrol iand icommands between
iclient iand iserver.

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If you want ito uploadia ifile ifrom your icomputer ito ia remote iserver you
ineed ian iFTP iclient.iThere iare inumerous iFTP iclients iavailable.iSome
iof ithe popular iFTP iclient isoftware iare iFileZilla, winSCP, iCyberduck,
iCuteFTP, iTransmit, iFireFTP, iSmartFTP etc.

Figure-4: FTP Software

Objectives iof iFTP:

• It promotes ithe isharing iof icomputer ifiles, ifoldersi(directories),

iand isoftware.
• It helps ito itransfer data reliably iand efficiently.
• It iis ifaster ithan iother protocols like HTTP ior POP iso iit iisia
preferred method iof exchanging ifiles.iIt ican easily itransfer large
ifiles.

b)iSFTP

SFTP istands ifor iSSH iFile iTransfer protocol.iSometimes iit iis icalled
iSecure iFile iTransfer protocol.iIt iis more isecure ithan iFTP.iIt isupports
ithe icomplete iSSH protocol protection iand iauthentication ifeature,
iincluding ithe iSSH key Example: iAccessing your email uses iSFTP
because here we ineed iour username iand password ifor iaccessing
iinformation ifrom ithe iserver. WinSCP iis ithe best isoftware ifor iSFTP,
FTP, iSFTP iare ifile itransfer iservices iof ithe iinternet which ifall under
iinformation retrieval iservices iof iinternet.

c)iTelnet i(Remote iComputing)

Telnet istands ifor iTelecommunication iNetwork.iTelnet iallows ithe client

to log iin ito ithe remote iserver ifor iaccessing remote resources.iIt uses
TCP port i23.iIt iis inot much isecure.we use putty isoftware ifor getting
remote iaccess ito ithe iserver.iIn windows iOS, when you itype itelnet
remote_ip iin run i(Win i+ r) windows, ithen enter username iand password
for remote iaccess ithen you will be isuccessfully iconnected ito ithe remote
server.

FTP iis used ifor ifile itransfer ito/fromia remote iserver but iTelnet iis used
for iaccessing remote resources.iConfiguration iof remote iservers ican be
done ifrom ithe iclient-side.

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Telnet iis remote iterminal iaccess iand icommand execution iservices of
ithe iinternet.

d)iSSH
SSH istands ifor iSecure iShell.ItsiSSH isends iall ithe data iin ian
encrypted iformat.iIt uses ia isecure ichannel ifor itransferring data and
icommand iover ithe inetwork.iSSH uses high bandwidth.i SSH can be
iconsidered ias ia replacement ifor itelnet. Some iof ithe iother popular
iinformation retrieval iservices iare gopher, iArchie, and WAIS.

3) WWWi(World Wide Web)

WWW iis ione iof ithe main iservices iof ithe iinternet. Most iof us ithink
ithat ithe iInternet iandWWW iare ithe isame but iactually inot.iInternet iis
iInfrastructure iand ithe web iis just ia iservice provided ion ithe
iInternet.iInternet iis ia inetwork iof inetworks iand web iis just
iinformation present iin ithe inetwork.
4)Web iServices
There iare lots iof iapplications built iin various programming
languages.iSome built using i.net, isome iin java, isome iin python,
iangular, inode js.iThere may ineed isome ways iof icommunicating with
each iother.iAnd web iservices isolve ithis problem.Web iservices provideia
icommon platform ithat iallows multiple iapplications ito icommunicate
with each iother whatever programming languages iare used ifor making
iapplications. iSo iit iacts ias ia istandard medium iof ia passing message
i(data) between ithe iclient iapplication( made by using iandroid, vue,
iangular, react ior iany ifrontend language iin general) iand ia iserver
iapplication(java,.net, python, etc. iin general) iin world wide web.

Figure-5: Web iServices

In iour itraditional web iapplication when ithe iclient requests information

to ithe iserver ithen iin response iserver isends pages along with data. But in
web iservices, data iare isent backifrom ithe server itoia iclient iin JSON ior
XML iformat.iThis iformat ican ithen be used by iany iclient iapplication
like iangular, iandroid, vue, react, etc. iThis iformat iis programming
languages iindependent.iThere iare two main itypes iof web iservices:

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 i. SOAP web iservices i(It uses iXML iform iof data)
ii. RESTful web iservices. i(It ican use HTTP,JSON,URL i, iXML
iform iof data)
Some iother iservices iof ithe iinternet iinclude:
5)Directory iServicesi(like DNS, lDAP)
Directory iservices map inetwork resource inames ito inetwork iaddresses
and icreateia inetwork iname istructure.Let’s look iat inetwork directory
services like DNS iand lDAP.
DNSi(Domain iName iSystem)
The itask iof itheDNS iis ito itranslate human-readable domain inames like
osou.ac.in iinto iIP iaddressesi(something like i192.168.10.12) iso ithat ithe
web browser ican load ithe requested resources ifrom ithe iserver.iIf ithere
is ino DNS ithen you have ito remember ithe iIP iand have ito hit iaccessing
intended isites with iIP iinstead iof ia domain iname like iosou.ac.in.
LDAPi(LightweightDirectory iAccess Protocol)
It iis ia lightweight iclient-server directory protocol ifor iaccessing
directory iservices.iIf your data do inot ichange ifrequently ithen you ican
store your data iinLDAP iServices iand you ican iaccess iit ifrequently
asLDAP provides ia i' write-once-read-multiple-times' iservice, whereas iin
SQL database you ican have high read iand writes.iSo, we ican isayLDAP
is inon-transactional.

