GHOUSIA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

RAMANAGARA

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER APPLICATONS

BCA - BACHELOUR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

SUBJECT: COMPUTER ESSENTIALS

SUBJECT CODE: BCAL104
SEMESTER: I

03092024
Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

COMPUTER ESSENTIALS SEMESTER I

Course Code BCA104 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L: T/SDA:P) 3:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40-45 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03
Type of the Course/Subject Theory
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
• To provide foundational knowledge of computer systems, including their history,
architecture, and essential operations.

• To equip students with practical skills in operating systems, networking, office

applications, and file system management.
MODULE-1

Introduction to computers: History of Computing, Data Storage: Bits and Their Storage, Main
Memory, Mass Storage, Representing Information as Bit Patterns, The Binary System. Data
Manipulation: Computer Architecture, Machine Language, Program Execution

Arithmetic/Logic Instructions.

MODULE-2

Operating System Fundamentals: The History of Operating Systems, Operating System

Architecture, Types of Operating System, Coordinating the Machine’s Activities, Handling
Competition Among Processes, Security.

MODULE-3

Data Communications & Computer Networks: Components, Data Representation, Data Flow,
Network Criteria, Physical Structures, network types, internet history.

MODULE-4

Office Tools: Using office tools, Creating, Saving, Closing, and Opening Office Files, Working
with Files, Using the Ribbon, Tabs, and Quick Access Toolbar, Using Context Menus, the Mini
Toolbar, and Keyboard Shortcuts, Organizing and Customizing Folders and Files. Usage of office
tools

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

MODULE-5
File-System Interface: File Concept, Access Methods, Directory and Disk Structure, FileSystem
Mounting, File Sharing, Protection, File-System Structure, File-System Implementation,
Directory Implementation, Allocation Methods, Free-Space Management, Efficiency and
Performance, Recovery.
Teaching Methodology: Chalk and talk method / PowerPoint Presentation
COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO 1. Understand basic computer concepts including history, data storage, and data
manipulation techniques.

CO 2. Learn the fundamentals of operating systems and their role in managing computer
resources and security.

CO 3. Gain knowledge of data communication principles and computer networking basics.

CO 4. Develop proficiency in using office tools for document creation, data management, and
presentation.

CO 5. Explore the structure and management of file systems including file operations, directory
structures, and storage management.
Suggested Learning Resources:

Books

1. J. Glenn Brookshear,” Computer Science: An Overview”, Addision-Wesley, Twelfth

Edition, 2014

2. Silberschatz A, Gagne G, Galvin PB. Operating system concepts. Ninth Edition, Wiley;
2012.

3. Cobbaut P. Linux Fundamentals. Samurai Media Limited; 2016.

4. Silberschatz A, Korth HF, Sudarshan S. Database system concepts. Sixth Edition, McGraw
Hill; 2010.

5. Microsoft Office 365: In Practice, 2019 Edition, 1st Edition ISBN10: 1260079902 |
ISBN13: 9781260079906, By Randy Nordell, Kathleen Stewart, Annette Easton and Pat

Graves © 2020

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Course Code BCA104

Course: Computer Essential
MODULE-1

Introduction to computers: The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate.
However, modern computers can do a lot more than calculate.

Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired format.

Input-Process-Output Model

Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be processed using arithmetic
and logical operations to obtain information are called data.

Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction, differentials,

square root, etc.

Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less than, equal
to, opposite, etc.

The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and instructions to the computer
are called input unit.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide informa on to the user in
desired format are called output unit.
Control Unit − unit controls all the func ons of the computer. All devices or parts of computer interact
through the control unit.
Arithmetic Logic Unit − the brain of the computer where all arithme c opera ons and logical operations take
place.
Memory − All input data, instruc ons and data interim to the processes are stored in the memory. Memory is
of two types – primary memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.

Characteristics of Computer

To understand why computers are such an important part of our lives, let us look at some of its
characteristics −

 Speed − a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.
 Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur are
usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human errors.
 Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing up
errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans.
 Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket
booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical observations.
If you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer will do the
processing.
 Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of cost of
traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear associated with
paper.

History of Computing:
Early Computing Devices
People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before computers were invented. More
computing devices were produced as technology advanced and the human intellect improved over
time. Let us look at a few of the early-age computing devices used by mankind.

Abacus
Abacus was invented by the Chinese around 4000 years ago. It’s a wooden rack with metal rods with
beads attached to them. The abacus operator moves the beads according to certain guidelines to
complete arithmetic computations.

Napier’s Bone
John Napier devised Napier’s Bones, a manually operated calculating apparatus. For calculating, this
instrument used 9 separate ivory strips (bones) marked with numerals to multiply and divide. It was
also the first machine to calculate using the decimal point system.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Pascaline
Pascaline was invented in 1642 by Biaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher. It is
thought to be the first mechanical and automated calculator. It was a wooden box with gears and
wheels inside.

Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel

In 1673, a German mathematician-philosopher named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on
Pascal’s invention to create this apparatus. It was a digital mechanical calculator known as the
stepped reckoner because it used fluted drums instead of gears.

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the Difference Engine. It was a mechanical computer
that could do basic computations. It was a steam-powered calculating machine used to solve
numerical tables such as logarithmic tables.

Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical Engine, in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that took input from punch cards. It was capable of solving any mathematical
problem and storing data in an indefinite memory.

Tabulating machine
An American Statistician – Herman Hollerith invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating
Machine was a punch card-based mechanical tabulator. It could compute statistics and record or
sort data or information. Hollerith began manufacturing these machines in his company, which
ultimately became International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
Vannevar Bush introduced the first electrical computer, the Differential Analyzer, in 1930. This
machine is made up of vacuum tubes that switch electrical impulses in order to do calculations. It
was capable of performing 25 calculations in a matter of minutes.

Mark I
Howard Aiken planned to build a machine in 1937 that could conduct massive calculations or
calculations using enormous numbers. The Mark I computer was constructed in 1944 as a
collaboration between IBM and Harvard.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

History of Computers Generation

1 First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1985. VLSI microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1985-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

First Generation The period 1946 to 1959, roughly considered as the First Generation of Computer. The first
generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or thermionic valve machine. The input of this
system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the output was displayed on printouts. The
first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0 1). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC,
etc.

Second Generation
The period 1959-1965 is roughly considered as the period of Second Generation of
Computers. The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.
In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller. In comparison to computers
of the first generation, the computing time taken by the computers of the second generation was lesser.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Third Generation
The period 1965-1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third Generation of
computers. The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology. In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the computers
of the third generation was smaller. In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing
time taken by the computers of the third generation was lesser. The third generation computer consumed
less power and also generated less heat. The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was
also low. The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Fourth Generation
The period 1971-1985 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of computers.
The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor
technology. By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became
portable. The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable. The production cost reduced to very low in comparison
to the previous generation. It became available for the common people as well.

The period 1985 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers. By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of
hardware only, but the fifth generation technology also included software. The computers of the fifth
generation had high capability and large memory capacity. Working with computers of this generation was
fast and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously. Some of the popular advanced technologies of
the fifth generation include Artificial intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel
processing, etc.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Additional Info:
The history of the computer is the history of these difficulties being solved.

19th Century
1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a weaver and businessman from France, devised a loom that employed
punched wooden cards to automatically weave cloth designs.

1822 – Charles Babbage, a mathematician, invented the steam-powered calculating machine capable of
calculating number tables. The “Difference Engine” idea failed owing to a lack of technology at the time.

1848 – The world’s first computer program was written by Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician. Lovelace
also includes a step-by-step tutorial on how to compute Bernoulli numbers using Babbage’s machine.

1890 – Herman Hollerith, an inventor, creates the punch card technique used to calculate the 1880 U.S.
census. He would go on to start the corporation that would become IBM.

Early 20th Century

1930 – Differential Analyzer was the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analogue
computer invented and built by Vannevar Bush.

1936 – Alan Turing had an idea for a universal machine, which he called the Turing machine, that could
compute anything that could be computed.

1939 – Hewlett-Packard was discovered in a garage in Palo Alto, California by Bill Hewlett and David Packard.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

1941 – Konrad Zuse, a German inventor and engineer, completed his Z3 machine, the world’s first digital
computer. However, the machine was destroyed during a World War II bombing strike on Berlin.

1941 – J.V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry devise a computer capable of solving 29 equations
at the same time. The first time a computer can store data in its primary memory.

1945 – University of Pennsylvania academics John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert create an Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was Turing-complete and capable of solving “a vast class of
numerical problems” by reprogramming, earning it the title of “Grandfather of computers.”

1946 – The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general-purpose electronic digital
computer designed in the United States for corporate applications.

1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), developed by a team at the University of
Cambridge, is the “first practical stored-program computer.”

1950 – The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) was built in Washington, DC, and it was the first
stored-program computer completed in the United States.

Late 20th Century

1953 – Grace Hopper, a computer scientist, creates the first computer language, which becomes known as
COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language. It allowed a computer user to offer the
computer instructions in English-like words rather than numbers.

1954 – John Backus and a team of IBM programmers created the FORTRAN programming language, an
acronym for FORmula TRANslation. In addition, IBM developed the 650.

1958 – The integrated circuit, sometimes known as the computer chip, was created by Jack Kirby and Robert
Noyce.

