Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.

1 Generative AI
and education

The e ects of Generative

Arti cial Intelligence on
Intelligent Tutoring
Systems in higher
education: A systematic
review
Batzaya (Zack) Batsaikhan1 Ana-Paula Correia2
1College ofEducation and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United
States of America,
2Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio,
United States of America

Published on: Oct 28, 2024

URL: https://stel.pubpub.org/pub/04-01-batsaikhan-correia
License: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0)
Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

ABSTRACT
There is a lack of research regarding artificial intelligence (AI) applications in education settings, especially on
whether generative AI can effectively advance intelligent tutoring and begin a new era of AI-powered effective
tutors. The purpose of this systematic review was to thoroughly explore the evolution, potential applications,
and challenges associated with AI-powered tutoring systems, formerly known as intelligent tutoring systems
(ITSs), within science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines in higher education. The
research identified five prominent themes regarding the evolution of ITSs in the last five years: 1) integration
of AI; 2) personalized and adaptive learning; 3) learning analytics; 4) inclusion and equity; and 5) STEM
disciplines. In particular, it was found that ITSs are one of the key applications of AI technologies in education.
The studies reviewed indicate that emerging technologies, including virtual reality, augmented reality,
robots/avatars, and voice assistants, will likely play crucial roles in the next generation of these systems.
Additionally, emphasis was placed on online and remote learning, gamification, inclusion, and equity.

In contrast, ethical issues are becoming a significant concern due to the enormous data usage of AI, specifically
personal and other sensitive information. There is a general distrust toward AI technology, and ITSs are still
new to many educators. Therefore, the systematic review evaluates how crucial it is to harness the potential of
generative AI and ITSs responsibly. As we move forward, ensuring that ITSs complement, rather than replace,
the essential role of human tutors is critical.

Keywords: intelligent tutoring systems; generative artificial intelligence; higher education; STEM disciplines

Part of the Special Issue Generative AI and education

1. Introduction
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has recently become a popular topic in many areas of our daily lives. The quest to
determine if machines can “think” has been around for at least six decades since the term was first coined by
John McCarthy of the University of Massachusetts in 1956 (Manaware, 2020). However, it is safe to say that
the introduction of GPT-1, short for Generative Pre-Trained Transformers, in June 2018 and the consequent
public launch of ChatGPT in November 2022, both by OpenAI, have really been the turning points for AI
development in the last few years. Such has contributed to the rapid advancement of generative AI. Generative
AI pertains to technology capable of independently generating novel content, including images, audio, video,
text, and code (Lv, 2023). The technology has potential applications in various industries, and proof of that is
the recent 2024 Consumer Electronics Show (CES), the largest in the world, where every product on display,
even a toothbrush, boasted some form of generative AI implementation (Collins & Lanxon, 2024). The trends
emerging from CES are widely recognized to set the technology advancement tone for the upcoming years, and

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

not surprisingly, education is following suit as the AI education market is predicted to surpass $20 billion by
2027 (Wadhwani, 2023). On top of that, Goldman Sachs (2023) estimates that investments in generative AI
will reach $200 billion globally by 2025 and projects that AI adoption will accelerate in the second half of the
decade, resulting in widespread usage.

1.1 Collaborative learning and Generative AI in higher education

Collaborative learning and human-to-human interactions will always be inseparable parts of the learning and
teaching process. However, in an era defined by rapid technological advancements, it is essential to recognize
the growing importance of generative AI in education. According to Government Technology (2023), 85
percent of the high school and college students “who completed study sessions with a human tutor as well as
with ChatGPT found the generative AI method yielded better results” (p. 1). Generative AI has the potential to
reshape the landscape of learning and teaching.

One of the most compelling features of generative AI is its ability to provide personalized learning
experiences. Traditional learning environments often struggle to cater to the diverse needs of every student due
to limited human resources and time constraints. However, AI-driven systems, like intelligent tutoring systems
(ITSs), are designed to adapt to individual learning preferences and paces. By analyzing student data and
learning patterns, these systems offer tailored guidance, feedback and support, allowing learners to progress at
their own pace while addressing their specific strengths and weaknesses. College students may be able to
maximize their productivity, focusing on areas that need improvement and achieving their academic goals
more efficiently (Correia, 2023). On the topic of generative AI’s impact on assessment in higher education,
Smolansky et al. (2023) concluded that while educators favored adapted assessments that assume AI usage and
promote critical thinking, students had mixed reactions, expressing concerns about losing creativity. This study
highlights the need to engage both educators and students in reforming assessments to emphasize learning
processes, higher-order thinking, and real-world applications.

In addition to enhancing student performance, generative AI holds promise for educators. By harnessing AI,
teachers can manage workloads more effectively, use real-time data to inform teaching strategies, and enhance
their ability to offer individualized support. AI systems can automate routine tasks, such as grading and
feedback, freeing educators to focus on more meaningful interactions with students and reforming assessments,
as mentioned earlier. This dual support—benefitting both students and teachers—reinforces the idea that AI,
far from replacing human interaction, can augment it, creating more enriching and efficient educational
experiences for all in higher education.