6)iAutomatic iNetwork iAddress iConfiguration

Giving ia unique iIP iaddress ito iall ithe isystems iin ia inetwork iis done
by iAutomatic iNetwork iAddress iConfiguration devices like
DHCPi(Dynamic Host iConfiguration Protocol) iServer. DHCP iserver's
main works iare ito make isure ithat ino itwo isystems got ithe isame iIP
address.
Our home router iis ialready pre-configured with ithe DHCP iserver iand
we ishould inot have ito worries much iabout iassigning dynamic iIP ito the
icomputer. iSuppose ia icomputer iconnects ito ia inetwork ithen ithis
computer will request ifor ian iIP iaddress ito ithe router, ithen iin ithe
router, we have iaDHCP iserver, ithen whatDHCP iServer does iis iit looks

in ia pool iof iavailable iIP iaddresses iif ifound ithen isend back ito ithe
icomputer iand ifinally your icomputer will have iIP which iis dynamic iin
inature.

7)iNetwork Management iServices

Network management iservices iare ialso ione iof ithe iimportant iservices
iof ithe iinternet which iare helpful ifor inetwork managers.iNetwork

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management iservices help iin preventing, monitoring, diagnosing, iand
isolving iissues related ito ithe inetwork.

Some icommon inetwork management itools iare itraceroute iand ping.

Ping: Ping itool mainly helps ito icheck ithe iavailability iof ithe host
machine iand itime iis itaken ito respond ito iall iInternet iControl Message
Protocoli(ICMP) packets.

Traceroute: iTraceroute itool mainly helps ito ifind iand display iall ithe
possible routesi(pathway) ifrom request ito response iand get itime itaken
ifor responding ion each pathway.

Checking each iand every device iinia inetwork iis itedious iso ifor ithis we
have iSNMP, which istands ifor iSimple iNetwork management protocol.iIt
is mainly used ifor inetwork monitoring, inetwork ifailure iidentification
among various devices iin ia inetwork.

9)iTime iServices
Network iTimeProtocoli(NTP) iis ia popular itime iservice ion ithe iinternet
that helps ito isynchronize iand iset ithe icomputer iclock with great
precision.iComputer iclocks iare isynced ito either Greenwich Mean iTime
(GMT) ior iCo-ordinated University iTime i(UTC)

10)Usenet iNews
Usenet iis knownias ithe i'User's iNetwork.' iIt iis ione iof ithe ioldest
networks where users ican post ifiles ito inews iservers iand iother
members ican iaccess iit.

11)iNewsgroups
It iisian iactive iOnline discussion iForum, which ican easily be iaccessed
through ithe usenet. Each inewsgroup iincludes discussions ionia particular
subject ithat iare iimplied iin ithe inewsgroup iname.
User can view iand ifollow ithe inewsgroup iand icomment ion ithe post
through inewsreader software. Accessing ito ithese inewsgroups ialso
requires ia user internet isubscription which may icost you ia icharge.

12)E-commerce
E-commerce iis iInternet-based buying iand isale iof goods iand
services.iToday, ialmost ianything ithat iis iavailable iin ithe market ican be
purchased ithrough e-commerce.

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5.9.1 Internet Surfing

Surfing iis going ithrough different pages ion ithe iinternet, iselecting ithe
pages based ion your itopic iof iinterest.ito break iit down let's iconsider
you iare having ia iconversation with ia ifriend exchanging iinformation ion
a icertain itopic, iIn ithe isame way, you italk ito ithe iinternet using ithe
browser with ia valid iinternet iconnection going ithrough itons iof different
pages ion ithe iinternet.
5.9.2 Chatting on Internet

On ithe iInternet, ichatting iis italking ito iother people who iare using ithe
iInternet iat ithe isame itime you iare. usually, ithis i"talking" iis ithe
exchange iof ityped-in messages requiring ione isite ias ithe repository ifor
ithe messages i(or i"chat isite") iand ia group iof users who itake part ifrom
ianywhere ion ithe iInternet.

5.9.3 Email addresses and mail servers

To participate, you ineedian email iaddress.You ican get ithis ifor ifree
from your iInternet iservice provider ior ifrom ione iof ithe many ifree web-
based email iservices isuchias gmail, yahoo!Mail, iand iOutlook.com. Your
email iaddress iis unique iin iall ithe world, like your postal iaddress ior
phone inumber iis unique.