1962 – Atlas, the computer, makes its appearance. It was the fastest computer in the world at the time, and it
pioneered the concept of “virtual memory.”

1964 – Douglas Engelbart proposes a modern computer prototype that combines a mouse and a graphical
user interface (GUI).

1969 – Bell Labs developers, led by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, revealed UNIX, an operating system
developed in the C programming language that addressed program compatibility difficulties.

1970 – The Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip, is unveiled by Intel.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

1971 – The floppy disc was invented by Alan Shugart and a team of IBM engineers. In the same year, Xerox
developed the first laser printer, which not only produced billions of dollars but also heralded the beginning
of a new age in computer printing.

1973 – Robert Metcalfe, a member of Xerox’s research department, created Ethernet, which is used to
connect many computers and other gear.

1974 – Personal computers were introduced into the market. The first were the Altair Scelbi & Mark-8, IBM
5100, and Radio Shack’s TRS-80.

1975 – Popular Electronics magazine touted the Altair 8800 as the world’s first minicomputer kit in January.
Paul Allen and Bill Gates offer to build software in the BASIC language for the Altair.

1976 – Apple Computers is founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who expose the world to the Apple I,
the first computer with a single-circuit board.

1977 – At the first West Coast Computer Faire, Jobs and Wozniak announce the Apple II. It has colour graphics
and a cassette drive for storing music.

1978 – The first computerized spreadsheet program, VisiCalc, is introduced.

1979 – WordStar, a word processing tool from MicroPro International, is released.

1981 – IBM unveils the Acorn, their first personal computer, which has an Intel CPU, two floppy drives, and a
colour display. The MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft is used by Acorn.

1983 – The CD-ROM, which could carry 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data, hit the market. This year also
saw the release of the Gavilan SC, the first portable computer with a flip-form design and the first to be
offered as a “laptop.”

1984 – Apple launched Macintosh during the Superbowl XVIII commercial. It was priced at $2,500

1985 – Microsoft introduces Windows, which enables multitasking via a graphical user interface. In addition,
the programming language C++ has been released.

1990 – Tim Berners-Lee, an English programmer and scientist, creates HyperText Markup Language, widely
known as HTML. He also coined the term “WorldWideWeb.” It includes the first browser, a server, HTML, and
URLs.

1993 – The Pentium CPU improves the usage of graphics and music on personal computers.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

1995 – Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was released. A $300 million promotional campaign was
launched to get the news out. Sun Microsystems introduces Java 1.0, followed by Netscape Communications’
JavaScript.

1996 – At Stanford University, Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the Google search engine.

1998 – Apple introduces the iMac, an all-in-one Macintosh desktop computer. These PCs cost $1,300 and
came with a 4GB hard drive, 32MB RAM, a CD-ROM, and a 15-inch monitor.

1999 – Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for “wireless fidelity,” is created, originally covering a range of up to 300 feet.

21st Century
2000 – The USB flash drive is first introduced in 2000. They were speedier and had more storage space than
other storage media options when used for data storage.

2001 – Apple releases Mac OS X, later renamed OS X and eventually simply macOS, as the successor to its
conventional Mac Operating System.

2003 – Customers could purchase AMD’s Athlon 64, the first 64-bit CPU for consumer computers.

2004 – Facebook began as a social networking website.

2005 – Google acquires Android, a mobile phone OS based on Linux.

2006 – Apple’s MacBook Pro was available. The Pro was the company’s first dual-core, Intel-based mobile
computer.

Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage Service, were also
launched (S3)

2007 – The first iPhone was produced by Apple, bringing many computer operations into the palm of our
hands. Amazon also released the Kindle, one of the first electronic reading systems, in 2007.

2009 – Microsoft released Windows 7.

2011 – Google introduces the Chromebook, which runs Google Chrome OS.

2014 – The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the world’s smallest computer, was constructed.

2015 – Apple introduces the Apple Watch. Windows 10 was also released by Microsoft.

2016 – The world’s first reprogrammable quantum computer is built.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers – Analog computers are built with various components such as gears and levers, with
no electrical components. One advantage of analogue computation is that designing and building an
analogue computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.

2. Digital Computers – Information in digital computers is represented in discrete form, typically as

sequences of 0s and 1s (binary digits, or bits). A digital computer is a system or gadget that can process
any type of information in a matter of seconds. Digital computers are categorized into many different
types. They are as follows:
a. Mainframe computers – It is a computer that is generally utilized by large enterprises for mission-
critical activities such as massive data processing. Mainframe computers were distinguished by
massive storage capacities, quick components, and powerful computational capabilities. Because they
were complicated systems, they were managed by a team of systems programmers who had sole
access to the computer. These machines are now referred to as servers rather than mainframes.
b. Supercomputers – The most powerful computers to date are commonly referred to as
supercomputers. Supercomputers are enormous systems that are purpose-built to solve complicated
scientific and industrial problems. Quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, oil and gas exploration,
molecular modelling, physical simulations, aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research, and crypto analysis
are all done on supercomputers.
c. Minicomputers – A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many of the same features and
capabilities as a larger computer but is smaller in size. Minicomputers, which were relatively small
and affordable, were often employed in a single department of an organization and were often
dedicated to a specific task or shared by a small group.
d. Microcomputers – A microcomputer is a small computer that is based on a microprocessor integrated
circuit, often known as a chip. A microcomputer is a system that incorporates at a minimum a
microprocessor, program memory, data memory, and input-output system (I/O). A microcomputer is
now commonly referred to as a personal computer (PC).
e. Embedded processors – These are miniature computers that control electrical and mechanical
processes with basic microprocessors. Embedded processors are often simple in design, have limited
processing capability and I/O capabilities, and need little power. Ordinary microprocessors and
microcontrollers are the two primary types of embedded processors. Embedded processors are
employed in systems that do not require the computing capability of traditional devices such as
desktop computers, laptop computers, or workstations.

Data Storage: Bits and Their Storage: “data” is any digital information that makes up distinct items or entities
that we access through electronic means.
The list below contains some examples of data:
 A picture or video taken on a camera or smartphone
 A document written using Microsoft Word
 An email in your “Friends” folder
 A note in Evernote, Microsoft OneNote, or your smartphone’s Notes app

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 An individual post on a social media site

 A bookmark in your web browser
 An appointment entered on your electronic calendar
 A file you can access through Windows Explorer, or Finder on macOS

All digital data is stored fundamentally as bits. A binary digit (or bit) is the smallest unit of data storage. A bit
can only have two states, on or off, which are commonly represented as 1 or 0. A group of 8 bits is called a
byte. A group of 4 bits (half a byte) is called a nibble.
Historically, a byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer. A kilobyte
is often referred to as 1000 bytes. It is a base ten prefix used in binary to represent approximately 1000. The
binary equivalent of 1000 is 210, which equals 1024, meaning a kilobyte is actually 1024 bytes.

As of now, there are no approved standard sizes for anything bigger than a yottabyte. However, the two
proposed standards are hellabyte or brontobyte.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

bit byte file

FILES
When you string a bunch of bytes together, you get what we generally referred to as a file. A file is a
collection of bytes that logically belong together as the smallest useful block of data the computer (or phone
or tablet) can interact with.
FILESYSTEM This is the layer we care about
Once you have enough data to make one or more files, you need some way to structure them with names,
timestamps, and hopefully some kind of sensible hierarchy so you don’t just have thousands or millions of
files all in a giant heap. The filesystem is the magic that makes this possible, by allowing not only file naming
and identification but also multiple levels of folders for us to put files into.

Main Memory: Main memory, also known as primary memory, is a volatile memory that provides fast
storage and retrieval of data. It temporarily stores data that is being executed by the CPU (Central Processing
Unit)
Types of RAM modes: Static & dynamic

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Random Access Memory (RAM), a type of main memory, comes in two modes: Static RAM (SRAM) and
Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM stores a bit of data on four transistors using two cross-coupled inverters. This type of RAM is faster and
more reliable than DRAM, but it is also more expensive. SRAM is used in devices where speed and reliability
are crucial.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM stores bits of data in separate capacitors within an integrated circuit. Since the capacitors leak charges,
the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of its
structure, DRAM is less expensive than SRAM.

SRAM vs. DRAM

When comparing SRAM and DRAM, there are a few key differences to note. As previously mentioned, SRAM
is faster, less volatile and more reliable than DRAM. However, DRAM is less expensive and has higher storage
capacity. The choice between the two often depends on the specific needs of the computing device.

What is read-only memory?

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices.
As the name suggests, data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the
memory device. ROM is essential for booting up the computer and initiating the operating system.

Mass Storage: A mass storage device (MSD) is any storage device that makes it possible to store and port
large amounts of data across computers, servers and within an IT environment.
MSDs are portable storage media that provide a storage interface that can be both internal and external to
the computer. MSD is primarily related to storage devices that provide consistent and permanent storage
capacity. MSD is connected to the computer/server via a data transfer interface, such as SCSI, USB or even
Ethernet Some of the common MSDs include floppy disk drives, optical drives, hard disk drives, tape drives,
external hard drives, RAID and USB storage devices.
Currently, typical MSD devices provide anywhere from a few gigabytes to petabytes of data. Internal MSDs
generally can’t be removed, whereas external MSDs can be easily removed, ported and plugged into another
computer.