1.2 Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Before the public release of ChatGPT in November 2022, a large language model-based generative AI chatbot
developed by OpenAI, personalized learning experiences were heavily reliant on ITSs. ITSs are computer
programs or systems that give students personalized instruction and feedback (Psotka et al., 1988). This could

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

mean offering more practice problems in areas where students struggle or advancing more quickly when they
excel. ITSs come in various types, each offering unique features and benefits and catering to different learning
needs and domains. They range from complex ITSs designed for training on the functioning and operation of
industrial equipment to educational software that can be installed on a computer such as LabTutor (Crompton
& Burke, 2023). Recently, these systems have taken the form of advanced AI chatbots and virtual assistants
incorporating generative AI and other emerging technologies (Gupta & Chen, 2022). While schools and
universities are often now equipped with digital devices and learning management systems, replacing
textbooks with eBooks, physical classes with Zoom, and so on, it can be argued that the fundamental nature,
principles, administrative practices, and traditions remain unchanged beneath the digital innovation surface
(Selwyn, 2021). The literature review indicates that the field of ITSs, even though it was first introduced in the
1980s, is still in its infancy stage, recently growing exponentially, and has high potential for learning and
teaching. The development of ITSs, even though it employed various AI and machine learning techniques to
adapt to individual learners, also followed in these footsteps, as the instructions and rules had to be
programmed mostly by hand, making it a difficult and time-consuming endeavor. Now, combined with the
capabilities of generative AI, teaching the computer how to teach provides new methods to rapidly build ITSs
that can consistently improve the educational outcomes of students (Weitekamp et al., 2020).

1.3 The need for this systematic review

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) are among the current research trends in ITSs
(Guo et al., 2021). Initially, ITSs focused on teaching and learning at the individual level, providing
personalized instruction and feedback to students (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). The early ITS models from
the 1970s integrated student, teacher, domain, and diagnosis models to enhance the learning experience (Xu &
Fan, 2022). However, more longitudinal studies and more research are needed on the effectiveness of these
systems (Shi et al., 2022). More recent studies have explored the use of AI techniques in ITSs, such as artificial
neural networks and decision trees, to predict student academic motivation and performance (Rosé et al.,
2019). The application of data mining and big data analytics has transformed ITSs into intelligent analytics
systems, focusing on adaptive guidance programs based on large datasets (Renz & Vladova, 2021). The
evolution of ITSs has also led to pedagogical modifications, improving learning outcomes in redesigned
tutoring systems. Overall, it is apparent that ITSs continue to evolve, with a growing emphasis on generative
AI and personalized and adaptive learning. Therefore, there is a crucial need for a systematic literature review
to investigate the evolution of ITSs with generative AI (2018-2023). Moreover, there is a need to identify what
the next generation of these systems, unquestionably generative AI-powered, could look like in the years to
come, as well as their possibilities and limitations. The articles used in this review are related to STEM and
higher education, as outlined in the inclusion criteria following, and the review is about how ITSs are changing
with generative AI in the context of higher education STEM disciplines.

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

AI-powered teaching will occur, and disruptions will inevitably happen, but “no technological advance has
ever replaced teachers” (Grossman, 2023, p.1). The criticality of analyzing tutoring/teaching supported by ITSs
is relevant in the current higher education landscape, particularly in STEM disciplines. Thus, the main
questions that guided this review are:

1. How have intelligent tutoring systems evolved in the last five years (2018-2023)?
2. How effective are the current available AI-powered tutors?
3. What could the next generation of intelligent tutoring systems look like?
4. What are the opportunities and limitations of AI-powered tutors to complement the role of human tutors?

2. Methodology
This systematic literature review adhered to the widely used three-phase study review procedure outlined in the
United States (U.S.) Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences, What Works Clearinghouse
Procedures and Standards Handbook, Version 5.0 (2022): (1) Screen studies for eligibility; (2) Review study
findings; and (3) Synthesize and report results. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure accuracy and quality in the identification and
screening process.

2.1 Data sources and search strategies

We conducted an exhaustive search across all databases integrated into the EBSCOhost system to guarantee
comprehensive inclusion of the current body of literature. Additionally, we utilized Semantic Scholar, an
artificial intelligence-powered research database, for further exploration. The search queries used for both
research databases were: (intelligent tutoring system) AND (generative AI OR artificial intelligence OR AI in
education) AND (educational technology OR personalized learning OR STEM).

2.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

GPT-1 was introduced in June 2018, arguably the first true generative AI model (OpenAI, 2018). Since we
were interested in the evolution of ITSs in the era of generative AI, this study specifically focused on articles
published within the last five years (2018-2023) in order to dive into the most recent ITS advancements. Even
though generative AI is an emerging technology that is still being actively developed and experimented with,
we decided to use only peer-reviewed journal articles to ensure more reliable and valid results. Most relevant
research was conducted within the realm of higher education, specifically the STEM disciplines. Thus, this
study exclusively focused on these disciplines to maintain a manageable sample size. We ensured that the
articles included in the final analysis of this study would satisfy all of the inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1.

Criteria Inclusion Exclusion

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Publication date From January 2018 to December 2023 Before 2018 and after 2023

Publication type Peer-reviewed journal articles Non-peer-reviewed journal articles, book

chapters, reports, dissertations, conference
proceedings, or blog posts

Research focus Design, implementation, or analysis of Without design, implementation, or analysis

Intelligent Tutoring Systems using of Intelligent Tutoring Systems using
generative AI. The application of artificial generative AI. Without the application of
intelligence technology in education artificial intelligence technology in
education

Context of study Higher education. STEM disciplines K-12 and other educational settings. Other
disciplines

Language English Other languages

Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria

2.3 Identification and screening process

After searching the databases, a total of 462 articles were found: 239 from EBSCOhost and 223 from Semantic
Scholar. We removed 124 duplicates and screened the remaining articles by title and then the abstract. We
identified articles that contained the search terms in their abstracts, yielding 258 potential articles. Next, after
analyzing the full texts of these articles guided by the inclusion and exclusion criteria, only 28 articles were
left. Full text was not available to retrieve for five articles, and 225 were excluded because they did not meet
the inclusion criteria. Then, the full text of the remaining 28 articles was read, assessing their eligibility, and 22
articles were considered relevant for this review. As part of the reading process, we reviewed the references of
the selected articles. We identified six more potential articles from the references, and three of them that met
the inclusion criteria were added to the list. Such afforded a final selection of 25 articles for this systematic
review. The process we used, based on PRISMA, is shown in Figure 1.

