CMBUkTI 6

GnþrPaBrcnaRbB½n§
Transition to Systems Design

eKalbMNgénemeronH

eRkaybBa©b;emeronenH GñkniwgsikSa

 PaBepSg²énvaytémøsUEhV
 CMh‘ankarvaytémønigTijkBa©b;sUEhV
 PaBeBjeljénkarviPaKRbB½n§
 GnþrPaBrcnaRbB½n§
 bzmrUb
 TsSnHénkarrcnaRbB½n§
 karrcnanigeRbIR)as;kUd

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1>PaBepSg²énvaytémøsUEhV (Evaluation Software Alternatives)
enAkñúgdMNak;kal system analysis phase eyIgcuHesIubGegáteTAelIRbB½n§
eRbIR)as;naeBlbc©úb,nñ nigGPivDÆn_ logical model sMrab;RbB½n§esñIsMu ehIyenAeBlenH
eyIgerobcMedIm,IbMElgeTAkan; system design phase edayeFVIkarRtYtBinitüelI software
alternatives nigeRCIserIsyuT§saRsþTaMgmUlsMrab;RbB½n§.

(rUb 6.1)
Rkumh‘unGacTTYl)an software edaybegáIt in-house system, Tij
commercial software rW customizing software package ehIyCMerIskñúgkarbegáIt
in-house software nigTij software CaerOy²eKehAfa make or buy rW build or
buy decision. IT department rbs;Rkumh‘uneFVIkarbegáIt nigGPivDÆn_ in-house
software rIÉ software package KWRkumh‘unTijvaBIRkumh‘unepSgeTot ehIy package
GacCa standard commercial program rW customized package EdleKksag
CaBiesssMrab;GñkTijNamYy ehIy software vendor KWCaRkumh‘uneFVIkarbegáIt
software sMrab;lk;.
Software package GaceRbIR)as;)anRKb;RbePTskmµPaBCMnYj EdlEckecjCa
horizontal application KWCa software package GaceRbIR)as;sMrab;RbePTRkumh‘un
epSg²KñaCaeRcIn ]TahrN_³ accounting package ehIymYyeTotKW vertical
application KWCa software package GPivDÆn_sMrab;edaHRsay software
requirements cMeBaHRbePTCMnYjCak;lak;NamYy ]TahrN_³ organization eRbIR)as;

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specific system dUcCa colleges, banks, hospitals, insurance companies, real
estate firms nig airlines.
CMerIskñúgkarTTYlyk software manCaeRcIndUcCa³ developing in-house,
buying a software package, or customizing a software package ehIyBYkva
nImYy²suT§EtmanKuNRbeyaCn_ nigKuNvibtþerog²xøÜn.
Developing Software In-House
ehtuGVI)anCaRkumh‘uneRCIserIsbegáIt software edayxøÜnÉg RbsinebIenAelITIpSa
man software packages CaeRcInsMrab;edaHRsay horizontal and vertical business
operations? CaTUeTARkumh‘uneRCIserIskarbegáIt software eRBaHEtedIm,I to satisfy
unique business requirements, to minimize changes in business procedures
and policies, to meet constraints of existing systems and existing technology,
and to develop internal resources and capabilities.
Satisfy Unique Business Requirements
Rkumh‘unCaerOy²sMerccitþbegáIt software in-house eRBaHEtKµan commercial
software package NamYyGacbMeBjnUv business requirement EtmYyrbs;eK)an
]TahrN_³ College RtUvkareRbIR)as; course scheduling system edayEp¥keTAelI
curriculum requirements, student demand, classroom space nig available
instructor CaedIm.
Minimize Changes in Business Procedures and Policies
Rkumh‘unk¾eRCIserIsbegáIt software edayxøÜnÉgpgEdrRbsinebI software
package TamTareGaymankarpøas;bþÚrRbtibtiþkar rWdMeNIrkarCMnYjbc©úb,nñ.

Meet Constraints of Existing Systems

Software begáItfµIRtUvEtGaceFVIkarCamYy existing systems ]TahrN_³ Rkumh‘un
man accounting system kMBugdMeNIrkarCaFmµta EtRkumh‘uncg;)an budgeting system
mYyeTotsMrab;dMeNIrkarCamYy accounting system b:uEnþkarEsVgrk software enaH
manPaBlM)ak eTIbRkumh‘unsMerccitþbegáItRbB½n§fµIEdlGaceFVIkarCamYyRbB½n§cas;.
Meet Constraints of Existing Technology
ehtuplmYyeTotkñúgkarbegáIt software edayxøÜnÉg eRBaHfaRbB½n§fµIRtUvEtGac
eFVIkarCamYy existing hardware nig legacy systems. ]TahrN_³ Rkumh‘unman

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computer workstations cas;²mYycMnYnEdlminGacdMeNIrkar graphic-intensive
software rW high-speed Internet access b:uEnþRkumh‘unRtUvkarRbB½n§fµI edIm,IRKb;RKg
kargareGaymanlkçNHrlUn Et software package enAelITIpSaminGacbMeBj)an
kñúgsßankarN_enH Rkumh‘unRtUvEt upgrade computer rWeFVIkarbegáIt in-house software
EdlGaceFVIkarCamYy hardware kMBugeRbI)as;.
Develop Internal Resources and Capabilities
Rkumh‘unPaKeRcInmanCMenOfa karbegáIt in-house software eFVIeGay IT staffs
GacsikSaEsVgyl;BI business functions nigtMrUvkarRTRTg;Bt’manrbs;Rkumh‘un elIsBI
enHeTot IT staffs manlT§PaBRKb;RKan;edaHRsayral;bBaðaya:gelOnenAeBlmanbBaða
rWmantMrUvkarfµI².
Purchasing a Software Package
kMLúgeBl system analysis phase eyIgKYrEtesIubGegátfaetI commercial
software packages NaxøHEdlGacbMeBj system requirements rbs;Rkumh‘un)an.
KuNRbeyaCn_karCav software package eTAelIkarbegáIt software in-house rYmman
lower costs, less time to implement, proven reliability and performance
benchmarks, less technical development staff, future upgrades provided by
the vendor, and the ability to use other companies who have already
implemented the software as resources.
Lower Costs
BIeRBaH software vendor begáItvasMrab;lk;eTAeGayRkumh‘unCaeRcIneRbIR)as;
CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy dUcenHtMélvaR)akdCaefakCag in-house software.
Less Time to Implement
CaTUeTA software package RtUv)aneKsresr/ RtYtBinitü nigkt;RtaCaÉksar
rYcmkehIyedIm,IrkkMhus eFVIeGaykargarTaMgenHRtUvlb;bM)at;ecalcMeBaH in-house
software.
Proven Reliability and Performance Benchmarks
bBaðaCacMbgcMeBaH software package RtUv)aneKrkeXIj nigEktMrUv RbsinebI
package enaHeFVIcracrenAelITIpSamanryHyUr elIsBIenHeTot RbsinebIvamanRbCaRbiy
enaHvaesÞIrEtKµankMhusekIteLIgeT.