Representing Information as Bit Patterns:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets
of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.
Today, the prevalent coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character
used in any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is
also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical
operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.
Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For
example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the second case, there is a better
representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the image. After an
image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend
on the image. For an image made of only black and- white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit pattern is enough
to represent a pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of
the bit pattern to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use 2-bit patterns.
A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by
11. There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because each
color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is
measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a
combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text,
numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music
to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal. In Chapters 4 and 5, we learn how to change sound or
music to a digital or an analog signal.
Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged
to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analog signal.

The Binary System:

"Bi" in Binary means "two". Hence, this draws back the line to the representation of a number in terms of 0
and 1 only. Binary system is used to represent a number in terms of two numbers only, 0 and 1. The binary
number system is used commonly by computer languages like Java, C++. As the computer only understands
binary language that is 0 or 1, all inputs given to a computer are decoded by it into series of 0's or 1's to
process
binary decimal number conversion and vice versa, 1’s and 2’s complement, and how they are used in
computer systems.
There are generally various types of number systems and among them the four major ones are,
Binary Number System (Number system with Base 2)
Octal Number System (Number system with Base 8)
Decimal Number System (Number system with Base 10)
Hexadecimal Number System (Number system with Base 16)

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Data Manipulation: Data manipulation refers to the process of adjusting data to make it organised and easier
to read. Data manipulation language, or DML, is a programming language that adjusts data by inserting,
deleting and modifying data in a database such as to cleanse or map the data. data manipulation is to utilise
data manipulation tools that automate it for you. These software cleanse, map, aggregate, transform, and
store data to make it usable.
Data manipulation is used in various industries including accounting, finance, computer programming,
banking, sales, marketing and real estate.
The steps of effective data manipulation include extracting data, cleaning the data, constructing a database,
filtering information based on your requirements and analyzing the data.
Common operations used for data manipulation include:
Aggregation
Classification
Mathematical formulas
Regression analysis
Row and column filtering
String concatenation

Computer Architecture:

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Computer architecture refers to the organization and design of a computer system, including its hardware
components and the way in which they interact with each other. The main components of a computer system
include the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) devices, and storage devices.

Pipelining: Pipelining is a technique used in modern CPUs to execute multiple instructions simultaneously by
breaking them down into smaller stages and executing them in parallel. This technique can significantly
improve the overall performance of the CPU.
Caches: Caches are small, high-speed memory units that are used to store frequently accessed data and
instructions. By keeping frequently used data close to the CPU, caches can help reduce memory access times
and improve overall system performance.
Virtual Memory: Virtual memory is a technique that allows a computer to use more memory than it actually
has by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage. This technique can help improve the
performance of the system by allowing it to run more programs simultaneously.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): ISA is a set of instructions that a CPU can understand and execute. Different
CPUs may have different ISAs, and the choice of ISA can have a significant impact on the performance and
capabilities of the system.
Parallel Computing: Parallel computing is the use of multiple processing units (such as CPUs or GPUs) to
perform computations simultaneously. This technique can be used to solve complex problems more quickly
than a single processor could.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Machine Language: All programs and programming languages eventually generate or run programs in
machine language. Machine language is a low-level programming language that is understood by
computers. Machine language is made up of binary bits 0 and 1. Machine language is also known as
machine codes or object code. As machine language consists of only 0 and 1, that’s why it is difficult
to understand in raw form. Machine language cannot understood by humans. The CPU processes this
machine code as input. In this article, we are going to learn about what is Machine language, the
features of machine language, the advantages and disadvantages of machine learning, and why it is
difficult for humans to understand machine language (low-level language).
Machine language is a low-level programming language that consists of binary bits i.e. only 0 and 1. The data
present in binary form is the reason for its fast execution. In Machine language, instructions are directly
executed by the CPU. Machine language is also known as object code or machine code. Machine language is
binary language.
The machine language of a computer is the set of bit strings recognized as instructions; the actions performed
by each machine instruction are defined by the computer hardware.

Program Execution: Execute refers to the action of carrying out a command, instruction, or program on a
computer or electronic device. When programmer initiate its operation, causing it to perform the
intended task. In the realm of technology, computing, programming, and communications, execution
plays a crucial role in making things happen. Let's explore some questions and answers related to
the concept of execution. Execution it is operation, allowing it to perform the tasks it was designed
for. This involves loading the program into memory, interpreting its instructions, and carrying out the
desired computations or actions.
When you execute a program, the operating system allocates memory to store the program's
instructions and data. It then sets the program counter to the memory address of the first instruction,
which is fetched, decoded, and executed one by one. As the program executes, it may interact with
the user, access files, perform calculations, and produce output.
The operating system handles tasks like loading programs into memory, scheduling their execution,
and providing access to input/output devices.

Arithmetic/Logic Instructions: The Arithmetic and Logical Unit can perform various mathematical
calculations or arithmetic operations, for instance, subtraction, addition, division, multiplication, including
three logical operations AND, OR and NOT. Mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations perform a
variety of purposes in a computer, including:
 Subtractors add with borrow, subtract with carrying, and so on.
 Input/output (I/O) controllers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and memory Units. The Arithmetic Logical
Unit can perform subtraction, addition, division, multiplication, and other logic operations and bitwise
operations. All the instructions for performing the specific function are stored in the memory unit.
 If you have to handle numbers, arithmetic operators are needed. The five main arithmetic operators
are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.
 To add numbers, we employ addition- a+b+a+b+a+b+a+b+a
 Subtraction is a mathematical concept connected to addition and is used to subtract integers. For
example, a-b can be expressed as a+ in terms of addition (-b)

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 Multiplication is combining two or more numbers into a single number. It’s written as
a*b*b*b*b*b*b*b*b
 The division is a method of dividing numbers that are linked to multiplication. For instance, the
expression a/b can be represented as a*(b-1).
The ALU comprises a circuit that performs arithmetic and logic operations and is an arithmetic logic unit
(ALU). It is an essential component of a computer’s central processing unit (CPU).

There are three basic units in a CPU:

Unit of Control (CU)
Unit of Arithmetic Logic (ALU)
Unit of Memory (MU)
These so-called “computer” functions are simple arithmetic and logical procedures. The ALU’s inputs are the
data to be operated on, termed operands, and a code indicating the operation to be done and, optionally,
status information from a previous operation. The ALU’s output is the result of the conducted operation.

MODULE-2
Operating System Fundamentals: The Operating System (OS) is a system software which:
Acts as intermediary between the hardware and user. Manages the system resources in an unbiased fashion
between the hardware and software. Provides a platform on which other application programs are installed.
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Generally, a Computer System consists of the following components:

Computer Users are the users who use the overall computer system.
Application Softwares are the softwares which users use directly to perform different activities. These
softwares are simple and easy to use like Browsers, Word, Excel, different Editors, Games etc. These are
usually written in high-level languages, such as Python, Java and C++.

System Softwares are the softwares which are more complex in nature and they are more near to computer
hardware. These software are usually written in low-level languages like assembly language and includes
Operating Systems (Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux), Compiler, and Assembler etc.

Following are the examples of the few most popular Operating Systems:
Windows: This is one of the most popular and commercial operating systems developed and marketed by
Microsoft. It has different versions in the market like Windows 8, Windows 10 etc and most of them are paid.
Linux This is a Unix based and the most loved operating system first released on September 17, 1991 by Linus
Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like Fedora, OpenSUSE, CentOS, UBuntu etc. Most of them are
available free of charges though you can have their enterprise versions by paying a nominal license fee.
MacOS This is again a kind of Unix operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

iOS This is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its mobile devices
like iPhone and iPad etc.
Android This is a mobile Operating System based on a modified version of the Linux kernel and other open
source software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
Computer Hardware includes Monitor, Keyboard, CPU, Disks, Memory, etc.
important functions of an operating System
 Process Management
 I/O Device Management
 File Management
 Network Management
 Main Memory Management
 Secondary Storage Management
 Security Management
 Command Interpreter System
 Control over system performance

The History of Operating Systems:

The history of the operating system has four generations now. The evolution of the Operating system can be
understood from the following image.

The history of the operating system has 4 generations.

 The first generation (1945-1955) only had computer systems that were used to perform simple
mathematical operations and also electronic computers were introduced during the 1940s.
 The second generation (1955-1965) introduced the concept of a Batch operating system.
 In the third generation (1965-1980), multiprogramming was introduced where multiple tasks could be
performed on a single operating system.
 In the fourth generation (1980-now) different operating systems like Windows OS and macOS were
introduced.
The operating system helps in regulating and monitor the device, creating an interface between the hardware
and the user.
Backing up your data is necessary because you might lose your data if somehow any error occurs in your
system.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Operating System Architecture: The Essence of Computer System Architecture in OS

At the heart of every computer lies a meticulously designed system architecture, a blueprint that governs
the hardware components and their interactions. To appreciate the architecture of an operating system,
one must fathom the inner workings of this computer system architecture. Key components include:

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer, responsible for executing instructions
and performing calculations. The OS interacts closely with the CPU, managing its usage to ensure efficient
task execution.
Memory (RAM): Memory is where data and instructions are temporarily stored for fast access by the CPU.
The OS manages memory allocation, ensuring that each process gets its fair share while preventing
conflicts.
Input/Output Devices: Peripherals like keyboards, mice, displays, and printers connect to the computer via
input/output ports. The OS facilitates communication between these devices and user applications.
Storage Devices: Hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and other storage media store long-term data. The
OS oversees storage management, ensuring data integrity and access.
Understanding how these hardware components interact and how the OS manages them is essential for
comprehending OS architecture's intricacies.