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Figure 1: PRISMA Flow diagram

2.4 Data extraction and analysis

The data extraction and coding process was straightforward. This included publication information, article
type, research methods, research foci, research results, applications of generative AI in education or ITSs using

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Generative AI, and emerging technologies used or proposed. Extracted data were used for content analysis to
identify the emerging themes of research foci, research results, and future trends. We created a coding system
using Microsoft Excel and a combination of AtlasTI software. The coding elements and their description are
presented in Table 2.

Element Description

Publication information Title, abstract, author(s), published date, journal name

Study type Empirical study, literature review, and other

Research methods Quantitative, qualitative, mixed method

Research foci Themes will be identified through data extraction, open coding,
and content analysis
Research results

Applications of AI in education or ITSs using Generative AI

Emerging technologies used or proposed

Table 2: Data extraction and coding elements

3. Results
The 25 articles included in this systematic review, as indicated in Table 3, were published in 18 distinct
academic journals between 2018 and 2023. It is worth noting that five articles, the highest number, were
published in the Sustainability journal, which was an intriguing discovery because technology and education
are not the primary focus of the journal.

Year Author Title Publication Title

2019 Alkhatlan and Kalita Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A International Journal of

Comprehensive Historical Computer Applications
Survey with Recent
Developments

2019 du Boulay Escape from the Skinner Box: British Journal of Educational
The case for contemporary Technology
intelligent learning
environments

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

2019 Rosé et al. Explanatory Learner Models: British Journal of Educational

Why Machine Learning (Alone) Technology
Is Not the Answer

2019 Zawacki-Richter et al. Systematic review of research International Journal of

on artificial intelligence Educational Technology in
applications in higher education Higher Education
– where are the educators?

2020 Wang et al. Participant or Spectator? British Journal of Educational

Comprehending the Willingness Technology
of Faculty to Use Intelligent
Tutoring Systems in the
Artificial Intelligence Era

2021 Renz and Vladova Reinvigorating the Discourse on Technology Innovation

Human-Centered Artificial Management Review
Intelligence in Educational
Technologies

2021 Xie et al. Editorial Note: From Journal of Educational

Conventional AI to Modern AI Technology & Society
in Education: Reexamining AI
and Analytic Techniques for
Teaching and Learning

2022 Chen et al. Two Decades of Artificial Educational Technology &

Intelligence in Education: Society
Contributors, Collaborations,
Research Topics, Challenges,
and Future Directions

2022 Chu et al. Roles and Research Trends of Australasian Journal of

Artificial Intelligence in Higher Educational Technology
Education: A Systematic
Review of the Top 50 Most-
Cited Articles

2022 Gupta and Chen Supporting Inclusive Learning Journal of Information Systems
Using Chatbots? A Chatbot-Led Education
Interview Study

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

2022 Qian Cao et al. Effect of Virtual Simulation Journal of Engineering Science
Teaching System on Learning of & Technology Review
Students Majoring in
Engineering Technology

2022 Salas-Pilco et al. Artificial Intelligence and New Sustainability

Technologies in Inclusive
Education for Minority
Students: A Systematic Review

2022 Shi et al. Research Status, Hotspots, and Sustainability

Evolutionary Trends of
Intelligent Education from the
Perspective of Knowledge
Graph

2022 Xu and Fan The application of AI International Journal of STEM

technologies in STEM Education
education: a systematic review
from 2011 to 2021

2023 Abbas et al. Role of Artificial Intelligence Journal of Artificial

Tools in Enhancing Students’ Intelligence, Machine Learning
Educational Performance at and Neural Network
Higher Levels

2023 Alam and Mohanty Educational technology: Cogent Engineering

Exploring the convergence of
technology and pedagogy
through mobility, interactivity,
AI, and learning tools

2023 Bahroun et al. Transforming Education: A Sustainability

Comprehensive Review of
Generative Artificial
Intelligence in Educational
Settings through Bibliometric
and Content Analysis

2023 Crompton and Burke Artificial intelligence in higher International Journal of

education: the state of the field Educational Technology in
Higher Education

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

2023 García-Martínez et al. Analyzing the Impact of Journal of New Approaches in

Artificial Intelligence and Educational Research
Computational Sciences on
Student Performance:
Systematic Review and Meta-
analysis

2023 Ipek et al. Educational Applications of the Educational Process:

ChatGPT AI System: A International Journal
Systematic Review Research

2023 Jing et al. Research Landscape of Sustainability

Adaptive Learning in
Education: A Bibliometric
Study on Research Publications
from 2000 to 2022

2023 Kamalov et al. New Era of Artificial Sustainability

Intelligence in Education:
Towards a Sustainable
Multifaceted Revolution

2023 Kumar et al. Exploring the Transformative Metaverse Basic and Applied
Role of Artificial Intelligence Research
and Metaverse in Education: A
Comprehensive Review

2023 Nagaraj et al. The Emerging Role of Artificial International Research Journal
Intelligence in STEM Higher of Multidisciplinary
Education: A Critical Review Technovation

2023 Triplett Artificial Intelligence in STEM Cybersecurity and Innovative

Education Technology Journal

Table 3: Articles selected for the systematic review

Moreover, three articles were published in the British Journal of Education Technology, while two were
published in the International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education. The remaining articles
were distributed across various journals, as illustrated in Table 4. Journals were related to educational
technology, STEM education, emerging technologies, and sustainable education.