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 Less Technical Development Staff
Rkumh‘uneRbIR)as; commercial software package )ankat;bnßycMnYn
programmers nig system analysts enAkñúg IT department ehIyelIsBIenHeTot IT
staff RKan;EtykcitþTukdak;eTAelItMrUvkarNaEdl software package min)anbMeBjEt
b:ueNÑaHCakareRsc.
Future Upgrades Provided by the Vendor
Software vendor EtgEt upgrade software packages rbs;xøÜnedayeFVIeGayva
kan;EtRbesIreLIgedIm,IbegáIt version fµI. ]TahrN_³ version fµIGacbBa©Úl drivers
sMrab;RTRTg; new laser printer CaedIm.
Other Companies as Resources
eyIgGaceFVIkarTak;TgCamYyRkumh‘und¾éTeTotedIm,IsMueyabl; nigcMNab;GarmµN_
rbs;BYkeKcMeBaH software package ehIyeyIgRbEhlCaGacsakl,geRbIR)as;
software package edIm,IBinitüemIlRbB½n§dMeNIrkar munnwgeyIgsMerccitþTijmkeRbIR)as;.
Upgrade CaTUeTAmantMélefakCagkarCav software TaMgmUleRBaH software vendor
EtgEtpþl;tMélBiesssMrab;GtifiCnrbs;eK.
Customizing Software Packages
- RbsinebIeyIgminGacEsVgrk software package NamYyGacbMeBjtam
tMrUvkarrbs;eyIg)aneT eyIgGacbegáIt software edayxøÜnÉg rWTij package
rYceFVIkarEkERbeTAelIva edIm,IbMeBjeTAtamtMrUvkarEdleyIgcg;)an.
Customize package mann½yfa eyIgTij package rYceFVIkarEkRbxøÜnÉg
ehIyCMerIsenHKYreGaycab;GarmµN_RbsinebI product enaHvaesÞIrEtbMeBjtMrUvkareyIg
TaMgGs; nig vendor mineFVI (rWminGac) karEkERbtamtMrUvkarrbs;eyIg. KuNvibtþcMeBaH
CMerIsenH KWeyIgRtUvkareBlevlaedIm,IsikSaeTAelI package nigeFVIkarEkERbeGay)an
RtwmRtUv RbsinebIGñkviPaKRbB½n§ nig programmers minsÁal; software enaHeT.
Selecting a Software Alternative
Rkumh‘unRtUvEtsMerccitþfaetIRtUvbegáIt in-house software, Tij software
package, customize software package rWeRCIserIskarRc)ac;cUlKñaéndMeNaHRsay
TaMgenaH elIsBIenHeTotkarsMerccitþenHvab:HBal;eTAdl; SDLC phases enAesssl;

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xageRkayeTot nigPaBBak;B½n§rbs;eyIgkñúgnamCaGñkviPaKRbB½n§pgEdr. ]TahrN_³
karsMerccitþbegáIt in-house software GacRtUvkarPaBcUlrYmbEnßmeTotBIGñkviPaKRbB½n§
CagkarCav software package. Management eFVIkarkMnt;faetIRtUverIsviFImYyNa
bnÞab;BIeyIg)anbgðajGnusasn_Calaylak;GkSr (written recommendations)
nigbBa¢Ún formal presentation eTAKat;.
RbsinebI management eRCIserIskarbegáIt in-house system enaHeyIgGac
cab;epþIm systems design phase én SDLC Edlerobrab;enACMBUkTI 7, 8 nig 9 eRbIsMrab;
begáIt physical design énRbB½n§. b:uEnþebI management sMerccitþTij software
package enaHeyIgdMeNIrkarCMhanTaMg 5 CabnþbnÞab;eTAelI software package enaH.
pÞúyeTAvijebI management sMerccitþ customize software package enaHeyIgRtUv
dMeNIkarCMhanTaMg 5 b:uEnþxusKñamYycMnYn. eyIgRtUvEtksag specific changes dUcCa
eyIgeFVIcMeBaH in-house software eRBaHRbB½n§TamTar features and capabilities bEnßm
eTot ehtudUecñHeTaHbICaeyIgTij package k¾edayk¾eyIgRtUvEtdMeNIrkar systems
design phase én SDLC Edr.

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2> CMh‘ankarvaytémønigTijkBa©b;sUEhV
(Steps in Evaluating and Purchasing Software Packages)
dMNak;kalvaytMéleTAelI software package EckCa 5 CMhandUcxageRkam³
Step 1: Evaluate the Information System Requirements
eyIgeFVIkarvaytMéleTAelIRbB½n§ edaysMGagelIkarviPaK system requirements
edayeyIgRtUvEt identify the system’s key features, estimate volume and future
growth, specify any hardware constraints, and prepare a request for proposal
or quotation.
Identify the Key Feature of the System
eyIgeFVIkarvaytMélRbB½n§edayeFVIkarelIkeLIgnUvcMnucsMxan;² (critical features)
EdlRbB½n§RtUvEtman. ]TahrN_³ Grading system RtUvEtmanlT§PaBKNnaBinÞúeTAtam
qmasnImYy² nigRbcaMqñaMcMeBaHfñak;nImYy².
Estimate Volume and Future Growth
eyIgRtUvEtdwgTMhMRbtibtþikar nig processing dMeNIrkarnaeBlbc©úb,nñ (current
volume of transactions and processing) RBmTaMgBüakrN_elIPaBERbRbYlkñúg
kMLúgryHeBl 3 qñaMeTA 5 qñaMteTAmuxeTot.
Specify any Hardware Constraints
eyIgRtUvEtBinitüemIleTAelI software faetIvadMeNIrkar)anEdrrWeT CamYy
hardware esñIsMu rWkMBugeRbIR)as;.
Prepare a Request for Proposal or Quotation
edIm,ITTYlBt’manEdleyIgcg;)ansMrab;eFVIkarsMerccitþ eyIgKYrEterobcM request
for proposal rW request for quotation Camunsin ÉksarTaMg 2 vaRsedogKña
b:uEnþeRbIR)as;kñúgsßankarN_epSgKñaedayGaRs½yeTAelIfaetIeyIg)aneRCIserIs software
product ehIyrWenA.
Request for proposal (RFP) KWCataragsresrCalaylkçGkSrnUv features
nigcMnucCak;lak; (specification) epJIrCUneTA vendor enAeBlEdleyIgminTan;)ankMnt;
product rW package Cak;lak;NamYy. edayeyaleTAelI RFP enH vendor GaceFVIkar
Binitü nigsMerccitþfaetI product mYyNanwgbMeBjeTAtamtMrUvkarrbs;eyIg nigbnÞab;mk
bBa¢ÚnkarEnnaM (suggestion) nigCMerIs (alternatives) mkeGayeyIgvij.

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 pÞúyeTAvij eyIgGaceRbI request for quotation (RFQ) enAeBlEdleyIg)an
dwgrYcehIynUv product rW package eyIgcg;)an ehIyeyIgRKan;Etcg;)an price
quotation Etb:ueNÑaH. RFQ Bak;B½n§eTAdl;karTij product TaMgRsug rWCMerIsénkarCYl
product CaeRcIn nigmin)anpÞúknUvsMnMucMnucCak;lak;lMGiteT. eKalbMNgcMeBaHviFITaMg 2
KWedIm,ITTYlnUvkareqøIytbya:gc,as; nigGaceRbobeFob)an dUcenHeFVIeGayeyIgGac
sMerccitþeRCIserIsCMerIsNamYyEdlsmRsb.
Step 2: Identify Potential Software Vendors
bnÞab;BIeyIgerIs)an product EdleyIgRtUvkar CMhantmkeTotRtUveFVIkarTak;Tg
CamYy vendors RbsinebI software dMeNIrkarenAelI personal computer rW
mainframe computer k¾edayeyIgRtUveFVIkarTak;TgpÞal;CamYy software vendors
eTIbRbesIr CaCagTak;TgCamYyRbPBEckcaytBI vendor. Internet KWCakEnøgTIpSacMbg
edIm,IEsVgrk IT products k¾dUcCaEsVgrkBt’manTak;Tgral; major vendors nig
products rbs;BYkeKpgEdr.
meFüa)aymYyepSgeTot KWeFVIkarCamYyRkumh‘unRbwkSaeyabl; (consulting firms)
eRBaH IT consultants Gacpþl;nUvesvaCaBiesssMrab;CYyRkumh‘uneFVIkarEsVgrk software
package ehIymüa:geTotTTYl)annUvbTBiesaFn_cMeBaH products enaHBI consultant
b:uEnþeyIgRtUvEtbEnßmcMNayelIkarCYlenaH.
RbPBmantMélmYyeTot KWeRbI Usenet (Usenet KWCaRbB½n§pÞúkrab;Ban; forums rW
newsgroup EdlniyayeTAelIesÞIrEtRKb;RbFanbT). Usenet groups KWCaFnFan
Bt’mand¾RbéB ehIyeyIgGacpøas;bþÚreyabl;CamYyGñkviPaK nig IT professionals
epSgeTot.
Step 3: Evaluate Software Package Alternatives
bnÞb;BI)aneRCIserIs software packages CaeRcInEdlbMeBjeTAtamtMrUvkarrbs;
eyIg bnÞab;mkeTotRtUvEteRbobeFobBYkva nigeRCIserIsmYykñúgcMeNamenaHnUv package
NaEdlsaksmnwgbMeBjtMrUvkarRkumh‘unCageK. CadMbUg eyIgKYrEtTTYlBt’manGMBI
packages enaHBITIkEnøgNaEdlGacTTYl)an edayrYmbBa©ÚlTaMg vendor presentation,
product documentation, trade publications nigRkumh‘undMeNIrkar software testing