Computer System Architecture in OS

The architecture of a computer system encompasses the design and organization of its hardware
components. A typical computer system consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input/output
devices, and storage devices. The OS interacts closely with these components to ensure efficient resource
utilization.
Types of Architecture of Operating Systems
There are several approaches to designing an operating system, each with its unique architecture. The most
common types of OS architecture include:
Monolithic Kernel Architecture: In this architecture, all OS services run in kernel mode, sharing the same
address space. Examples of monolithic kernel-based OS include older versions of Unix and Linux.
Microkernel Architecture: Microkernels keep the kernel minimal, with most OS services running in user
mode. This design aims to improve modularity and system stability. QNX and MINIX are examples of
microkernel-based OS.
Hybrid Kernel Architecture: Combining elements of both monolithic and microkernel designs, hybrid kernels
offer a balance between performance and modularity. Windows NT and macOS use a hybrid kernel
architecture.
Now that we have laid the groundwork, let us explore the specific architectures of some well-known
operating systems.

Types of Operating System: here are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned below.

 Batch Operating System

 Multi-Programming System

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 Multi-Processing System
 Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Time-Sharing Operating System
 Distributed Operating System
 Network Operating System
 Real-Time Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator
which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups them into batches. It is the
responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch Operating System is designed to
manage and execute a large number of jobs efficiently by processing them in groups.
Advantages of Batch Operating System
o Multiple users can share the batch systems.
o The idle time for the batch system is very less.
o It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is present
in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used for better
utilization of resources.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.
 It helps in reducing the response time.
3. Multi-Processing Operating System
Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU is used for the
execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the System.

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

 It increases the throughput of the system.
 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another processor.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Coordinating the Machine’s Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System
with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm. It can run multiple programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
Preemptive Multi-Tasking
Cooperative Multi-Tasking
Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking Operating System.
 It comes with proper memory management.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of the
CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from
a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time
interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Each task gets an equal opportunity.
 Fewer chances of duplication of software.
 CPU idle time can be reduced.
 Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share hardware resources such as the
CPU, memory, and peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware and increasing efficiency.

6. Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are being
widely accepted all over the world and, that too, at a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected
computers communicate with each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems
possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent of
each other.
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.
 Load on host computer reduces.
7. Network Operating System
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access to files,
printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One more
important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc.

Advantages of Network Operating System

 Highly stable centralized servers.
 Security concerns are handled through servers.
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system.
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems.

8. Real-Time Operating System

These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is
very small. This time interval is called response time. Real-time systems are used when there are time
requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems
Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict
and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic
parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is
rarely found in these systems.
Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less strict.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Advantages of RTOS
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus more output from all the
resources.
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less. For example, in older
systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting from one task to another, and in the latest
systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance on applications that are in
the queue.

Coordinating the Machine’s Activities: One of the most fundamental concepts of modern operating systems
is the distinction between a program and the activity of executing a program. The former is a static set of
directions, whereas the latter is a dynamic activity whose properties change as time progresses. The activity
of executing a program under the control of the operating system is known as a process.
Associated with a process is the current status of the activity, called the process state. This state includes the
current position in the program being executed (the value of the program counter) as well as the values in the
other CPU registers and the associated memory cells. Roughly speaking, the process state is a snapshot of the
machine at a particular time. At different times during the execution of a program (at different times in a
process) different snapshots (different process states) will be observed.
An important task of an operating system is the allocation of the machine’s resources to the processes in the
system. Here we are using the term resource in a broad sense, including the machine’s peripheral devices as
well as features within the machine itself.
The file manager allocates access to files as well and allocates mass storage space for the construction of new
files; the memory manager allocates memory space.
Paramount to the success of a multiprogramming system is the ability to stop, and later restart, a process. If
you are interrupted while reading a book, your ability to continue reading at a later time depends on your
ability to remember your location in the book as well as the information that you had accumulated to that

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

point. In short, you must be able to re-create the environment that was present immediately prior to the
interruption.

Handling Competition among Processes: a program that is currently running or a program under execution
is called a process.
An operating system (OS) handles competition among processes by using process synchronization and
process coordination to prevent data inconsistency, deadlocks, and race conditions:
Process synchronization
Prevents data inconsistency and race conditions by ensuring that processes don't execute operations at the
same time or exit the critical section incorrectly.
Process coordination
Also known as concurrency control, this handles mutual exclusion and synchronization. Mutual exclusion
ensures that two concurrent activities don't access shared data at the same time.
Scheduling
The OS uses a scheduler to allocate CPU time to each process, switching rapidly between them to give the
illusion of simultaneous execution. This is known as time-sharing.
Resource allocation
The OS allocates resources that allow processes to exchange information and safeguards the resources of
other processes.
common process scheduling algorithms include:
 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
 Shortest Job Next (SJN)
 Round Robin (RR)
 Priority Scheduling
 Multilevel Queue Scheduling

Security: The process of ensuring OS availability, confidentiality, integrity is known as operating system
security. OS security refers to the processes or measures taken to protect the operating system from dangers,
including viruses, worms, malware, and remote hacker intrusions. Operating system security comprises all
preventive-control procedures that protect any system assets that could be stolen, modified, or deleted if OS
security is breached.
Security refers to providing safety for computer system resources like software, CPU, memory, disks, etc. It
can protect against all threats, including viruses and unauthorized access. It can be enforced by assuring the
operating system's integrity, confidentiality, and availability. If an illegal user runs a computer application, the
computer or data stored may be seriously damaged.
Program threats
The operating system's processes and kernel carry out the specified task as directed. Program Threats occur
when a user program causes these processes to do malicious operations. The common example of a program
threat is that when a program is installed on a computer, it could store and transfer user credentials to a
hacker. There are various program threats. Some of them are as follows: Virus, Trojan Horse, Logic Bomb,
Trap Door

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

To Ensure Operating System Security:

 Authorization: It means verification of access to the system resources. Intruders may guess or steal
password and use it. Intruder may use a vendor-supplied password, which is expected to use by system
administrator. It may find password by trial and error method. If the user logs on and goes for a break
then the intruder may use the terminal. An intruder can write a dummy login program to fool user and
that program collects information for its use later on.
 Authentication: Authentication is verification of a user’s identity. Operating systems most often
perform authentication by knowledge. That is, a person claiming to be some user X is called upon to
exhibit some knowledge shared only between the OS and user X, such as a password
 Browsing: Files are very permissive so one can easily browse system files. Due to that it may access
database and confidential information can be read.
 Trap doors: Sometimes Software designers want to modify their programs after installation. for that
there are some secret entry points which programmers keep and it does not require and permission .
These are called trap doors. Intrudes can use these trap doors.
 Invalid Parameters: Due to invalid parameters some security violation can take place.
 Line Tapping: Tapings in the communication line can access or modify confidential data.
 Electronic data capture: Using wiretaps or mechanism to pick up screen radiation and recognize what is
displayed on screen is termed electronic data capture.
 Lost Line: In networking, the line way gets lost. In such case some o/s log out and allow access only
after correct identify of user. some o/s cannot do this. So process will be floating and allow intruder to
access data.
 Improper Access Controls: Some administrators may not plan about all rights. So some users may have
more access and some users have very less access.
 Waste Recovery: If the block is deleted its information will be as it is. until it is allocated to another file.
Intruder may use some mechanism to scan these blocks.
 Rogue Software: Programs are written to create mischief.

MODULE-3
Data Communications & Computer Networks: Components:
Data Communications: Humans communicate in a variety of ways—by speaking, texting, and emailing—data
similarly transfers from one place to another using different mediums. Data communication is the process of
transferring data from one place to another or between two locations. It allows electronic and digital data to
move between two networks. A common example of data communication is connecting your laptop to a
Wi-Fi network. This action requires a wireless medium to send and receive data from remote servers.
The type of data transmission demonstrates the direction in which the data moves between the sender and
receiver.
Simplex data transmission: Data is sent from sender to receiver
Half-duplex data transmission: Data can transmit both ways, but not simultaneously
Full-duplex data transmission: Data can transmit both ways at the same time
Components of data communication
A data communication system is comprised of the following:
Message: The data to be transmitted or communicated, which can include numbers, text, photos, sound, or
video.
Sender: The computer or device (e.g., phone, tablet) that sends the message.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Receiver: The computer or device that receives the message, which can be different from the sender.
Medium: The channel through which the message is carried from sender to receiver, such as twisted pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or wireless.
Protocol: The set of rules that govern the communication between computers. These rules are followed by
both the sender and receiver.
Computer Networks,-Components: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share
resources and information. These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware.
Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as email, file sharing,
and internet browsing.
The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in sending and
receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address,
that helps in identifying a device.
Components of Computer Network
Major components of computer network enable the transfer of data, information, and resources such as
printers, scanners, and storage devices, among devices in the network. The primary components of a
computer network include devices, network interface cards (NICs), hubs, switches, routers, servers, modems,
bridges, and repeaters.