Publication Title Frequency

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Sustainability 5

British Journal of Educational Technology 3

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher 2

Education

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 1

Cogent Engineering 1

Cybersecurity and Innovative Technology Journal 1

Educational Process: International Journal 1

Educational Technology & Society 1

International Journal of Computer Applications 1

International Journal of STEM Education 1

International Research Journal of Multidisciplinary Technovation 1

Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Neural 1

Network

Journal of Educational Technology & Society 1

Journal of Engineering Science & Technology Review 1

Journal of Information Systems Education 1

Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research 1

Metaverse Basic and Applied Research 1

Technology Innovation Management Review 1

Table 4: Journals in which the reviewed articles were published

Figure 2 depicts the distribution of articles published from 2018 to 2023. The majority of these articles, eleven
in total, were published in 2023. The year 2022 saw the publication of seven articles, representing the second-
highest count. Two articles were published in 2021, while 2020 and 2019 saw the publication of one and four
articles, respectively. No articles were published in 2018.

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Figure 2: Number of publications from 2018 to 2023

The overall trend in publications (represented by the dotted line in Figure 2) indicates that researchers have
shown widespread interest in artificial intelligence in education and ITSs over the last two years, and this
interest is expected to increase in the future. The excitement surrounding ChatGPT seems to be the cause of it.

Five of the 25 articles were empirical studies, and the rest were non-empirical studies, including 14 systematic
reviews and meta-analyses, two bibliometric analyses, two critical reviews, one definition paper, and one
conceptual analysis.

The articles included in this review are derived from eleven countries and distributed as follows. There is one
article each from Greece, Spain, Pakistan, Philippines, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, there
are two articles each from Germany, India, and the United Arab Emirates. Furthermore, there are six articles
originating from the United States and seven from China, indicating that these two countries are currently at
the forefront of AI research in education and the advancement of ITSs, particularly in higher education. All
studies in this systematic review were published in peer-reviewed journals in English.

3.1 Guiding question 1: How have Intelligent Tutoring Systems evolved in the
last five years?
The research indicates that the prominent themes regarding the evolution of ITSs can be categorized as
follows: 1) integration of AI; 2) personalized and adaptive learning; 3) learning analytics; 4) inclusion and
equity; and 5) STEM disciplines. In particular, all the studies pointed out that ITSs are one of the critical
applications of AI technologies in education. This finding suggests that the recent advancement of ITSs has
centered around the integration of AI, or in simpler terms, powering ITSs with AI capabilities.

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

ITSs have been developed and evaluated over the years. While they have utilized certain AI techniques, recent
advancements in AI, particularly in generative AI, appear to be revolutionizing the field. Bahroun et al. (2023)
pointed out that ITSs now use generative artificial intelligence to adapt to individual student needs, and
ChatGPT is an example of a dominant tool in the current landscape of ITSs. Gupta and Chen (2022) stated that
these systems have grown from simple computer programs to advanced AI chatbots that understand and
interact with students, and the advancement of natural language processing and deep learning has been crucial
in making chatbots more intelligent. Similarly, Xie et al. (2021) concluded that ITSs have evolved from rule-
based or statistical learning models to deep learning models, and modern AI enables intelligent tutors to act not
just as teaching tools or tutors but also as learning partners and advisors. They further argued that the shift to
modern AI in education is leading to a reconceptualization of pedagogical frameworks, which appears to be a
bold claim that needs to be studied long-term. Kamalov et al. (2023) found that the efficiency of ITS has
improved with AI’s ability to automate tasks like grading and content creation. Ipek et al. (2023) reported that
ITSs can now create individualized educational content quickly and efficiently by utilizing generative AI.
Thus, it has become more personalized and adapts to students’ interests and abilities. These findings suggest
that the integration of AI, particularly generative AI, in ITSs will continue to grow.

In the last five years, there has been an evolution in the field of ITSs with more focus on personalized and
adaptive learning experiences. Modern ITSs can diagnose student knowledge gaps and provide automated
feedback, including functions like curating learning materials based on student profiles (Zawacki-Richter et al.,
2019). AI helps identify students who might need extra help and supports them early (Salas-Pilco et al., 2022).
Predictive models in these systems identify at-risk students, those who might drop out or need additional
assistance, and suggest interventions (Nagaraj et al., 2023) or assist in predicting student performance,
progress, and emotions toward learning (Crompton & Burke, 2023). All these findings are crucial in supporting
positive learning outcomes.

Additionally, Chu et al. (2022) also found that the growth of adaptive ITSs has been significant, with a focus
on improving learning effectiveness and understanding learners’ feelings. However, whether AI will ever be
able to understand human interactions, emotions, or feelings genuinely is yet another research topic that needs
to be explored further. Chen et al. (2022) concurred that the evolution of ITSs indicates a trend towards greater
personalization in education, helping instructors create effective learning experiences. This suggests that the
role of instructors is essential in the future development of ITSs. In addition, du Boulay (2019) pinpointed that
ITSs have evolved from focusing on one-on-one skill tutoring to more complex dialog-based interactions by
incorporating generative AI. Through that, modern ITSs consider students’ feelings, encourage them through
various teaching methods, and offer feedback on what students know and how they think.

Moreover, the use of ITSs has expanded to help manage a whole class, not just individual students (Crompton
& Burke, 2023), and technologies such as eye-tracking have been used to identify learning methods and
improve the recognition of different learner approaches (Jing et al., 2023). It should be emphasized that

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

managing a group of students, rather than individuals, with AI-powered ITSs can be considered a significant
advancement in education. Renz and Vladova (2021) concluded that ITSs have evolved to use AI for
personalized instruction and feedback without a human teacher and include methods where teachers can teach
an AI system to teach students. Although this may seem revolutionary, it is important to note that AI has yet to
genuinely comprehend conversations or connect with students, which will be discussed later in the paper.