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and evaluation. edIm,IsikSabEnßmeToteTAelI software packages enaHeyIgGacEsVgrk
edayeRbIR)as; Internet tamryH keywords BN’naBI package enaHeTAkan; search
engine NamYy. cMeBaHdMeNIrkarvaytMél eyIgGacTTYlBt’manBI existing users, test
the application nig benchmark the package RbsinebIcaM)ac;.
Existing Users
eyIgGacTak;TgCamYyGñkeRbIR)as; software package edIm,ITTYl feedback
nigbTBiesaFn_cMeBaH package enaH. müa:geToteyIgGacsaksYrBt’manBIRbPBEckcayt
rW software vendor company pÞal;edIm,ITTYlnUv references BIeRBaH references
enaHmansarHsMxan;Nas;edIm,IdwgfaetI software package enHdMeNIrkar)anl¥EdrrWeT
cMeBaHRkumh‘unRbePTeyIgenH.
Testing
RbsinebIGaceFVIeTA)an RtUvEtR)ab;eTA users enAkñúgRkumh‘unrbs;eyIgeGaysak
l,geRbIR)as; software package enaH ehIycMeBaHryHeBlsakl,gvaERbRbYleTAtam
TMhM software package. RbsinebI horizontal application tUcenaHeyIgRKan;EtbBa©Úl
KMrUTinñn½ymYycMnYnEtb:ueNÑaH pÞúyeTAvijcMeBaHRbB½n§FMeyIgRtUveRbIR)as;Rkum IT staff nig
users rYmKñasakl,g ehIyeRbIR)as;ryHeBlBIbIéf¶ rWs)þah_ÉnuH.
Benchmarking
eyIgdMeNIrkar benchmark edIm,IkMnt;faetI package GacedaHRsayTMhM
Rbtibtþkar (volume transactions) edaypþl;pll¥EdrrWeT. Benchmark Gacvas;Evg
ryHeBlsMrab;dMeNIrkar transactions pgEdr ]TahrN_³ benchmark edIm,IBinitüfaetI
eBlevladMeNIrkar 1000 transactions CaedIm.
IT publications CaeRcInpSayerobrab;xøI²nUv package Cak;lak;NamYy
edayrYmbBa©Úl benchmark tests nigkarsÞabsÞg;RbcaMqñaMcMeBaHRbePT software pgEdr.
cugeRkayeyIgKYrEtpÁÚrpÁg RFP features CamYy package nImYy² nigkMnt;cMNat;
fñak;cMeBaHCMerIsTaMgenaH RbsinebI feature NasMxan;Cag features epSgeTot
RtUvpþl;tMélvaF¶n;bnþic.

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 Step 4: Make the Purchase
enAeBleyIgTij software KWeyIgRKan;EtTij software license eRbIR)as;vaEt
b:ueNÑaH mann½yfaeyIgminEmnCam©as;kmµsiT§ package enaHeT ehIy software license
eFVIeGayeyIgGaceRbIR)as; software enaHkñúgryHeBlkMnt; (term) niglkçx½NÐ.
]TahrN_³ license GaceGayeyIgeRbIR)as; software elIEt computer mYyb:ueNÑaH/
cMnYn computers Cak;lak;NamYy>>>> GaRs½yeTAelI license agreement. License
epSgeTothammineGayeyIgEkERbkmµviFI rWykeTAeGayRkumh‘unepSgeToteRbIR)as;.
eTaHbICaPaKeRcIneyIgeRcInEtTij software license k¾b:uEnþ vendors mYycMnYn
GnuBaØatieGayeyIgCYl software eTAtameBlevlakMnt; ehIysnüabg;R)ak;eTAtamsnüa
edaybegáIt lease agreement bBa¢ak;BI time period, term nig payment.
elIsBIenHeTot enAeBlenaHeyIgRtUvEtBicarNaelI maintenance agreement
EdlGaceGayeyIgTak;Tg vendor sMrab;CMnYy enAeBlRbB½n§manbBaða rWsMnYr. Vendors
xøHpþl;nUv technical support eday\tKitéfø EtxøHeTotKitluyeTAtamTMhMbBaða rWcMnYndg
rWtameBlevla elIsBIenH vendors EtgEtepJIBt’manfµITak;Tgplitplrbs;xøÜnenAeBl
version fµICaedIm ehIylk;tMélmYyefakCagFmµtacMeBaHGtifiCncas;.

Step 5: Install the Software Package

CMhancugeRkaybnÞab;BITij software package KW installation. cMeBaHRbB½n§tUc
cMNayeBlevla install RbEhlCamYy rWBIréf¶Etb:ueNÑaH pÞúyeTAvijcMeBaHRbB½n§FM²
dMeNIrkar install TamTarcMNayeBlevlayUr nigkic©RbwgERbgKYreGaykt;sMKal;.
eyIgKYrEterobcMyuT§saRsþsMrab; install Camun CaBiessRbsinebIdMeNIrkarenaHeFVIeGay
b:HBal;eTAdl;RbtibtþikarCMnYjRbcaMéf¶. kic©karkan;EtsµúKsµaj niglM)ak RbsinebIeyIg
customize software package.
muneyIgcab;epþImeRbIR)as; software package eyIgRtUvEtbBa©b; implementation
steps Camunsin edayrYmbBa©Úl loading, configuring nig testing software; training
users nig converting data files to the new system’s format Edlerobrab;enAkñúg
CMBUkTI 10 nig 11.

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 Evaluation and Selection Teams
karvaytMél nigeRCIserIsminEmnCadMeNIrkargayRsYleT ehIymaneKaledAedIm,I
TTYl)annUv product mantMélefak k¾b:uEnþeKBi)akvas;tMél nigel,ÓndMeNIrkarBitR)akd
Nas; (actual cost and performance). enAeBleRCIserIs hardware nig software
GñkviPaKRbB½n§RtUveFVIkarCaRkum edayeGayeQµaHfa evaluation and selection teams
edayBinitüfaetIeyIgmin)anePøcktþasMxan; (critical factors) Tal;EtesaH. RkumenHman
smaCikCa users eRbIR)as;RbB½n§pÞal; nigGñkviPaKRbB½n§.
3>PaBeBjeljénkarviPaKRbB½n§ (Completion of Systems Analysis)
edIm,IbBa©b; system analysis phase eyIgRtUvEterobcM system requirements
document nig present CUneTA management.

System Requirements Document

System requirements document rW software requirements specification
pÞúknUvtMrUvkareGayman (requirements) cMeBaHRbB½n§fµI edayerobrab; alternatives
EdleyIg)ansikSa nigpþl;eyabl;eTAdl; management. ÉksarsMxan;enHKWCacMnuc
cab;epþImsMrab;vas;Evgel,ÓndMeNIrkar (performance)/ suRkwtPaB (accuracy)
nigPaBeBjelj (completeness) én finished system munnwgcab;epþIm systems
design phase.
System requirements documents dUcCakic©snüaEdlkMnt;GVI system
developers RtUvRbKl;CUneTA users ehtudUecñHeyIgRtUvEtsresrvakñúgPasamYy users
GacemIlyl;)andUecñHeKGacpþl;nUv input, suggest improvements and approve the
final versions. System requirements documents KYrEt format nigerobcMkñúgTMrg;
mYygayGan nigeRbIR)as; edayKYrEtbBa©ÚlnUv cover page nigtaragmatikarerOglMGit.
Presentation to Management
Presentation to management enAcug systems analysis phase KWCacMnucmYy
sMxan;bMput BIeRBaHlT§plvaGaceFVIeGayb:HBal;eTAdl;dMeNIrkarbegáItRbB½n§TaMgmUl
ehtudUcenHeyIgRtUveFVIvaedayRbugRby½tñ.