NIC
 NIC stands for network interface card.
 NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
 It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
 The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the
IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable
read-only memory).
There are two types of NIC:

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

1. Wired NIC 2. Wireless NIC

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that allows multiple devices to communicate with each other. Hubs
receive data packets from one device and broadcast them to all the other devices connected to the hub. This
means that all devices on the network share the same bandwidth and receive all data, regardless of whether
it is intended for them or not. There are mainly three types of hubs: passive, active, and intelligent - Passive
hub, Active hub, Intelligent hub
Switch: A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch
contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the
data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical
address present in the incoming message.
Router

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to
receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet

Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing
telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the
motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the
telephone lines.
Cables and Connectors
Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal. There are three types of cables used in
transmission:

o Twisted pair cable

o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

Data Representation: A computer represents a piece of data with a specific number of bits, which can be a
number, a character, an image, a sound, a video, etc. A computer’s internal data representation method is
called data representation. The methods used to represent information in computers are known as data
representation. The computer system can store a variety of data types.
Numeric data, text, executable files, pictures, audio, and video are all examples of computer data
representation. To us, as humans, each of these will appear differently.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

The following are the types of data representation you should know
· Decimal Numbers
· Binary Numbers
· Hexadecimal Numbers
· Text
· Graphics

1. Decimal Numbers
We are accustomed to writing numbers with the digits 0 to 9. This is known as base 10. Because we have ten
fingers, this number system has become universally accepted.
Other number systems, on the other hand, other number systems continue to exist in current civilisation.

2. Binary Numbers
A sequence of 0s and 1s can represent any positive integer (whole number). Binary numbers are defined as
numbers that are in base two.
Because electrical wire can only have two states, computers employ the binary (base 2) number system (on or
off).

3. Hexadecimal Numbers
Because binary uses 3 to 4 times the number of digits as decimal, it is time-consuming to write numbers in
binary.
Hexadecimal (base 16) is frequently used as a shorthand for binary. Because 16 is a power of 2, numbers in
base 16 have nearly the same number of digits as the decimal representation.
Because the numbers are written from 0 to 9 and A to F, hexadecimal numbers are also known as alpha
decimal numbers. A is 10, B is 11, and so on until F is 15.

4. Text
The American Standard Code defines 128 different symbols for Information Interchange (ASCII code). The
characters on a normal keyboard, plus a few more, make up the symbols.
Each character has its numerical code (0 to 127). A is 65, B is 66, and is 97, b is 98, and so on in ASCII. When a
file is saved as plain text, ASCII is used to save it.
Each character in ASCII consumes one byte. Only 256 (128 standard and 128 non-standard) characters are
feasible with 1 byte. Any character’s code value can be converted to base 2, allowing any written message
composed of ASCII characters to be translated to a string of 0s and 1s.

5. Graphics
Pixels make up the graphics on a computer screen. Pixels are small coloured dots that work together on a
computer screen to generate a graphic image. A physical point in a raster image or the smallest significant
element in an all-points-addressable display device.
As a result, it is the tiniest controllable element of a picture on the screen. A pixel’s address is the same as its
physical coordinates.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Data Flow: Dataflow is often defined using a model or diagram in which the entire process of data movement
is mapped as it passes from one component to the next within a program or a system, taking into
consideration how it changes form during the process.

Dataflow design is done through specialized software called dataflow diagrams (DFD) which are specially
designed to graphically map how data is transmitted throughout a system.
The dataflow diagram is important in the architectural design of a system since it defines what kind of data is
needed in order to start or complete a specific process.

Network Criteria: An effective and efficient network requires several criteria to ensure its optimal
performance and functionality,

1. Reliability:

 Uptime: Networks should be available and operational as much as possible without interruptions.
 Redundancy: Built-in backup systems or failover mechanisms to ensure continuity even if
components fail.
2. Speed and Bandwidth:

 Fast Data Transfer: High-speed connections and sufficient bandwidth to accommodate data
transfer needs.
 Low Latency: Minimized delay in data transmission, critical for real-time applications.
3. Security:

 Data Protection: Implementation of security protocols to safeguard data from unauthorized

access, viruses, malware, and cyber threats.
 Encryption: Ensuring secure data transmission through encryption mechanisms.
4. Scalability:

 Ability to Expand: Networks should be easily expandable and adaptable to accommodate

increased traffic or new devices without major overhauls.
5. Manageability and Monitoring:

 Centralized Management: Tools and systems for centralized monitoring, management, and
troubleshooting of the network.
 Alerts and Reporting: Alerts for anomalies or issues and reporting for network performance
analysis.
Advantages of Networks:

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1. Improved Communication: Facilitates efficient communication and data sharing between devices
and users.
2. Resource Sharing: Allows the sharing of resources like printers, storage, and internet connections
among multiple devices.
3. Increased Productivity: Enables collaborative work environments and remote access, boosting
productivity.
4. Cost Savings: Economies of scale in purchasing, centralized management, and resource sharing can
result in cost savings.
5. Global Connectivity: Allows global access and connectivity across geographical locations.
Disadvantages of Networks:

1. Security Risks: Networks are susceptible to security threats like hacking, malware, and data
breaches.
2. Dependency: System failures or network downtime can halt operations, causing significant
disruptions.
3. Complexity: Managing and maintaining complex network infrastructures can be challenging.
4. Costs: Initial setup costs, maintenance, and upgrades can be expensive, especially for large-scale
networks.
5. Performance Issues: Congestion or bandwidth limitations may lead to performance bottlenecks.
Balancing these advantages with the potential drawbacks, while ensuring the network meets the necessary
criteria, is crucial for creating an effective and efficient network that supports the organization's needs.

Physical Structures:
In computer networking, physical structures refer to the tangible components and infrastructure that make up
a network. These physical elements provide the foundation for data transmission and communication between
devices within a network. They include:

1. Cables: Cables are used to establish physical connections between devices in a network. Common
types of cables used in networking include Ethernet cables (such as twisted-pair copper cables or
fiber optic cables), coaxial cables, and serial cables. These cables carry the electrical or optical
signals that transmit data between devices.
2. Network Interface Cards (NICs): Network Interface Cards, also known as network adapters, are
hardware components installed in computers or devices to enable them to connect to a network.
NICs provide the physical interface for connecting devices to the network medium, such as an
Ethernet port or a wireless radio antenna.
3. Hubs, Switches, and Routers: These networking devices facilitate the connectivity and data transfer
between multiple devices in a network. Hubs are the simplest form of connectivity devices that
broadcast incoming data to all devices connected to them. Switches, on the other hand, are more
intelligent devices that forward data packets only to the intended destination device. Routers are
responsible for directing data packets between different networks, making them crucial for
interconnecting networks.
4. Network Servers: Network servers are powerful computers or devices that provide resources and
services to other devices on the network. These servers can include file servers, web servers, email

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

servers, database servers, and more. They store and manage data, respond to requests from client
devices, and facilitate network-based services.
5. Network Cabinets/Racks: These physical structures provide a housing and organization for
networking equipment, including switches, routers, servers, and other devices. Network
cabinets/racks often feature cable management systems and cooling mechanisms to maintain the
integrity and functionality of the network infrastructure.
6. Physical Locations and Data Centers: Physical structures also encompass the physical locations
where network equipment and servers are housed. This includes data centers, telecommunication
rooms, wiring closets, and server rooms. These facilities provide secure and controlled
environments for housing networking infrastructure, ensuring reliable and efficient network
operations.
Understanding the physical structures of a network is essential for designing, implementing, and maintaining a
robust and efficient network infrastructure. These components lay the groundwork for reliable data
transmission, connectivity, and communication between devices within a network.

Network types:
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building,
office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such
as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet
cables.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a mobile
network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then creates a
connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home
network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television
but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate network
using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

o It can be used in a college within a city.

o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds of
cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is made
by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of
our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a
leased line through which we can connect with another branch.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the
updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources
like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth. The
high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of our
company.
Internet history:

It is a network of networks made up of private, public, academic, and government networks ranging from
local to global in extent and connected by a diverse set of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s. They began the design of
what we today know as the ‘internet.’ It was the result of another research experiment which was called
ARPANET, which stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. This was initially supposed to be a
communications system for the Defense Team of the United States of America - a network that would also
survive a nuclear attack. It eventually became a successful nationwide experimental packet network. But

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

when was the first Internet started? It is believed that on 6 August 1991, when the World Wide Web opened
to the public.
Father of the Internet: Tim Berners-Lee
Tim Berners-Lee was the man, who led the development of the World Wide Web, the defining of HTTP
(HyperText Transfer Protocol), HTML (hypertext markup language) used to create web pages, and URLs
(Universal Resource Locators). The development of WWW, HTTP, HTML and URLs took place between 1989 and
1991. Tim Berners-Lee was born in London and he graduated in Physics from Oxford University in 1976.
Currently, Tim Berners-Lee is the Director of the World Wide Web Consortium, the group that sets technical
standards for the web.
Tim Berners-Lee, Vinton Cerf is also named as an internet daddy other than Tim Berners-Lee. After being out
for 10 years from high school, he began co-designing and co-developing the protocols and structure of what
became the internet.