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic further emphasized the need for ITSs to support remote learning and provide
in-depth analysis of large datasets to guide educational stakeholders. Thus, the development of ITSs has shifted
towards intelligent analytics systems, leveraging big data analytics and AI techniques to provide adaptive
guidance programs for teachers, students, families, and schools (Shi et al., 2022). They further claimed that
learning analytics will play a crucial role in the future of ITSs, enabling the collection and analysis of large
datasets to inform instructional decisions, identify learning gaps, and provide personalized interventions.
Similarly, Abbas et al. (2023) found that advancements in AI have enabled ITSs to predict student performance
and offer tailored support, and these systems use data analytics to identify at-risk students and intervene early.
There is more use of AI for learning analytics and automated instruction in ITSs to provide more personalized
and adaptive learning experiences (Triplett, 2023). These findings were expected, and it is natural that ITSs
would evolve towards learning analytics as generative AI is trained and operates on large amounts of data.

Inclusion and equity seem to be another evolutionary trend regarding the development of ITSs with generative
AI. AI and deep learning techniques like neural networks have made ITSs more effective in various
educational applications (Xie et al., 2021), and the design of ITSs is becoming more culturally aware to support
diverse student backgrounds (Salas-Pilco et al., 2022). Alam and Mohanty (2023) reported that ITSs have
evolved to provide personalized and adaptive support to learners regardless of location or socioeconomic
background. These systems can be accessed from anywhere, helping all students. Similarly, Gupta and Chen
(2022) found that educational chatbots now aim to support inclusive learning by being accessible, interactive,
and confidential. They are designed to mimic and extend the classroom setting, offering a more fair and
interactive way of learning. Chatbots, a type of intelligent tutoring system, are now being tested to see how
they can support students in a way that includes everyone, no matter their background or learning preferences.

Additionally, García-Martínez et al. (2023) found that ITSs support special education and help students with
special needs by giving them tailored learning experiences. The focus now is on creating transparent models
that can be trusted and are free from biases (Bahroun et al., 2023). These findings are of utmost importance due
to the fact that technological advancements like generative AI can enable more inclusive and equitable
education for everyone. However, there is a lack of primary studies, especially with a focus on inclusion and
equity, in the context of ITSs.

STEM subjects have influenced the development of ITSs due to their suitability for such educational
technology (Renz & Vladova, 2021), and the integration of generative AI is no different. As discussed earlier,
ITSs in higher education have been recognized as effective AI applications (Crompton & Burke, 2023), and

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

ITSs have evolved to enhance personalized and adaptive learning in STEM education (Xu & Fan, 2022). They
can increase interest in subjects like STEM or STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Math) by
using engaging emerging technologies (Salas-Pilco et al., 2022). For example, Qian Cao et al. (2022) found
that virtual simulation teaching methods, resources, and learner experiences can significantly improve
engineering students’ motivation and learning. Moreover, it has been found that virtual simulation can make
learning safer and more hands-on, especially for subjects like chemistry and physics. However, more research
is needed to explore how ITSs and generative AI affect non-STEM disciplines, which is an intriguing research
area.

In conclusion, ITSs are developing fast, with a growing emphasis on generative AI, personalized and adaptive
learning, learning analytics, inclusion and equity, and STEM disciplines.

3.2 Guiding question 2: How effective are the current available AI-powered
tutors?
ITSs powered by AI have been found to be effective in enhancing student learning outcomes. Research has
shown that students who receive personalized instruction through AI-powered ITSs demonstrate higher levels
of engagement, improved academic performance, and increased knowledge retention compared to traditional
classroom settings (Kumar et al., 2023). These systems analyze student data, such as performance and task-
related preferences, to generate tailored content and recommendations, optimizing learning outcomes
(Kamalov et al., 2023). They have been particularly effective in STEM education, where they have helped
students develop problem-solving abilities and conceptual understanding. However, it is important to note that
the effectiveness of ITSs may vary depending on factors such as the specific implementation, instructional
practices, and the effects of new technological integrations.

Further research is needed to explore the long-term effectiveness and compare it to other instructional methods
(Wang et al., 2020). Most of the implementation and validation of ITS presented in the studies took place over
short-term periods, such as a course or a semester, and no longitudinal studies were identified (Zawacki-
Richter et al., 2019). Research is ongoing to see how AI tutors affect students’ long-term success (Triplett,
2023). This indicates a gap in the literature regarding the long-term effectiveness and impact of ITSs on
learning outcomes.

In contrast, despite the advancements, ITSs have shown no significant difference in learning effect, indicating a
need for quality over quantity (Qian Cao et al., 2022). The goal is to create systems that assist in learning and
contribute to the science of learning by providing actionable insights (Rosé et al., 2019). While there is a need
for more research on the effectiveness of ITS, research has indicated that ITSs have a moderate effect on
students’ learning but outperform traditional instruction methods (Renz & Vladova, 2021). When measuring
their effectiveness, it is important to consider the limitations of ITSs, such as their inability to conduct natural
language dialogues or understand the subject being taught and the need for adjustment to different learners

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

(Nagaraj et al., 2023). Thus, the integration of generative AI into ITSs may hold great promise for the future of
these systems. Generative AI can analyze vast amounts of data, such as learner performance and learning
preferences, to generate customized content and recommendations, further enhancing the learning outcome.
Additionally, they may use data mining to understand how students learn and behave (Xu & Fan, 2022).
Overall, more research is needed to fully understand the effectiveness of ITSs in different educational contexts
and technology integrations.

3.3 Guiding question 3: What could the next generation of Intelligent

Tutoring Systems look like?
As discussed in the first guiding question, the research suggests that the future of ITSs lies in the integration of
advanced technologies such as AI, generative AI, machine learning, and natural language processing to provide
more personalized and adaptive learning experiences. All studies predicted that they would shift from AI-
enabled to increasingly AI-powered, enhancing the ITSs’ abilities to understand and adapt to learners. Besides
generative AI, Renz and Vladova (2021) reported that ITSs will likely focus on human-centered AI, enhancing
human capabilities alongside AI technology. Additionally, emerging technologies, including virtual reality,
augmented reality, robots/avatars, and voice assistants, will likely play crucial roles in the next generation of
these systems. Emphasis on remote and online learning, inclusion and equity, and gamification have also been
reported. Jing et al. (2023) concluded that ITSs will continually evolve as new technologies come out.