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 munnwg presentation eTA manager eyIgRbEhlCapþl; presentation cMnYn 2
epSgeTot³ TImYycMeBaHsmaCik IT TaMgGs;enAkñúg IT department nigTIBIcMeBaH users
edIm,IeqøIysMnYr nigEsVgrkkaryl;RBmBI users pgEdr. cMnucmYycMnYneyIgKYrEtcgcaMenA
eBleFVIkar presentation³
- eFVIkarcab;epþIm presentation edayesckþIsegçbeKalbMNgxøI² (brief
overview of purpose) nigeKalbMNgCacMbgcMeBaHKMeragRbB½n§.
- segçbnUv primary viable alternatives edaycMeBaH alternative nImYy²
erobrab;BI cost, advantages, and disadvantages.
- eFVIkarBnül; nigbkRsayehtuGVI)anCa evaluation and selection teams
erIsyk alternative enH.
- TukeBlevlasMrab;BiPakSa nigsYrsMnYr RBmTaMgeqøIytbsMnYr.
- TTYl)ankarsMerccitþcugeRkayBI management.
eKaledAcMeBaH management presentation KWedIm,ITTYlkaryl;RsbeTAelI
kic©GPivDÆRbB½n§ nigTTYlkarKaMRTTaMgRsugBI management dUcCa³ RbPBhirBaØvtßúcaM)ac;
CaedIm. Manager RbEhlCaeRCIserIsCMerIsmYykñúgcMeNam alternatives TaMg 5:
Develop an in-house system, modify the current system, purchase or
customize a software package, perform additional systems analysis work, or
stop all further work. GaRs½yelIkarsMerccitþ kic©karCabnþrbs;GñkviPaKRbB½n§Gac³
1. Develop an in-house system. cab;epþImdMeNIrkar systems design phase
cMeBaHRbB½n§fµI.
2. Modify the current system. cab;epþImdMeNIrkar systems design phase
cMeBaH modified system.
3. Purchase or customize a software package. eFVIkarccarCamYy vendor
eTAelI purchase terms. bnÞab;mkRbsinebIeRbIR)as; package minmankarEkERb
(modify) enaHeyIgGaccab;epþIm systems implementation phase pÞúyeTAvijebIman
EkERb (modify) package enaHCMhantmkeTotRtUvcab;epþIm systems design phase.
RbsinebI vendor eFVIkarEkERb (modify) package enaHeyIgRtUvcab;epþIm testing nig

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documentation én modified package EdlCaEpñkén systems implementation
phase.
4. Perform additional systems analysis work. Management cg;eGayeyIg
esuIbGegát alternatives EfmeTot nig alternatives epSgeTotEdlmin)anBinitü rW
management cg;eGayeyIgkat;bnßyTMhMKMeragBIeRBaH cost constraints rWk¾BRgIkKMerag
bEnßmeTot.
5. Stop all further work. Management sMerccitþQb;dMeNIrkarKMeragCabnþ
eRBaHEt cost, resources rWehtuplepSgeTot dUcenHeyIgKµankic©karepSgeTotRtUveFVIeT
ehIyKMeragRtUvbBa©b; edayeyIgRtUvEtRbmUlkic©karRsavRCavrbs;eyIgTukCaÉksar edIm,I
eRbIR)as;enAeBlNaeyIgcg;cab;epþImKMeragsarCafµI.
RbsinebIbegáIt in-house system rW modifying a package eyIgnwgbegáIt
model sMrab;RbB½n§esñIsMu nigcab;epþImksag input, output, files nig data structures
rbs;RbB½n§.
4>GnþrPaBrcnaRbB½n§ (Transition to Systems Design)
RbsinebI management sMerccitþksag system in-house enaHCMhanbnþmkeTot
én SLDC KW systems design phase Gaccab;epþImdMeNIrkar. enAkñúgRkumh‘untUc
eyIgGacRtUveKEtgtaMgeGayTTYlxusRtUvTaMgRsugcMeBaHKMerag b:uEnþcMeBaHRkumh‘unman IT
department eyIgRbEhlCaeFVIkarCaRkumCamYysmaCikd¾éTeTotedIm,IksagRbB½n§.
vacaM)ac;Nas;RtUvEtyl;eGay)anc,as;nUv system requirements documents
enAeBlcab;epþIm systems design phase BIeRBaHÉksarenaHpÞúknUv design sMrab;RbB½n§fµI
nigvaCacMnuccab;epþImsMrab; systems design phase. kMhus (errors)/ vtßúbMePøcecal
(omissions)/ PaBmann½yminc,as;las; (ambiguities) nigbBaðaepSgeTotnwgb:HBal;eTA
dl;KuNPaBénplitplcugeRkayrbs;eyIg. muneBleyIgqøgeTAkan; systems design
phase eyIgKYrEtR)akdfaeyIg)andMeNIrkar systems analysis ya:gRtwmRtUv.

Systems Design Overview

Logical design énRbB½n§Bt’mankMnt;BI functions nig features rbs;RbB½n§
RBmTaMgTMnak;TMngcMeBaHsmasPaBTaMgenaH. Logical design rYmbBa©ÚlTaMg output

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EdlRbB½n§RtUvbegáIt/ input EdlRbB½n§RtUvkar nig processes EdlRbB½n§RtUvdMeNIrkar
edaymin)anKitdl;etIkic©karenaHRtUvRbtibtþikar physically edayrebobNaeT.
dUc)anelIkeLIgBIxagelI logical design kMnt;GVIRtUvekIteLIg minEmnetIeyIgRtUv
RbtibtþikarvaedayrebobNaeT (what must be take place, not how it is to be
accomplished). ehtudUecñHmin)anniyayBIviFIRbtibtþiBitR)akd (actual methods of
implementation) ]TahrN_³ logical design cMeBaH customer system erobrab;BI
Tinñn½yRtUvbBa©ÚleTAkan;RbB½n§/ kMnt; records RtUvbgðajenAelI customer order
nigBt’manGVIxøHbgðajelI customer report. karkMnt;eTAelI actual input of data, sort
method, physical processes of creating reports, and exact format of reports
minEmnCaEpñkén logical design eT.
pÞúyeTAvij physical design énRbB½n§Bt’manKWEpnkarsMrab; actual
implementation énRbB½n§ ehIyvabegáIteLIgedayEp¥keTAelI logical design.
]TahrN_³ physical design cMeBaH customer system erobrab;BI actual processes of
entering, verifying, sorting data; physical layout of data files; sorting
procedures; exact format of reports.....
eKbBa©b; logical design kñúgkMLúgeBl systems analysis phase én SDLC.
edIm,IbegáIt logical design eyIgcuHesIubGegát/ viPaK nigkt;RtaCaÉksarnUv input,
processing, and output requirements and constraints.

The Relationship between Analysis and Design

Logical design manTMnak;TMngCamYy physical design ya:gCitdit ehtudUecñH
edIm,ITTYl)an good physical design luHRtaEteyIg)anbegáIt good logical design
edayBwgeTAelIdMeNIrkar systems analysis d¾RtwmRtUv. mann½yfa eKminGacbegáIt
physical design )aneT ebIKµan logical design eRBaH physical design ekItecjBI
logical design. vamanlkçNHRbesIrCagedaydMeNIrkar systems analysis phase cb;
sBVRKb;Camunsin eTIbrMkileTArk systems design phase ehIyeTaHbICamancMnucmYy
cMnYnRtUveFVIsareLIgvijk¾eday.