MODULE-4
Office Tools: Using office tools: Application software that assist users in regular office jobs like creating,
updating and maintaining documents, handling large amounts of data, creating presentations, scheduling, etc.
are called office tools. Using office tools saves time and effort and lots of repetitive tasks can be done easily.
Some of the software that do this are −
 Word processors
 Spreadsheets
 Database systems
 Presentation software
 E-mail tools

Word Processor
A software for creating, storing and manipulating text documents is called word processor. Some
common word processors are MS-Word, WordPad, WordPerfect, Google docs, etc.
word processor allows you to −
Create, save and edit documents
Format text properties like font, alignment, font color, background color, etc.
Check spelling and grammar
Add images
Add header and footer, set page margins and insert watermarks

Creating, Saving, Closing, Opening Office Files, Working with Files: MS-Word can create various types of
document as per our requirement whether a blank document or a web page.
Various file operations are —
 opening a document
 Saving a document
 Save As by using Save As dialog box
 Closing a document
 Exiting Word

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

 Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Creating and Saving a Document

Opening and Closing A Document

To open a file, select Open… from the File menu. In the dialog box, click on the filename and then on the
Open button. If your file is not in the opened folder, click on the down arrow (next to folder name) to see
a directory listing. The Up One Level button icon on the right enables you to move up one level. You can
then switch to the floppy disk, hard drive or Desktop where the appropriate file or folder is located.

For example, to open a file from a floppy disk, select Open… from the File menu. If the disk’s name does
not appear on the left side of the dialog box, click on the down arrow. Select its name in the box at the
left or if it is not displayed, click the Up One Level button to see a different display of files and folders.
When you locate the desired diskette or file, click Open. (Double-clicking on the name will also open it).

To close a document, click its close box in the upper right of the title bar (box with the large X on it) or
select Close from the File menu. The keyboard shortcut is <Ctrl + W>.

Saving a Document

Your document and changes you make to a document are not saved to disk until you issue a save
command. Saving is quick and easy. You should save often to minimize the loss of your work. Word has
two save commands – Save and Save As. – that work similarly. Both are under the File menu.

Save Save As
When you save a new document for the first time, Word This command always displays a dialog box where you can choose a
displays a dialog box (see figure, below). Select where you want document name and disk (see figure, below). Use the Save As.
to save your document and give it a name. When you save an command whenever you want to save a copy of the current
existing document that you have been editing, the newly saved document under a different name or in a different folder (or disk).
version is written over the older version. The newly saved copy becomes the active document.

Using the Ribbon, Tabs, and Quick Access Toolbar:

In Microsoft Office applications, the Ribbon is the menu bar at the top of the window. It contains various
tools, organized by tabs, that help you edit and format a document.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Microsoft Office programs such as Microsoft Word and Excel, the Ribbon feature replaces the traditional file
menu and toolbar. As shown in the image, the Ribbon dynamically changes based on what the user is
currently doing. In this example, the Ribbon for "Write" is displayed and has grouped all writing-related
activities.

The Quick Access Toolbar -a customizable toolbar that contains shortcuts to frequently used commands,
options, and features
Features of the Quick Access Toolbar
Customizability: Users can add or remove commands based on their specific needs, tailoring the toolbar to
their workflow.
Accessibility: Provides immediate access to frequently used commands, reducing the time spent searching for
functions within the ribbon.
Consistency: Remains visible regardless of the ribbon tab selected, ensuring that essential tools are always at
hand.
Tabs: Tabs in Word let you add horizontal space in the middle of a line that contains text or numbers. Users
can add a tab by pressing the "Tab" key on their keyboards. This action adds a tab and automatically creates
half an inch of horizontal space.
Using Context Menus:
In Microsoft Word, you can use a context menu by right-clicking on a selection:
Right-click on the selection
A pop-up menu will appear with a list of commands that are relevant to the selection
Select an action from the menu or click outside the menu to close it. A context menu is a pop-up menu that
provides shortcuts for actions the software developer anticipates the user might want to take.
In a Windows environment, the context menu is accessed with a right mouse click. For example, if the end
user right-clicks in a Word document, the pop-up menu will include shortcuts for undo, cut, copy and paste. If
the end user right-clicks in Excel, however, the context menu also includes shortcuts for insert cell, delete cell,
paste special and other commands that are commonly used for that program.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

User interaction with context menus depends upon the computing device, its operating system (OS) and its
input mechanisms. If the user does not have a mouse, for example, he may access context menus by pressing
a keyboard combination, pressing and holding a trackball, holding a tap on a touch screen or placing two
fingers on a touch pad. Context menus can be closed by selecting an action or clicking outside the menu area
in open space.

the Mini Toolbar:

When you select text with the mouse, the Mini toolbar appears, as illustrated below. It has options for
changing fonts, alignment, text color, indenting, and bullets.
In Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook, the mini toolbar is a smaller version of the full toolbar
found near the top of the application window. The mini toolbar appears when you highlight text and either
move your mouse cursor over the highlighted text or right-click the highlighted text.

Mini toolbar features

The mini toolbar features commonly used text editing functions, which include:

 Font type Font size

 Increase font size Decrease font size
 Increase indent of text Decrease indent of text
 Bold Italics
 Underline Center text (alignment)
 Highlight text Font Color
 Format Painter

Keyboard Shortcuts:

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Organizing and Customizing Folders and Files:

Usage of office tools: Office Tools are a type of application software. They help the users to perform office-
related tasks easily and efficiently. Therefore, these tools help to create, manage, and manipulate large
amounts of data and documents. Moreover, they help create presentations, reports, databases, etc. Hence,
users can perform such tasks repeatedly with less time and effort. These tools include software such as word
processors, presentation tools, spreadsheets database systems, email tools, etc.
list the functions of office tools as follows:
1. Organize files
2. Calculate and analyze data
3. Store, access, manipulate or delete specific data

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

4. Design graphics and animations

5. Make slideshows
6. Edit pictures and videos
7. Maintain attendance records
8. Manage records of school, library, railway, etc.

Organize your folders effectively:

 Create a Folder Structure: Establish a logical folder structure that aligns with your needs.
Categorize your documents into meaningful folders to make the retrieval process easier.
 Use Descriptive Names: Give your folders clear, descriptive names to quickly identify their
contents. Avoid generic or vague names that may cause confusion.
 Create Subfolders: If your folders contain a large number of documents, consider using subfolders
to further sort and categorize your files. This helps maintain a hierarchical structure and allows for
better organization.
 Group Related Documents: Within each folder or subfolder, group related documents together.
For example, if you have multiple reports, create a subfolder specifically for reports.
 Use Metadata and Tags: Take advantage of metadata and tags offered by Microsoft Word and
Microsoft Office 365. These features allow you to add additional information to your files, making
it easier to search and filter documents.
 Regularly Clean Up and Archive: Periodically review your folders and remove unnecessary or
outdated documents. Archive old files that are no longer needed for your current projects to keep
your folders clutter-free.

MODULE-5

File-System Interface: File Concept:

A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage. A file has a certain
defined structure which depends on its types:
 A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines.
 A source file is sequence of subroutines and function
 An object file is a sequence of subroutines and file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks
understandable by the system’s linker.
 An executable file is a series of code sections that the loader can bring into memory and execute.
Access Methods: File access methods in an operating system are the techniques and processes used to read
from and write to files stored on a computer’s storage devices. There are several ways to access this
information in the file.
There are three ways to access a file in a computer system:
 Sequential-Access
 Direct Access
 Index sequential Method

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Sequential Access
It is the simplest access method. Information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other. This
mode of access is by far the most common; for example, the editor and compiler usually access the file in
this fashion.
Read and write make up the bulk of the operation on a file. A read operation -read next- reads the next
position of the file and automatically advances a file pointer, which keeps track of the I/O location.

Direct Access Method

Another method is direct access method also known as relative access method. A fixed-length logical record
that allows the program to read and write record rapidly. in no particular order. The direct access is based
on the disk model of a file since disk allows random access to any file block. For direct access, the file is
viewed as a numbered sequence of block or record.

Index Sequential method

It is the other method of accessing a file that is built on the top of the sequential access method. These
methods construct an index for the file. The index, like an index in the back of a book, contains the pointer
to the various blocks. To find a record in the file, we first search the index, and then by the help of pointer
we access the file directly.
Key Points Related to Index Sequential Method
 It is built on top of Sequential access.
 It control the pointer by using index.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Indexed Sequential Access

Directory and Disk Structure:

Directory & disk structure deals with how to store files. A disk can be partitioned into quarters, and each
quarter can hold a separate file system.
Partitioning is useful for limiting the sizes of individual file systems, putting multiple file-system types on the
same device.
Any entity containing a file system is generally known as a volume.
Each volume that contains a file system must also contain information about the files in the system.
This information is kept in entries in a device directory or volume table of contents.
The device directory (more commonly known simply as the directory) records information—such as name,
location, size, and type—for all files on that volume.

Storage Structure
A general-purpose computer system has multiple storage devices, and those devices can be sliced up into
volumes that hold file systems.
Computer systems may have zero or more file systems, and the file systems may be of varying types.
For example, a typical Solaris system may have dozens of file systems of a dozen different types,

Directory operations to be supported include:

• Search for a file

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

• Create a file - add to the directory

• Delete a file - erase from the directory
• List a directory - possibly ordered in different ways.
• Rename a file - may change sorting order
• Traverse the file system.
Directory Structure A collection of nodes containing information about all files.