Wang et al. (2020) indicated that AI-powered virtual reality (VR) applications provide immersive learning
environments where students can explore complex concepts and engage in active learning virtually. Qian Cao
et al. (2022) reported that the use of VR in teaching has become possible due to advancements in technology,
and these VR systems now offer high simulation degree scenes for vivid reproduction of real-life scenarios. It
makes learning experiences feel like real life and provides students with hands-on experiences that are not
possible in traditional classrooms. They continued that theories like constructivism and self-regulated learning
have influenced the development of virtual teaching systems and the utilization of VR in ITSs. Nagaraj et al.
(2023) found that the integration of ITSs, AI models, and the Metaverse (a virtual environment), holds great
potential for transforming education by delivering personalized learning experiences, fostering collaboration,
and providing timely feedback. However, it is noted that challenges include designing effective AI algorithms
and ensuring realistic virtual simulations. Additionally, Kumar et al. (2023) found that the latest ITSs can even
work in virtual worlds like the Metaverse, while Abbas et al. (2023) pinpointed that the role of ITS has
expanded to include collaborative learning environments and virtual classrooms.

On the other hand, augmented reality (AR) can also be used to create immersive learning experiences, allowing
students to explore and analyze complex concepts within their own surroundings (Kamalov et al., 2023). It also
fosters student engagement with the authentic world. It bridges the gap between theory and practice, enabling
students to connect abstract concepts taught in the classroom with real-world applications (du Boulay, 2019).
Additionally, AR in ITS facilitates collaborative problem-solving and knowledge co-construction, promoting

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

social interaction, teamwork, and the development of critical thinking and communication skills (Alam &
Mohanty, 2023). The integration of augmented reality and virtual reality in ITSs promotes active learning
experiences and has the potential to enhance engagement, comprehension, and collaboration, leading to
improved learning outcomes and a more enriched educational journey. Therefore, it is safe to say both virtual
reality and augmented reality will likely play a significant role in creating immersive and personalized learning
environments within the next generation of ITSs.

Robots are being used in ITSs to facilitate students’ learning experiences and allow them to acquire knowledge
in interactive ways (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Educational robots, including programming robots and
social robots, are commonly used in STEM education as instructional tools or educational subjects, and avatars
are being utilized as a form of AI assistance (Xu & Fan, 2022). Programming robots allow learners to design
and operate them with programming languages, while social robots, such as intelligent humanoid robots, serve
as tutors or learning companions to students, allowing them to interact orally and physically (Wang et al.,
2020). These AI-supported robots in STEM education provide opportunities to convey knowledge, promote
students’ operational skills, and enhance their learning experience (Kamalov et al., 2023). Additionally, the
design of ITSs now includes human-like avatars and gamification to make learning more engaging (Bahroun et
al., 2023), and these avatars can take on anthropomorphic forms or appear as text prompts, depending on the
design and purpose of the ITS (Nagaraj et al., 2023). The role of avatars in ITSs aligns with the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) concept, where students can rapidly develop with assistance (Crompton &
Burke, 2023). Besides, voice assistants can help students develop soft skills by engaging in meaningful
conversations and asking thought-provoking questions that promote critical thinking (Gupta & Chen, 2022).
The use of voice agents in ITSs expands the capabilities of chatbots and provides opportunities for
personalized and inclusive learning environments (du Boulay, 2019). Overall, AI avatars, robots, and voice
assistants are increasingly incorporated in ITSs to provide timely support, consider students’ abilities and
preferences, and tailor strategies for learning. However, widespread adoption or usage in everyday educational
settings may still be far away due to the emerging nature and high cost of these technologies.

The integration of games with adaptive learning and ITSs has become a key approach for engaging young
learners, and they not only enhance students’ performance but also improve their attitudes and self-efficacy
(Jing et al., 2023). Game-based tutoring systems have been found to positively impact learning outcomes, with
increased engagement and improved problem-solving skills (Crompton & Burke, 2023). ITSs, combined with
AI, can further enhance the gamification experience by personalizing educational activities and strategies based
on learners’ characteristics and needs (Alkhatlan & Kalita, 2019). As a result, the integration of games in ITSs
offers innovative and engaging educational interactions beyond traditional teaching methods.

It is likely that ITSs will continue to evolve to increasingly support remote and online learning, inclusion, and
equity. Future ITSs could be more available, helping students everywhere, and they may focus on being fair
and safe for all users (Kumar et al., 2023). Advances in technology could make these systems available all the

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

time, helping students whenever they need it (Gupta & Chen, 2022). ITSs could become more widely
available, helping students all over the world (Qian Cao et al., 2022). Remote and online learning in ITSs
provides access to quality education in remote or underserved areas, reaching students who may not have
access to traditional educational resources (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Also, it saves time and cost by
automating certain aspects of instruction and support, reducing the need for one-on-one tutoring (Wang et al.,
2020).

Additionally, remote learning in ITSs allows for multimodal learning, incorporating various forms of
multimedia such as videos, interactive simulations, and virtual environments to engage students and enhance
their learning experience (Nagaraj et al., 2023). Lastly, it employs cognitive techniques like spaced repetition
and Cognitive Load Theory to promote long-term retention of knowledge and skills (Kamalov et al., 2023).
These make remote and online learning in ITSs a valuable tool for providing equitable and effective education
today and in the future.