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 enAeBlkMBugdMeNIrkar systems design phase eyIgGacRtlb;eTAkan; systems
analysis phase kñúgkrNImYycMnYndUcCa³ eyIgrkeXIjfaeyIgePøc important facts/
users mantMrUvkarfµI/ legal or government requirement EkERbCaedIm.

5>bzmrUb ( Prototyping)
Prototyping is early, rapidly constructed working version of proposed
information system. Prototyping RtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;FmµtaenAkñúgEpñkplit Edl
engineers eRbIR)as; model edIm,IedaHRsaybBaðamuneBlplitkmµ (production)
cab;epþIm.
User input nigkaryl;RsbmansarHsMxan;RKb;dMNak;kalén systems
development process. Prototyping GnuBaØatieGay users RtYtBinitü model
faetIvabgðaj systems outputs, inputs, interfaces nig processes RtwmRtUvEdrrWeT
RbsinebIminRtwmRtUv users GacesñIsMueGayEkERb)an. kñúgkrNImYycMnYn prototyping
RtUv)anvivtþrhUtdl; final version énRbB½n§Bt’man b:uEnþkrNIxøHeTot prototyping
RKan;EteRbIsMrab;bBa¢ak;PaBRtwmRtUvén requirements nigbnÞab;mke)aHbg;vaecal.
Approach to Prototyping
Prototyping KWCalMdab;lMedaydMeNIrkarmþgehIymþgeTotén analysis, design,
modeling nig testing. End product én system prototyping is a working-
featured, working model énRbB½n§Bt’man EdleRtomCaeRscsMrab;Rbtibtþi
(implementation).

(rUb 6.2)
GñkviPaKRbB½n§eRbIR)as; prototyping pgEdredIm,IRtYtBinitü user requirements
faetIRtwmRtUvEdrrWGt; bnÞab;mkeKlHbg; prototyping ecal nigcab;epþImdMeNIkar
implementation viFIedaHRsayenHeKehAfa design prototyping rW throwaway

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prototyping. kñúgkrNIenH end product én prototyping KWCa user-approved
design prototyping Edlkt;RtaCaÉksar nig benchmark the features of finished
system.

(rUb 6.3)
Design prototyping eFVIeGayeyIgmanlT§PaBcab;)an user input and
approval xNHeBlbnþGPivDÆn_RbB½n§kñúgKMeragén SLDC. GñkviPaKRbB½n§CaTUeTA
eRbIR)as; prototyping edIm,IbegáIt outputs, inputs nig interfaces Edlnwgerobrab;enA
CMBUkTI 7.
Prototyping pþl;plRbeyaCn_CaeRcIndUcCa³
 Users and systems developers GaceCosvagPaByl;xus
(misunderstanding).
 Systems developers GacbegáItcMnuclMGitCak;lak;RtwmRtUv (accurate
specification) én finished system edayBwgEp¥keTAelI prototyping.
 Managers GacvaytMél working model RtwmRtUvCagcMnuclMGitenAelI
Rkdas.
 GñkviPaKRbB½n§GaceRbIR)as; prototyping edIm,IbegáIt testing and training
procedures muneBl finished system eRbIR)as;)an.
 Prototyping kat;bnßy risks nigéføcMNaybegáItRbB½n§ RbsinebI finished
system minGacRTRTg;tMrUvkarCMnYj)an.

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 eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday prototyping k¾manbBaðaCaskþanuBlmYycMnYndUcCa³
 el,ÓndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_elOneBkGacbegáIteGaymanbBaðaKuNPaB (quality
problems) EdleyIgmin)aneXIjrhUtTal;Et finished system dak;eGaydMeNIrkar.
 eyIgminGacsakl,gRtYtBinitü (test) eGay)anRKb;RKan;cMeBaH system
requirements epSgeTotdUcCa reliability nig maintainability edayeRbIR)as;
prototyping )aneT.
 Prototyping køayeTACasµúKsµaj nigBi)akRKb;RKg RbsinebIeRbIR)as;enAkñúg
RbB½n§saMjaMu (complex system).
Prototyping Tools
GñkviPaKRbB½n§GaceRbIR)as; powerful tools dUcCa CASE tools, application
generators, report generators, screen generators nig fourth-generation
languages (4GLs) edIm,IGPivDÆn_ prototyping. kareRbIR)as; tools rYmKñapþl;nUveRKag
sMrab;GPivDÆn_ software manRbsiT§PaB nigel,ÓnelOn eKeGayeQµaHvafa
fourth-generation environment.
Application Generators
Application generator (rW code generator) GnuBaØatieGayeyIgbegáIt
computer program ya:gelOn edaybMElg logical model pÞal;eTACa fourth-
generation language (4GL) code.
Report Generators
Report generator (rW report writer) KWCa tool sMrab; design formatted
reports ya:gelOn. edayeRbIR)as; report writer eyIgGac modify report design
)anya:ggayRsYlenAeBlNak¾edaykñúg design process ehIyenAeBleyIgeBjcitþ
cMeBaH report layout enaH report writer nwgbegáIt report definition eGay.
Screen Generators
Screen generator (rW form generator) KWCa software tool EdlCYyksag
custom interface/ begáIt screen forms nigedaHRsay data entry format and
procedures. Screen generator GnuBaØatieGayeyIgRKb;RKgfaetI screen bgðaj
captions, data fields, data nig visual attributes edayrebobNa.

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 Limitations of Prototypes
Final version énRbB½n§CaTUeTATamTar higher-level performance Cag
prototype pþl;eGay. Prototype KWCa functioning system b:uEnþminsUvmanRbsiT§PaB
dUcCaRbB½n§GPivDÆn_TaMgRsugeT (fully developed system) ehIymüa:gvijeTot vaCa
model minEmnCa complete system dUecñHvamanel,ÓndMeNIrkar nigel,ÓneqøIytbyWt
(slower processing speeds and response times) Cag complete system.
Prototype RbEhlCaxVH security requirements, exception and error handling
procedures nig functions RtUvkarepSgeTot. eTaHbICaman prototype limitations
k¾eday k¾ system developers Gac upgrade prototype eTACa final information
system edaybEnßmsmtßPaBcaM)ac; ebImindUecñaHeT eyIgRtUvEte)aHbg;vaecal.

6>TsSnHénkarrcnaRbB½n§ (Overview of Systems Design)

RbB½n§Bt’manmansmasPaBCamUldæancMnYn 5 KW data, people, processes,
hardware nig software ehIyGnþrkmµrvagsmasPaBTaMgenaHmanplb:HBal;ya:gxøaMg
eTAelI design process ehtudUecñHGñkviPaKRbB½n§RtUvEtyl;eGay)anc,as;BI logical
design TaMgmUlénRbB½n§ muneBlcab;epþImdMeNIrkar physical design cMeBaHsmasPaB
nImYy².
CMhandMbUgKWeFVIkarBinitü system requirement document saeLIgvijRbsinebI
eyIgmin)aneFVIkarCamYYyvakalBICMhanmun. bnÞab;BIBinitü system requirement
document saeLIgvijrYcehIy eyIgeRtomCaeRscedIm,Icab;epþIm actual design
process. GVImYyNaEdleyIgKYrcab;epþImmun eRBaHehtuGVI?
TIkEnøgl¥bMputsMrab;cab;epþImKW user interface Edlb:HBal;GnþrkmµTaMgmUlrvag
user nig system ehIyenAeBleyIgbegáIt interface eyIgnwgrMkileTAkan; input and
output design tasks Cak;lak;NamYy bnÞab;mkeyIgeFVIkarCamYy data design and
system architectures sMrab;RbB½n§. Design phase min)ankMnt;es‘rIdMeNIrkarCak;lak;
eTedaysmasPaBTaMgenaHBwgBak; rWTak;TgKñaeTAvijeTAmk ehtudUecñHeyIgRbEhlcab;
epþImeFVIkarCamYysmasPaBmYy b:uEnþvaCaerOgFmµtaEdlb:HBal;eTAsmasPaBepSgeTot

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]TahrN_³ karsMerccitþEkERb report format RbEhlCaTamTareGayeFVIkarEkERb data
design rW input screen pgEdr.