There are five directory structures.

They are
1. Single-level directory
2. Two-level directory
3. Tree-Structured directory
4. Acyclic Graph directory
5. General Graph directory
1. Single – Level Directory • The simplest directory structure is the single- level directory. • All files are
contained in the same directory. • Disadvantage: When the number of files increases or when the system
has more than one user, since all files are in the same directory, they must have unique names.

2. Two – Level Directory Separate directory for each user. • In the two level directory structures, each
user has her own user file directory (UFD). • When a user job starts or a user logs in, the system’s
master file directory (MFD) is searched. The MFD is indexed by user name or account number, and each
entry points to the UFD for that user. • When a user refers to a particular file, only his own UFD is
searched. • Thus, different users may have files with the same name. • The two – level directory
structure solves the name-collision problem

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Disadvantage: • Users cannot create their own sub-directories.

Path Name ■ If a user can access another user’s files, the concept of path name is needed. ■ In two-
level directory, this tree structure has MFD as root of path through UFD to user file name at leaf. ■
Path name :: username + filename ■ Standard syntax -- /user/file.ext 3. Tree – Structured Directory •
A tree is the most common directory structure. • The tree has a root directory. Every file in the
system has a unique path name.
• A path name is the path from the root, through all the subdirectories to a specified file.
• A directory (or sub directory) contains a set of files or sub directories.
• One bit in each directory entry defines the entry as a file (0) or as a subdirectory (1).
• Special system calls are used to create and delete directories.
• Path names can be of two types: absolute path names or relative path names.
• An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the specified file, giving the
directory names on the path.
• A relative path name defines a path from the current directory.

3. Acyclic Graph Directory. An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycles.

To implement shared files and subdirectories this directory structure is used.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

An acyclic – graph directory structure is more flexible than is a simple tree structure, but it is also
more complex. Implementations of shared files or directories.
1. Links – A new type of directory entry is created. It is effectively a pointer to another file or
subdirectory
– Links are implemented as an absolute or relative path name. – The deletion of a link does
not need to affect the original file; only the link is removed.
2. Duplicate all information in sharing directories Problems to consider with link implementation:
• Upon traversal of file system, do not want to traverse shared structures more than once

Deletion:
• The deletion of a link does not need to affect the original file; only the link is removed.
• Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file until all references to it are deleted. keep a
count of the number of references. When count=0, file is deleted.
• Maintain a file reference list containing one entry for each reference to the file. On deletion just
delete the entry from file reference list. File is deleted when this list becomes empty. With a shared
file only one actual file exists, so any changes made by one person are immediately visible to the
other.
5. General Graph Directory
• When links are added to an existing tree-structured directory, a general graph structure can be
created.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

• A general graph can have cycles and cycles cause problems when searching or traversing file system.
• How do we guarantee no cycles?
✦ Allow only links to files not subdirectories.
✦ Use Garbage collection. {computationally expensive}
✦ Every time a new link is added, use a cycle detection algorithm to determine whether a cycle now
exists. Disadvantage: Computationally expensive An alternative approach is to bypass links during
directory traversal.

FileSystem Mounting: File system mounting is the process of attaching a file system to a specific directory
location in the operating system’s file hierarchy. This allows the operating system and the user to access and
interact with the data stored on the file system.
Mount point refers to the directory location where a file system is attached. It acts as an access point for the
operating system to navigate and interact with the file system’s data. Each mounted file system is associated
with a unique mount point.
File System Types
There are various types of file systems that can be mounted in an operating system, each with its own
characteristics and functionalities. Some commonly used file system types include:
 ext4: A widely used file system in Linux.
 NTFS: The default file system for Windows.
 APFS: The Apple File System used in macOS.
 HFS+: The Hierarchical File System used in older versions of macOS
Terminologies used in File System Mounting
 File System: It is the method used by the operating system to manage data storage in a storage device.
So, a user can access and organize the directories and files in an efficient manner.
 Device name: It is a name/identifier given to a storage partition. In windows, for example, “D:” in
windows.
 Mount point: It is an empty directory in which we are adding the file system during the process of
mounting.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

File Sharing: File Sharing is a procedure of sharing digital files and resources, such as documents, computer
programs, multimedia such as audio and video, graphics, photographs and e-books. It is the sharing of
resources or data in a network with varying degrees of access permission, either privately or publicly.
Important steps that may be done to protect files include encryption, password protection, secure file
transfer protocols, and routine antivirus and anti-malware software updates.
Types of File Sharing
Below are four types of File Sharing
 Cloud-Based File Sharing: Cloud-Based File Sharing calls for storing files on an inaccessible server that is
accessible from any internet-connected device. These services like Dropbox, Google Drive, and
OneDrive allow users to upload and download data.
 Peer-to-peer (P2P): Peer-to-peer file sharing is the transmission of Files Users may exchange files with
one another without a centralized server. These are equipotent, equally privileged members of the
network that comprise a peer-to-peer network of nodes.
 Sharing of Removable Media Files: This type of file sharing requires the usage of physical storage
devices, such as external hard drives or USB drives. By physically transferring the device to others, users
may copy files onto it and share them with others.
 Direct File Transfer: Transferring data between two devices directly using a direct connection, such as
Bluetooth or Wi-Fi Direct, is known as direct file transfer. File sharing between laptops and mobile
devices often occurs via direct file transfer.

Benefits of File Sharing

 Teams that share files are more productive, especially when they operate remotely.
 Team members may visit the shared file location and obtain the most recent version of any necessary
files, saving time compared to exchanging data via email.
 The majority of file sharing systems run in the cloud, making system administration and file backups
more affordable and manageable.
 Using the shared drive to access data also helps cut expenses by preventing errors that might happen
when users decide to do tasks based on out-of-date, erroneous information.

Protection: File protection in an operating system refers to the various mechanisms and techniques used to
secure files from unauthorized access, alteration, or deletion. It involves controlling access to files, ensuring
their security and confidentiality, and preventing data breaches and other security incidents.
Operating systems provide several file protection features, including file permissions, encryption, access
control lists, auditing, and physical file security. These measures allow administrators to manage access to
files, determine who can access them, what actions can be performed on them, and how they are stored and
backed up.

Types of File Access Protection

Not all file access is created equal. Various users need different types of access that determine whether they
or a program can do the following:

 Read access: Accessing and viewing the contents of a file.

 Write access: Viewing and modifying the contents of a file.
 Delete access: These are higher-level write permissions that allow the removal of files.

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Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 Execute access: This permission allows users to execute or run a particular program.

File-System Structure: The file system structure refers to how the files and directories are organized and
stored on the physical storage device. This includes the layout of file systems data structures such as the
directory structure, file allocation table, and inodes.
 File Allocation: The file allocation mechanism determines how files are allocated on the storage device.
This can include allocation techniques such as contiguous allocation, linked allocation, indexed
allocation, or a combination of these techniques.
 Data Retrieval: The file system implementation determines how the data is read from and written to
the physical storage device. This includes strategies such as buffering and caching to optimize file I/O
performance.
 Security and Permissions: The file system implementation includes features for managing file security
and permissions. This includes access control lists (ACLs), file permissions, and ownership management.
 Recovery and Fault Tolerance: The file system implementation includes features for recovering from
system failures and maintaining data integrity. This includes techniques such as journaling and file
system snapshots.

Types of File Systems

There are several types of file systems, including −
 FAT (File Allocation Table)
 NTFS (New Technology File System)
 HFS+ (Hierarchical File System Plus)
 ext4 (Fourth Extended File System)
 APFS (Apple File System)
 ReFS (Resilient File System)
 ZFS (Zettabyte File System

File System Components

The components of a file system include:

 Files − A file is a unit of data storage that contains informa on, such as text, images, audio, or video.
 Directories − A directory is a container that stores files and other directories. It provides a way to
organize files into a hierarchical structure.
 File metadata − File metadata includes informa on about a file, such as its name, size, crea on date,
modification date, and access permissions.
 File system operations − File system opera ons are the ac ons that can be performed on files and
directories, such as creating, moving, copying, deleting, and renaming.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

File-System Implementation: File system implementation is the process of designing, developing, and
implementing the software components that manage the organization, allocation, and access to files on a
storage device in an operating system.
The file system implementation plays a critical role in ensuring the reliability, performance, and security of an
operating system's file storage capabilities. Without an effective file system implementation, an operating
system cannot efficiently manage the storage of data on a storage device, resulting in data loss, corruption,
and inefficiency.
File System Structure
 Disk layout and partitioning
 File system organization
 File allocation methods
 Directory structure
File Systems are stored on disks. The above figure depicts a possible File-System Layout.

MBR: Master Boot Record is used to boot the computer

Partition Table: Partition table is present at the end of MBR. This table gives the starting and ending addresses
of each partition.
Boot Block: When the computer is booted, the BIOS reads in and executes the MBR. The first thing the MBR
program does is locate the active partition, read in its first block, which is called the boot block, and execute
it. The program in the boot block loads the operating system contained in that partition. Every partition
contains a boot block at the beginning though it does not contain a bootable operating system.
Super Block: It contains all the key parameters about the file system and is read into memory when the
computer is booted or the file system is first touched.