3.4 Guiding question 4: What are the opportunities and limitations of AI-
powered tutors to complement the role of human tutors?
Intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) can complement human tutors by providing personalized instruction and
support to learners (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Future ITSs will use AI not just to adapt and predict but also
to explain why certain learning methods work; they will get better at giving advice that learners will actually
want to follow (Rosé et al. 2019). ITSs have evolved to use multimedia to present information and motivate
students (Alkhatlan & Kalita, 2019). By simulating human tutoring and adapting to individual learning
preferences, pace, and preferences, ITSs enhance learner engagement, boost learning outcomes, and offer
immediate and targeted assistance (Shi et al., 2022). While human tutors bring their expertise and interpersonal
skills, ITSs leverage AI algorithms to provide tailored instruction and guidance, optimizing the learning
process for each learner (Kumar et al., 2023). Furthermore, AI in tutoring systems has evolved to support
collaborative and social learning, and AI will help make sure that the way learners are taught is fair and good
for everyone (Nagaraj et al., 2023). Therefore, the combination of human tutors and ITSs can create a
comprehensive and effective learning environment.

In contrast, ITSs have limitations compared to human tutors. One limitation is that ITSs may lack the ability to
conduct natural language dialogues with learners, understand the subject being taught, and accept unanticipated
responses (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). They may also struggle to understand the nature of students’ mistakes
or misconceptions and cannot profit from experience with learners or experiment with teaching strategies. It
was noted that ITSs were less effective than human tutoring but outperformed other instruction methods, such
as traditional classroom instruction or homework assignments (Wang et al., 2020). Another limitation is the
potential lack of empathy and appropriate response in sensitive situations, as AI systems may not have the
same level of understanding of human interaction, emotions, and context as human tutors (Shi et al., 2022).
Similarly, ethical decision-making in AI integration involves considering the potential risks and unintended

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

consequences associated with the use of AI systems, which requires ongoing monitoring and evaluation by
educators (Nagaraj et al., 2023). Ethical issues are becoming a big concern as AI uses lots of data and personal
information to operate. There will be a greater emphasis on the ethical use of data and protecting learner
privacy, and in some cases, human oversight is crucial to provide the necessary support and guidance that AI
systems may not be equipped with. Thus, the development of ITSs should prioritize human values and dignity
to ensure the responsible implementation of AI in educational settings (Renz & Vladova, 2021).

ITSs will likely continue to grow and become more common in higher education (Crompton & Burke, 2023).
Despite their potential, the actual use of ITSs in education, especially in developing countries, is still low,
mainly because ITSs are still new to many educators, and there is a general distrust towards AI technology
(Wang et al., 2020). Trust in the technology and how well it works with current teaching methods are important
for educators and instructors to recognize ITSs’ advantages and decide how to use them (Wang et al., 2020).
Research is being done to find out what makes educators want to use these AI-powered systems. Thus, ITSs
could become better at working with teachers to help learners (Kamalov et al., 2023) instead of focusing on
individual learners. Future ITSs could involve more teacher-AI collaboration, where teachers input their
expertise into the system (Renz & Vladova, 2021). ITSs will likely continue to blend with traditional teaching,
supporting teachers rather than replacing them (du Boulay, 2019). Thus, as we move forward, ensuring that
ITSs complement, rather than replace, the essential role of human tutors is essential.

4. Discussion and conclusion

There is a lack of research regarding AI applications in education settings, especially on whether generative AI
can effectively advance intelligent tutoring and begin a new era of AI-powered effective tutors. Considering
that there are industry efforts like Khanmigo (Khan Academy, 2023), an AI-powered tutor, which is a
collaboration between Khan Academy and OpenAI (see Figure 3), and Socratic (Google, 2018), a learning app
powered by Google AI (see Figure 4), the purpose of this study was to investigate deeper into the possibilities,
challenges, and implications of using AI-powered tutors, previously known as intelligent tutor systems (ITSs).

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Figure 3: Example of a Khanmigo use case (Khan Academy, 2023)

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Figure 4: Examples of a Socratic by Google use case (Google, 2018)

This systematic literature review extensively explores ITSs and their evolution, current, and potential use in
higher education STEM disciplines. It also discusses how the possible integration of generative AI into ITSs
marks a transformative leap in teaching and learning and its advantages and disadvantages. The main questions
that guided this review were:

1. How have intelligent tutoring systems evolved in the last five years (2018-2023)?
2. How effective are the current available AI-powered tutors?
3. What could the next generation of intelligent tutoring systems look like?
4. What are the opportunities and limitations of AI-powered tutors to complement the role of human tutors?

The research identified five prominent themes regarding the evolution of ITSs in the last five years: 1)
integration of AI; 2) personalized and adaptive learning; 3) learning analytics; 4) inclusion and equity; and 5)
STEM disciplines. In particular, it was found that ITSs are one of the key applications of AI technologies in
education. Moreover, students who receive personalized instruction through AI-powered ITSs have
demonstrated higher levels of engagement, improved academic performance, and increased knowledge
retention compared to traditional classroom settings. A recent study (Niño-Rojas et al., 2024) examining trends

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

in ITSs for mathematics teaching and learning in secondary and higher education found that ITSs improved
academic performance by 37.2% and student learning by 18.6%, respectively. Such suggests that ITSs are
effective in higher education STEM discipline settings.

Studies reviewed show that emerging technologies, including virtual reality, augmented reality, robots/avatars,
and voice assistants, will likely play crucial roles in the next generation of these systems. Additionally,
emphasis on online and remote learning, gamification, inclusion, and equity aspects were identified. The
research suggests that combining human tutors and ITSs can create a more comprehensive and effective
learning environment rather than solely relying on ITSs or human tutors. However, the findings suggest a
limitation: AI systems may not have the same level of understanding of human interaction. Therefore, ethical
issues are becoming a big concern due to the enormous data usage of AI, specifically personal and other
sensitive information. It is anticipated that the ethical use of data and the protection of learner privacy will
receive more attention, but it is unclear how they will be addressed. In some situations, human oversight may
be essential to provide AI systems the assistance and direction they may lack. Additionally, ITSs are still new
to many educators, and there is a general distrust toward AI technology. Due to these limitations, a low
adoption rate of ITSs has been reported, and long-term studies are scarce, but it is necessary to explore how
these issues will evolve or be addressed.