(rUb 6.4)

6. 1. Systems Design Objectives

eKaledAén systems design KWeFVIkarbegáItRbB½n§mYyEdlmanlkçNH effective,
reliable nig maintainable. RbB½n§ effective luHRtaEtva)anbMeBjral; requirements
and constraints kMnt;TukTaMgGs; ehIy user GacTTYlykRbB½n§enaH)anBIeRBaH user
KWCaGñkEdleRbIR)as;RbB½n§edIm,IRTRTg;eKaledACMnYjrbs;Rkumh‘un.
RbB½n§ reliable luHRtaEtvaGacedaHRsay errors dUcCa input errors,
processing errors, hardware failures rW human mistakes )anRKb;RKan; mann½yfa
RbB½n§enAEtGacdMeNIrkardUcFmµta eTaHbICabBaðaxagelIekIteLIgk¾eday tamBiteTA

123
eyIgminGackarBar errors TaMgGs;ekItelIRbB½n§)aneT b:uEnþeyIgRtUveFVIya:gNaeGay
errors enaHmancMnYntictamEtGaceFVIeTA)an. viFIedaHRsaycMeBaH errors KWerobEpnkar
cMeBaH errors ehIycab;vaeGaykan;Etqab;tamEtGaceFVIeTA)an nigGnuBaØatieGayeFVIkar
EktMrUv edayeFVIya:gNakarBarmineGayxUcdl;RbB½n§.
RbB½n§ maintainable luHRtaEtRbB½n§enaH well designed, flexible nigksag
eLIgedayGacGnuBaØatieGayEktMrUvnaeBlGnaKt. edayminKitfa RbB½n§enaHRtUv)anksag
ya:gl¥EbbNak¾eday k¾EtgEtmankarEktMrUveCosminputdUcCa³ edIm,IEktMrUvbBaða/
sMrbeTAtamPaBERbRbYlén user requirements/ eFVIeGayRbB½n§kan;EtRbesIreLIg rWTaj
ykplRbeyaCn_BIbec©kviTüapøas;bþÚr.
6. 2. Systems Design Considerations
edIm,ITTYl)anlT§plksagl¥ eyIgRtUvEtBicarNaeTAelI users, data nig
processing.

User Considerations
eKaledACacMbgKWeFVIkarbegáItRbB½n§Edl users GacTTYlyk)an rW user-friendly
ehIyTUTaMg design process eyIgRtUvBicarNaeTAdl;ktþacaM)ac;mYycMnYnEdlb:HBal;eTA
dl; users eTaHbItic rWeRcInkþI. cUrcgcaMcMnucxageRkamenHenAeBlksagRbB½n§³
Carefully consider any point where users receive output from, or
provide input to, the system.
RbB½n§RtUvEtman user interface gayRsYlsikSa nigeRbIR)as; ehIy input
processes KYrEtkt;RtaCaÉksar/ gayRsYleFVItam/ RbkbedayGBÖ½nþBaØaN (intuitive)
nig forgiving errors RBmTaMg output KYrEtTak;TajGarmµN_ niggayyl;.
Anticipate future needs of the users, the system, and the organization.
]bmafa employee file pÞúknUv one-character field edIm,IkMnt;ral;RbePT
employee ehIytMéleRbIR)as;bc©úb,nñmancMnYn 2 KW F sMrab;bBa¢ak; full-time employee
nig P bBa¢ak;BI part-time employee. RbB½n§RtUvbegáIt reports eTAtamtMélbBa¢ak;RbePT
employee enaH ehtudUecñHeyIgRtUvsresr code rW hardcode cMeBaH report programs
b:uEnþkarksag table mYyepSgbEnßmeTotsMrab;rkSatMélTaMgenaH (category code nig
caption) eTIbCaCMerIsRbesIrCag eRBaHRbsinebI organization bEnßmtMélmYyeTotdUcCa

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X sMrab; flextime enaHeyIgmincaM)ac;EkERb report programs eTxusBIkalEdlsresr
code RtUvEkERb report programs CafIµ.
You must provide flexibility.
]bmafa user cg;)an screen bgðaj employee manR)ak;ExelIsBI $500 etIeyIg
KYrEtksag features enaHedayrebobNa? viFITI 1 KW programmers RtUvEtsresr code
edIm,IRtYtBiinitüemIlR)ak;Ex employee elIsBI $500 ehIybgðajlT§plTaMgenaH enHCa
dMeNaHRsaymYygayRsYleTsMrab; programmers. User RKan;Etvayb:unµan keys rW
commands enAelIkmµviFI programmers sresreGayCakareRsc. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾
edayviFIenHva inflexible eRBaHfaenAeBleRkayRbsinebI user cg;bgðaj employee
manR)ak;ExelIsBI $900 vij enaHRbB½n§kMBugeRbIR)as;minGaceqøIytb RtUvTamTareGay
programmers sresrkUdsarCafµI. edIm,ItMrUveTAtamsMeNIrsMuTaMgenaH programmers
nwgbegáItkmµviFImYyEdlGacbgðaj employee EdlmanR)ak;ExelIsBI>>> mann½yfacMeBaH
kEnøgR)ak;ExTamTareGay user bBa©Úl. ]TahrN_³ RbsinebI user cg;bgðaj employee
manR)ak;ExelIsBI $750 enaH user RKan;Etvay 750 cUlenaHKWCakareRsc ehIyRbB½n§nwg
bgðajlT§pl.
Good systems design nwgeRbIR)as;viFITaMg 2 bBa©ÚlKña mann½yfaeyIgnwgbegáIt
kmµviFITTYlyktMélbBa©ÚlBI user b:uEnþRtUvmantMélkMnt;TukCamun (default value) esµI
$500 dUecñHRbsinebI user cg;)an employee manR)ak;ExelIsBI $500 enaHRKan;Etcuc
ENTER KWCakareRsc rW user RKan;EttMélR)ak;ExepSgeTot nigcuc ENTER nwgTTYl
)anlT§pl.
Data Considerations
Data storage and entry considerations KWCaEpñkmYysMxan;enAkñúg systems
design ehIyeyIgGnuvtþtamcMnucENnaMxageRkam³
Data should be entered into the system where and when it occurs
because delays cause data errors.
]TahrN_³ receptionist KYrEtbBa©ÚlTinñn½yPøamenAeBlEdlTTYl)ankarcuHeQµaH
cUleron ebImindUecñaHeTvaGacmanbBaða dUcCasisSkñúgfñak;mYyeyIgkMnt;mineGayelIsBI
20 nak; ebIsinCasisSmancMnYn 19 nak;rYcmkehIyenaHkarbBa©Úlrbs;eyIgsMedAelI
sisScugeRkayeKsMrab;fñak;enaH. ebIeyIgminbBa©ÚlsisSenaHPøam²eT eyIgGacTTYl