Implementing Files

Contiguous Allocation:

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Each file is stored as a contiguous run of disk blocks.

Example: On a disk with 1KB blocks, a 50KB file would be allocated 50 consecutive blocks. With 2KB blocks it
would be 25 consecutive blocks.
Each file begins at the start of a new block, so that if file A is occupying 3½ blocks, some space is wasted at the
end of the last block.

Advantages:
Simple to implement.
The read performance is excellent because the entire file can be read from the disk in a single operation.

Drawbacks:
Over the course of time the disk becomes fragmented.
Linked List Allocation:
The second method for storing files is to keep each one as a linked list of disk blocks. The first word of each
block is used as a pointer to the next one. The rest of the block is for data. Unlike Contiguous allocation no
space is lost in disk fragmentation.

..

 Random access of a file is very slow.

 Linked-List Allocation Using a Table in Memory:

The disadvantage of linked list can be overcome by taking the pointer
word from each disk block and putting it in a table in memory. Such a
table in main memory is called a FAT (File Allocation Table). Using
FAT random access can be made much easier.
The primary disadvantage of this method is that the entire table must be
in memory all the time to make it work.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 I-nodes: I-node is a data structure which is used to identify which block

belongs to which file. It contains the attributes and disk addresses of the
file's blocks. Unlike the in-memory table the i-node need to be in
memory only when the corresponding file is open.

Directory Implementation:

The main function of the directory system is to map the ASCII name of the file onto the information needed to
locate the data. A directory can be designed in two ways.

In a simple design a directory consists of a list of fixed-size entries,one per file, containing a (fixed-length) file
name, a structure of the file attributes, and one or more disk addresses telling where the disk blocks are.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

For systems that use i-nodes, another possibility for storing the attributes is in the i-nodes, rather than in the
directory entries. In that case, the directory entry can be shorter: just a file name and an i-node number.

a directory can be implemented. In the first method, a linear list of file names is maintained with pointers to
the data blocks. This method is simple to program but time-consuming to execute. To create a new file,
the directory is searched to find if another file with a similar name exists. If no such file exists, a new entry is
added to the end of the directory. To delete a file, the directory is searched for that file and the space
allocated to it is released. To reuse this deleted entry, the entry is marked as unused by assigning it a special
name or it is attached to a list of free directory entries or the last entry in the directory is copied to the freed
location and the length of the directory is decreased. The entries can also be maintained as a linked list to
reduce the time required for deletion. The disadvantage of a linear list is that finding a file requires linear
search and this makes access slow.
• Allocation Methods: The allocation methods define how the files are stored in the disk blocks.
There are three main disk space or file allocation methods.
• Contiguous Allocation
• Linked Allocation
• Indexed Allocation
• The main idea behind these methods is to provide:
• Efficient disk space utilization.
• Fast access to the file blocks.

Contiguous allocation

• Contiguous allocation is one of the most used methods for allocation.

• Contiguous allocation means we allocate the block in such a manner, so that in the hard disk, all the
blocks get the contiguous physical block.
• We can see in the below figure that in the directory, we have three files.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

• In the table, we have mentioned the starting block and the length of all the files.
• We can see in the table that for each file, we allocate a contiguous block.

The linked list allocation method

• The linked list allocation method overcomes the drawbacks of the contiguous allocation method.
• In this file allocation method, each file is treated as a linked list of disks blocks.
• In the linked list allocation method, it is not required that disk blocks assigned to a specific file are
in the contiguous order on the disk.
• The directory entry comprises of a pointer for starting file block and also for the ending file block.
• Each disk block that is allocated or assigned to a file consists of a pointer, and that pointer point the
next block of the disk, which is allocated to the same file.

..
The Indexed allocation method
• The Indexed allocation method is another method that is used for file allocation.
• In the index allocation method, we have an additional block, and that block is known as the index
block.
• For each file, there is an individual index block. In the index block, the ith entry holds the disk
address of the ith file block.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

• We can see in the below figure that the directory entry comprises of the address of the index
block.

Free-Space Management:
There is a system software in an operating system that manipulates and keeps a track of free spaces to
allocate and de-allocate memory blocks to files, this system is called a file management system in an
operating system". There is a free space list in an operating system that maintains the record of free blocks.
When a file is created, the operating system searches the free space list for the required space allocated to
save a file. While deletion a file, the file system frees the given space and adds this to the free space list.

There are various methods using which a free space list can be implemented.
Bitmap or Bit Vector
A bit vector is a most frequently used method to implement the free space list. A bit vector is also known as a
Bit map. It is a series or collection of bits in which each bit represents a disk block. The values taken by the bits
are either 1 or 0. If the block bit is 1, it means the block is empty and if the block bit is 0, it means the block is
not free. It is allocated to some files. Since all the blocks are empty initially so, each bit in the bit vector
represents 0.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Linked List
A linked list is another approach for free space management in an operating system. In it, all the free blocks
inside a disk are linked together in a linked list. These free blocks on the disk are linked together by a pointer.
These pointers of the free block contain the address of the next free block and the last pointer of the list
points to null which indicates the end of the linked list.

Grouping
The grouping technique is also called the "modification of a linked list technique". In this method, first, the
free block of memory contains the addresses of the n-free blocks. And the last free block of these n free
blocks contains the addresses of the next n free block of memory and this keeps going on. This technique
separates the empty and occupied blocks of space of memory.

Counting
In memory space, several files are created and deleted at the same time. For which memory blocks are
allocated and de-allocated for the files. Creation of files occupy free blocks and deletion of file frees blocks.
When there is an entry in the free space, it consists of two parameters- "address of first free disk block (a
pointer)" and "a number 'n'".

Efficiency and Performance:

Efficiency depends on:
Disk allocation and directory algorithms Type of data kept in file’s directory entry Performance
improvement techniques:
Disk cache
Separate section of main memory (in kernel space) for frequently used disk blocks Virtual disk (RAM disk)
Dedicate a section of main memory as virtual file-system
Free-behind and read-ahead techniques
Optimization for sequential access

 Disk accesses are much slower than memory, usually at least 10,000 times slower. We therefore need
to optimise the file system performance. We have seen that arm and sector scheduling can help in
this regard.
 Another common technique is a cache: a collection of disk blocks that logically belong on disk, but are
kept in memory to improve performance.
 Obviously, we should keep the most recently used or most frequently used disk blocks in memory so
that read/writes to these blocks will occur at memory speeds.

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

 Note that we can use the cache to cache reads from the disk and writes to disk. This is known as
a write-through cache, as writes go through the cache before eventually being written to the disk.
 Some operating systems only cache reads, and all writes go directly to disk. This is known as a write-
back cache. The problem arises as to which block to discard/write back to disk if the cache is full? This
is very much like out paging problem, and algorithms like FIFO, second chance and LRU can be used
here. Note that because block accesses occur much less frequently than page accesses, it is feasible to
keep cached blocked in strict LRU order.
 Any algorithm that is used should take into account the fact that blocks containing inodes, directories
and free lists are special because they are essential to the file system consistency, and are likely to be
used frequently. For this reason, some operating systems will write metadata to disk immediately, but
writes file data through the cache.
 One problem with writes through the cache is that, if the machine crashes, dirty blocks will not be
written to the disk, and so data will be lost. This means recent disk writes are not written to disk.
 The solution under Unix is to flush all dirty blocks to disk every 30 seconds. Caches that write direct to
disk do not suffer from this problem, but are usually slower because of the I/O delay in writing.
 The larger the cache, the more blocks in memory, and thus the better the hit-rate and the
performance. Disk caches are usually a small fraction of the computer's RAM, e.g. 16M bytes or so.
 Finally, it's a bit quirky that disks are used to hold pages from virtual memory, and memory is used to
hold recently used disk blocks. It makes sense when you realise that VM is providing more memory
with a performance penalty, whereas disk caching is providing some disk with a performance
increase.
 In fact, some operating systems (Solaris, FreeBSD, Linux) have merged the disk cache into the virtual
memory subsystem. Disk blocks and memory pages are kept on the same LRU list, and so the whole of
a computer's memory can be used for both working set storage and disk caching.

Recovery:
System failure (e.g. sudden power outage) may result in Loss of data Inconsistency of data File system
recovery techniques Consistency checker Compares data in directory structure with data blocks on disk,
and tries to fix inconsistencies Examples: fsckin Unix, chkdskin Windows Back up Use system programs to
regularily back up data from disk to another storage device (e.g. magnetic tape or other disk) Recover lost
file or disk by restoring data from backup
File recovery process can be briefly described as drive or folder scanning to find deleted entries in Root Folder
(FAT) or Master File Table (NTFS) then for the particular deleted entry, defining clusters chain to be recovered
and then copying contents of these clusters to the newly created file.

Different file systems maintain their own specific logical data structures, however basically each file system:

Has a list or catalogue of file entries, so we can iterate through this list and entries, marked as deleted
Keeps for each entry a list of data clusters, so we can try to find out set of clusters composing the file
After finding out the proper file entry and assembling set of clusters, composing the file, read and copy these
clusters to another location.

Step by Step with examples:

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE

Course Code BCA104 Computer Essentials Notes BCA 1st sem

Disk Scanning
Cluster chain
Clusters chain recovery for the deleted entry

Dept of Computer Applications, GCE