An email iaddress might look like ithis: myemailname@myprovider.net

The ifirst parti(myemailname) iis your user iname ion ithe mail server. The
@ isign iindicates ithe break between ithe username iand ithe domain
name.Everything iafter ithe i@ isign iis ithe domain iname, which indicates
ithe mail iserver.

5.9.4 Types of email accounts

There iare iseveral different email iaccount itechnologies, iand you ishould
know which itype you havei(or what kind you want, iif you’re istill looking
for ian email provider) because ithe isetup iand ithe ichoices iof email
programs you ican use iare different ifor each:

Web-based: iThis itype iof email iaccount iis designed ito be used
primarily withia web-based iinterface. Many iof ithe ifree email iservices
are ithis itype, iincluding gmail, hotmaili(now part iof iOutlook.com), iand
yahoo! Mail.iThis iis ithe easiest, most ino-fuss itype, iand iis great ifor
casual users who don’t isend many messages iand don’t want ito ifool with
setting up ian email program.

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POP3: iThis itype iof email iaccount iis designed ito be used withian email
client, ialthough ithe provider may ialso iallow web iaccess too. This itype
of iaccount downloads your received messages ito your localPC when iit
connects ito ithe mail iserver.APOP3 iaccount iis itethered itoia particular
computer where ithe received mail iis istored; iit’s best ifor isomeone who
uses ithe isame icomputer iall ior most iof ithe itime. POP3 istands ifor post
Office protocol version i3.

IMAP: iThis itype iof email iaccount, likePOP3, iis ialso designed ito be
use withian email client.iIt does inot download received messages, ithough;
it reads ithem ifrom ithe iserver, like web-based email does.iThat way, you
can browse your mailbox ifrom multiple icomputers iand istill isee ithe ifull
set iof emails. The downside iis ithat you ican’t browse your mail iif you
aren’t iconnected ito ithe iInternet.iIMAP istands ifor iInternet mail iAccess
protocol.

EAS: iThis itype iis isimilar ito iIMAP except iit iis used by exchange
servers.iIt iis ia popular itype iof iaccount ifor groupware iand icorporate
accounts, ias well ias ifor mail delivered ito ismart phones. EAS istands ifor
exchange iActiveSync.

5.10 Steps to write an Email

1. On your icomputer, go ito iGmail.

2. In ithe itop left, iclick iCompose.
3. In ithe i"To" ifield, iadd recipients. you ican ialso iadd recipients:
• In ithe i"Cc" iand i"Bcc" ifields.
• When you icomposeia message, with ia i"+ isign" ior
i"@mention" iand ithe icontact's iname iin ithe itext ifield.
4. Addia isubject.
5. Write your message.
6. At ithe bottom iof ithe page, iclick iSend.

Tip: iTo iadd iindividual recipients iand groups iof icontacts you
icreated with labels, iclick iTo:.i

Recallian email with undo iSend

If you decide you don't want ito isendian email, you have ia ishort time
after ito icancel iit.right iafter you isend ia message, you ican retract it:

1. In ithe bottom left, you'll isee i"Message isent" iand ithe ioption
to i"Undo" ior i"View message".
2. Click undo.
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Chooseian iamount iof itime ito recall ia message

1. On your icomputer, go ito iGmail.

2. In ithe itop right, iclick iSettings i iSee iall isettings.
3. Next ito i"Undo iSend," iselectia iSend icancellation period iof
i5, i10, i20, ior i30 iseconds.

Add recipientsi (CC)

When you iadd recipients ito your message, you have ithe ioption ito iaddia
"Cc" ifield.iAnyone iin ithis ifield will isee ithe iother recipients iof ithe
message.

"Cc" iis ioften used ito iaddrecipients ito ian email who don't ineed ito itake
any iaction.
Hide recipientsi (Bcc)
If you're isendingia message iand want ito hide ia recipient's email iaddress,
you ican iadd ithem iin ithe i"Bcc" ifield.

How i"Bcc" works

The recipients won't know ithat you iadded ianyone ito i"Bcc."
Anyone you iadd ito ithe i"Bcc" ifield will isee ithat ithey were iadded
using i"Bcc." iThey will ialso isee message recipients iin ithe i"To" iand
"CC" fields.
Note: iIf ithey don't use gmail, ithey may inot isee ithis iinformation.
People you iadd iin i"Bcc" ican't isee ithe iname ior email iaddress iof
anyone else you iadd iin ithe i"Bcc" ifield.
If people reply iall itoia message, people iin i"Bcc" won't isee ithe reply.

5.11 Let us Sum Up

After completion of this unit a learner will get to know about about the
computer network,iuseiof network, be able toiuseiof essential computer
network components, certain iabout ithe iinternet iand iits iservices.
A learner may also know how to surf internet, type iof E-Mail iaccounts
and able ito know ithe mail ioperation iand isteps. i

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