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sisSepSgeToteGaycUleron)an b:uEnþvabgábBaða sisSdl;eTA 21 nak;sikSakñúgfñak;EtmYy
EdlxusBIeKalkar enAeBleyIgbBa©ÚlsisSTaMgenaH.
Data should be verified when it is entered, to catch errors immediately.
Input design KYrEtkMnt; data type dUcCaelx/ GkSr rWcenøaHtMélelxRKb; data
items TaMgGs; elIsBIenHeTotRbsinebImankarbBa©ÚlTinñn½yminRtwmRtUv RbB½n§RtUvEtcab;va
eGay)an nigeGaysBaØaPøam². RbB½n§RtUvEtGnuBaØatieGayeFVIkarEktMrUvcMeBaHTinñn½ybBa©Úl
minRtwmRtUv man errors mYycMnYneyIggayEkERb b:uEnþmYycMnYneTotTamTarkaresIubGegát
EfmeTot nigEkenAeBleRkay.
Automated methods of data entry should be used whenever possible.
]TahrN_³ employee KYrEteRbIR)as; scanners edIm,Icab;ykTinñn½y BIeRBaHvaman
el,ÓnelOn/ kat;bnßy errors nigbegáInplitPaBpgEdr.
Every instance of entry and change to data should be logged.
]TahrN_³ enAeBlEdlbegáIt rWEkERb customer’s credit limit
RbB½n§KYrEtkt;RtaTukfaetI customer’s credit limit begáItsMrab;GñkNa nigGñkNaCa
GñkbegáIteGay BIeRBaHBt’manenHvacaM)ac;sMrab;begáIt history of transactions.
Data should be entered into a system only once.
RbsinebI input data enAkñúg payroll system RtUvkarEdrcMeBaH human resource
system enaHeyIgKYrEtksag program interface rvagRbB½n§TaMg 2 ehtudUecñHTinñn½yGac
bBa¢ÚneTAvijeTAmkedaysV½yRbvtþ.
Data duplication should be avoided.
]TahrN_³ eyIgminKYrrkSaTuk supplier’s address kñúg inventory file cMeBaHRKb;
product eT ebImindUecñaHeT supplier’s address nwgbgðaj 100 dgebIsinCaKat;pÁt;pÁg;
product 100 mux. elIsBIenHeTotRbsinebI supplier cg;EkERb address enaHRbB½n§RtUv
eFVIkarEkERb 100 kEnøg ebImin)anEkERb address NamYyenaHetIeyIgGacdwgfa address
mYyNaRtwmRtUv?
Processing Considerations
bEnßmeTAnwgbBaðab:HBal;eTAdl; user nig data eyIgk¾KYrKiteTAdl;karENnaMxag
eRkamcMeBaH process design:

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 Use a modular design.
cMeBaH modular design eyIgbegáIt individual processing components
ehAfa module EdlTak;TgCamYy higher-level program or process. cMeBaH
traditional, structured design, module nImYy²bgðajBI process rW subprocess
NamYyenAkñúg DFD nigrkSavaCaÉksarenAkñúg process description. RbsinebIeyIg
eRbI object-oriented design, object classes bgðajeday code module
enAeBlRbtibtþkarksagCamYy OOPL. eyIgnwgsikSaGMBI modular design
enAkñúgCMBUkTI 10 Edlerobrab;BI application development.
Design modules that perform a single function are easier to
understand, implement, and maintain.
Independent modular pþl;pgEdrnUv flexibility Gs©arüBIeRBaHeyIgGacbegáIt
nigsakl,gBYkvaerog²xøÜn nigbnÞab;mkRc)ac;bBa©ÚlKñaenAeBleRkay. Modular design
mansarHRbeyaCn_CaBiessenAeBleyIgGPivDÆn_RbB½n§TMhMFM eRBaHeyIgGacEbgEck
kic©kareTAeGayRkum analysts nig programmers eFVIerogxøÜn rYcpÁMúbBa©ÚlKñabegáIt
finished system.

7>karrcnanigeRbIR)as;kUd(Designing and Using Codes)

Code KWCasMnMutYrGkSr rWelxEdleRbIsMrab;tMNag data item. eKeRbIR)as; code
edIm,IsMrYl output, input nig data formats. enAkñúgkMLúgeBl systems design phase
eyIgRtYtBinitüelI existing codes nigbegáIt code fIµmYysMrab;rkSa nigeRbIR)as;Tinñn½y
eGaymanRbsiT§PaB.
Overview of Codes
Code RtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;sMrab;tMNageGayTinñn½y EdleyIgCYbRbTHkñúgCIvPaB
RbcaMéf¶. ]TahrN_³ Student number KWCa unique code sMrab;kMnt; student enAkñúg
school registration system ehtudUecñH student eQµaH Ket Dara CaeRcInnak;epSgKña
GaccuHeQµaHcUleronenAsala b:uEnþBYkeKTaMgenaHman student number epSg²BIKña
mann½yfa student Etmñak;Kt;man student number 268960.
]TahrN_mYyeToteTAelI Zip code EdlpÞúknUv items Bt’manCaeRcIncMnYn 9
tYelxsMrab;kMnt;tMélrbs;va. tYelxTImYysMrab;kMnt;BItMbn;PUmsaRsþenAkñúgRbeTsGaemric

127
ehIykarpSMbBa©ÚlKñanUvtYelxbIbnÞab;eTotkMnt;Rkug. tYelxTIR)aMkMnt;BI post office
buKÁlnImYy²/ tMbn;enAkñúgTIRkug rWtMbn;bBa¢ÚnCaklak;NamYy nigtYelxbYncugeRkaykMnt;BI
post office box rWGas½ydæanpøÚvNamYy.

Broad geographical Local postal delivery

area in eastern U.S. point
2 790 6 2624

Elizabeth City, NC Special location for

College of the Albermarle
(rUb 6.5)
Code GacsnSM storage space and costs/ kat;bnßy data transmission time
nigkat;bnßy data entry time BIeRBaH code EtgEtmanRbEvgxøICagTinñn½yBitR)akdRtUv
bBa©ÚlpÞal;. elIsBIenHeTot users RtUvEtTTYlyk coding method enaHedaysarBYkeK
KWCaGñkeFVIkarpÞal;CamYyva RbsinebIeyIgmanbMNgcg;eRbI code fµI rWEkERb code kMBugeRbI
eyIgKYrEtTTYlkarpþl;eyabl; nigkareqøIytbBI users.
Types of Coding
1. Sequence codes sMedAeTAelIelx rWGkSrRtUv)ankMnt;tamlMdab;Cak;lak;
NamYy ehIyvamin)anbBa¢ak;n½ybEnßmeTotCaCagkarbBa¢ak;BIlMdab;bBa¢ÚlTinñn½yeTAkñúg
kmµviFIeT. ]TahrN_³ human resource system eRbIR)as; employee number ekInCa
lMdab;edIm,IkMnt; employee. edaysar code RtUv)ankMnt;tamlMdab; dUcenHtamryH
code eyIgGacdwgfa Rkumh‘unCYl employee number 584 mun employee number
425 b:uEnþ code min)anbgðajBIkalbriecäTcUleFVIkarrbs; employee eT.
2. Block sequence codes eRbIR)as;bøúktMélelxedIm,IEbgEckPaBxusEbøkKña.
College course numbers CaTUeTAeRcInEteRbI block sequence code dUcenH 100-
level courses dUcCa Chemistry 100 nig Mathematics 125 KWCa freshman-level
courses rWÉ course numbers enAkñúgbøúk 200 sMrab; sophomore-level courses.
enAkñúgbøúkNamYy lMdab;énelxGacmanGtßn½ybEnßmeTot dUcCa English 151 KWCa
prerequisite sMrab; English 152.

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 3. Alphabetic codes eRbItYrGkSrRkm (alphabet letters) edIm,IEbgEckPaBxus
Kñarvag item mYyCamYyeKepSgeTot edayEp¥keTAelIRbePT (category)/ Baküsresrkat;
(abbreviation) rWtMélgayRsYlcgcaM eKehAfa mnemonic code. Classification
codes CaeRcInRtUv (fit) CamYyniymn½yxageRkamenHGacelIsBImYy.
a. Category codes kMnt;Rkumén items Bak;B½n§Kña. ]TahrN_³
Department store eRbIR)as; two-character category code edIm,IkMnt;RbePTTMnij
)anlk;³ GN for Gardening supplies, HW for Hardware nig EL for Electronics.
b. Abbreviation codes KWCa alphabetic abbreviations. ]TahrN_³
standard state code rYmman NY for New York, ME for Maine nig MN for
Minnesota. Abbreviation codes mYycMnYneKehAfa mnemonic code eRBaHvaeRbI
karRc)ac;cUlKñaéntYGkSrCak;lak;EdlgayRsYlcgcaM. ]TahrN_³ mnemonic codes
eRbIcMeBaH Airport mandUcCa DFW is Dallas/Ft. Worth Airport nig JFK is John F.
Kennedy International Airport.
4. Significant digit codes EbgEckPaBxusKñarbs; items edayeRbIR)as;es‘rI
bNþMúrgéntYelx. Zip code KWCa]TahrN_én significant digit code ehIy]TahrN_
mYyepSgeTotKW inventory location code pÞúk two-digit warehouse code tameday
one-digit floor number, two-digit section code, one-digit aisle number nig
two-digit bin number code.
Section code
Warehouse location Bin number
number
11 2 05 3 27

Floor number Aisle number

(rUb 6.6)
5. Derivation codes Rc)ac;Tinñn½ybBa©ÚlKñacMeBaH item characteristics
edIm,IbegáIt code. ]TahrN_³ subscriber code cMeBaH magazine KWCa derivation
code edaypÞúknUv subscriber’s five-digit ZIP code bnÞab;mk tYGkSrTImYy/ TIbI

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nigTIbYncMeBaH subscriber’s name, BIrtYelxcugeRkayén subscriber’s house number
RBmTaMgtYGkSrTImYy/ TIbI nigTIbYnén subscriber’s street name.
John R. Anderson, 1834 Emberly Drive, Enigma, Georgia 31749

(rUb 6.7) 31749 ADE 34 EBE

6. Cipher codes eRbIR)as; keyword edIm,I encode number. ]TahrN_³

retail store eRbIR)as; 10-leter word dUcCa CAMPGROUND edIm,IsresrtMéllk;dMu
CatYGkSrsMgat; eday C bgðaj 1, A bgðaj 2 >>> ehtudUecñH code GRAND bBa¢ak;fa
tMélKW $562.90.
7. Action codes kMnt;skmµPaBcMeBaH item. ]TahrN_³ computerized
query/update program TamTareGayeyIgbBa©Úl student number nig action code
edIm,IeFVIeTAelI record enaH RbsinebIbBa©Úl action code D sMrab;bBa¢ak;fa
eyIgcg;bgðaj student’s record, A bBa¢ak;fa eyIgcg;bBa©Úl record sMrab; student
number enaH nig X bBa¢ak;fa eyIgcg;cakecjBIkmµviFI.
8. Self-checking codes eRbIR)as; check digit sMrab;BinitüsuBlPaBrbs;
number code. viFImYyénkareRbIR)as; four-digit self-checking code KWeFVIkarKNna
check digit edayKuNelxTImYynwgelx 1, elxTIBInwgelx 2,... bnÞab;mkyklT§pl
plKuNTaMgenaHbUkbBa©ÚlKña RbsinebIcMnYntYelxlT§plplbUkelIsBImYy yktYelx
TaMgenaHbUkbBa©ÚlKñamþgeTot ehIyeyIgGnuvtþtamviFIenHrhUtTal;lT§plplbUkmancMnYn
tYelxEtmYyKt;. Valid code 1302-6:

1 3 0 2
x1 x2 x3 x4
1 6 0 8

1 + 6 + 0 + 8 = 15,
(rUb 6.8) 1+5=6

Checks

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Developing a Code
begáIt code manlkçNHpSMKñaeRcIneBkeFVIeGayBi)akcgcaM nigRtYtBinitü ehtudUecñH
cUrcgcaMkarENnaMxageRkamenHenAeBlbegáIt code:
1. Keep codes concise. kMubegáIt code manRbEvgEvgeBkCagtMrUvkarcMeBaHva.
]TahrN_³ RbsinebIeyIgRtUvkar code sMrab;kMnt; customers 250 nak; enaHeyIgmincaM
)ac;RtUvkar six-digit code eT.
2. Allow for expansion. Coding scheme RtUvEtGnuBaØatieGaymankMenIntMél
smehtupl. RbsinebIRkumh‘unman warehouses cMnYn 8 naeBlbc©úb,nñ eyIgminKYreRbI
one-digit code sMrab; warehouse number eT BIeRBaHRbsinebIRkumh‘unbEnßm
warehouses 3 fµIeTot code RtUvEtbegáIneTAkan; 2 digits rWEkERbeTACa single
character code vij.
3. Keep codes stable. Codes RtUvEtfitefr mann½yfaebIRtUvkarEk code
enaHbgábBaða enaHeyIgRtUvEtEkERb code cas;TaMgGs;. kMLúgeBlEkERb eyIgnwgEkERb
ral; codes TaMgGs;EdlmansMrab; code enaH nigÉksarEdlmanpÞúk code enaH.
4. Make codes unique. Codes eRbIR)as;sMrab; identification purpose RtUvEt
manGtßn½yEtmYyKt;. RbsinebI code HW GackMnt; Hardware rW Housework
bBa¢ak;fa code enaHminsUvRbesIreT.
5. Use sortable codes. RbsinebI products man three-digit codes sßitkñúg
tMbn; 100 rW 300 sMrab;RbePTmYy nigtMbn; 200 sMrab;RbePTmYyepSgeTot enaHkartMerob
nwgminpþMú products enaHenACamYyKñacMeBaHRbePTEtmYyeT. elIsBIenHeTot eyIgRtUv
Rby½tñcMeBaH single-digit character code EdltMerobmintamlMdab;RtwmRtUvCamYy two-
digit codes ehtudUcenHkñúgkrNIenHeyIgRtYvbEnßmtYGkSrelx 0 enAxagmux (01, 02,
03...) edIm,IeGaytMerobtamlMdab;.
6. Avoid confusing codes. cUrkMubegáIt code cMeBaHEpñkmYycMnYnCamYy two
letters, a hyphen nig one digit ehIyEpñkepSgeTotCamYy one letter, a hyphen nig
two digits. kareCosvagenH edIm,IeyIgTTYl)anTaMgGkSr nigelxsßitenATItaMgdUcKña
ehIymüa:geToteCosvagPaBP½nRcLMdUcCa elxsUnü 0 nigtYGkSrFMGU O rWelxmYy 1

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nigtYGkSrtUcGil l rWtYGkSrFMGay I. ]TahrN_³ five-character code 5Z081 gayGan
RcLMeTACa 5ZO8I rW 52081 CaedIm.
7. Make codes meaningful. Codes RtUvEtgaycgcaM/ manRbeyaCn_cMeBaH
users/ gayRsYleRbI RBmTaMggay encode nigbkERb. ]TahrN_³ eRbIR)as; SW Ca
code sMrab; southwest sales region manGtßn½yCag code 14 nigeRbI code ENG
sMrab; English department gayRsYlbkERb nigcgcaMCag XQA rW 132.
8. Use a code for a single purpose. kMueRbI single code edIm,IEckCaRkumcMeBaH
two or more unrelated attributes. ]TahrN_³ RbsinebIeyIgeRbI single code edIm,I
kMnt;karRc)ac;bBa©ÚlKñarvag employee’s department nig employee’s insurance
plan type enaH user nwgBi)akkMnt;Nas;.
9. Keep codes consistent. RbsinebI payroll system eRbIR)as; two-digit
codes rYcehIysMrab; departments dUecñHeyIgmincaM)ac;begáIt code fµIEdlman coding
scheme epSgsMrab; personnel system eT. RbsinebIRbB½n§TaMgBIeRbIR)as; coding
schemes epSgKña eyIgKYrEtR)ab;eTA users eGayTTYlyk code NamYy)anehIyedIm,I
eFVIkarcMeBaHRbB½n§.

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sMnYrrMlWk (Review Questions)
1. cUrBnül;BIPaBxusEbøkKñarvag horizontal application nig vertical
application?
2. GVIeTACaehtupgcMbgEdleFVIeGayRkumh‘unsMerccitþbegáItRbB½n§Bt’manxøÜnÉg?
3. cUrBiBN’naGMBIKuNRbeyaCn_ EdlRkumh‘unTij software package?
4. GVIeTACa RFP? etIvamanlkçNHEbøkKñaBI RFQ Rtg;cMnucNa?
5. etIGVIeTACakarsMerccitþrbs; management enAcugbBa©b; systems analysis
phase?
6. GVIeTACa prototype?
7. GVIeTACa code? ehIyvaEckCab:unµanRbePT?

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