4.1 Future research

Although the term intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) has been used for decades, the combination of generative
AI and ITSs is still in its infancy, considering ChatGPT’s public release in November 2022. As discussed
earlier, more longitudinal research is needed to fully understand the long-term effectiveness and impact of
generative AI-powered ITSs on learning outcomes, as well as the adoption, general attitude, and trust of
educators and learners toward this technology. Additionally, more research is needed to fully understand the
effectiveness of generative AI-powered ITSs in different educational contexts besides STEM and with various
emerging technology integrations such as virtual/augmented reality, robots, and voice assistants.

In conclusion, since the future of education is undoubtedly AI-augmented, this systematic literature review
evaluates how crucial it is to responsibly harness generative AI and ITSs. As we move forward, ensuring that
ITSs complement, rather than replace, the essential role of human tutors is vital. While the rise of generative
AI in education presents transformative potential, it is also essential to maintain a balance. Human connection,
mentorship, and collaboration remain vital to fostering critical and analytical thinking, creativity, and
communication skills. Therefore, as ITSs and AI-based tools become more prevalent, they should complement
—not replace—the rich, interpersonal elements of learning that have always been the core of education.
Together, human-to-human interaction and AI can create a more holistic and future-ready learning environment.

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

4.2 Limitations of this review

Most studies selected for this systematic review are secondary research, not primary, which is one of the
limitations of this review. Although secondary research data can be insightful, relying solely on pre-existing
information may restrict the study and limit the exploration of new perspectives. Additionally, this study
focused exclusively on peer-reviewed journal articles. Other forms of scholarly publications, such as non-peer-
reviewed journal articles, book chapters, reports, dissertations, conference proceedings, blog posts, industry
insights, and forecasts, may have provided more valuable and cutting-edge information because generative AI
is an emerging technology that is still being actively developed and experimented with. Third, conducting a
review in educational settings other than higher education might yield different results, considering the existing
AI tutors like Khanmigo (Khan Academy, 2023) are mainly designed for children under 18 years. As a result,
future research could focus more on primary research while also expanding to other forms of literature in the
literature review and possibly exploring other educational settings. More primary data collection presents the
possibility to capture real-time nuances and contextual details that could enhance the overall strength of the
study.

4.3 Implications for practice

The findings from this systematic literature review highlight the next generation of ITSs, leveraging generative
AI and other emerging technologies such as virtual reality, augmented reality, robots/avatars, and voice
assistants. These innovations not only improve instructional delivery but also help make learning experiences
more immersive and engaging. The emphasis has also been placed on remote and online learning, inclusion
and equity, and gamification. These insights contribute to the ongoing research and development process,
aiming to refine these systems to be more intuitive, context-aware, fair, and responsive to diverse learners and
their individual needs. As education becomes increasingly digital, these elements are critical to ensuring that
AI-powered systems meet the diverse needs of students, regardless of location, socioeconomic background, or
learning preferences.

The adoption of AI is accelerating in higher education. According to Microsoft (2020), 99.4% of 509 higher
education institutions surveyed in the U.S. believe that AI will be essential to their institution’s
competitiveness, with 54% already experimenting with it. Complementing this, the World Economic Forum
(2023) Future of Jobs Report projects that by 2027, AI and automation will transform the nature of education,
fostering new learning models that emphasize problem-solving, creativity, and adaptive thinking. The report
highlights how AI-powered systems in higher education could drive significant shifts in pedagogy, enabling
universities to deliver more personalized, data-driven, and scalable learning experiences, resulting in a growth
of jobs in higher education.

Consequently, the findings of this literature review may help shape policies that address the ethical and
practical implementation of AI-powered tutoring and teaching systems in higher education. They highlight the

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and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

need to address the ethical challenges associated with AI-powered tutoring and teaching systems, including
issues related to data privacy, algorithmic bias, and equitable access.

However, it is essential to acknowledge that generative AI is still largely experimental and developing at an
unexpectedly rapid pace. The future remains uncertain, but generative AI will either be utilized or at least
attempted to be incorporated in nearly every facet of education. The potential of AI to revolutionize learning
environments, enhance accessibility, and offer personalized experiences is here. It is up to us to use it
adequately and for the public good. Yet, the historical skepticism of education systems towards the rapid
adoption of new technologies, particularly AI, emphasizes the need for ongoing research and thoughtful
policymaking as we move toward an AI-enhanced educational future.

Disclaimer
Using company names and/or any mention or listing of particular commercial products or services herein is
purely for educational purposes and to better illustrate the authors’ point of view. The authors do not endorse,
nor do they discriminate against, comparable products or services that are not mentioned.

About the authors

Batzaya (Zack) Batsaikhan, College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, United States of America.

Batzaya (Zack) Batsaikhan is a doctoral student of Learning Technologies

at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, United States. He
earned his M.Sc. in Human-Computer Interaction from Iowa State
University on a Fulbright Scholarship and has over ten years of industry
experience in designing and implementing human-centered digital
products and services. His current research interests include
entrepreneurship in learning technologies, learner experience design,
applications of emerging technologies in education (AI/AR/VR), and
human-computer interaction.
Batzaya (Zack) Batsaikhan
Email: batsaikhan.6@osu.edu

ORCID: 0009-0002-7506-4271

Website: https://www.batzaya.net

Ana-Paula Correia, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, United States of America.

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Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning • Issue 4.1 Generative AI The e ects of Generative Arti cial Intelligence on Intelligent
and education Tutoring Systems in higher education: A systematic review

Ana-Paula Correia, Ph.D., is a Professor of Learning Technologies and

the Director of the Center on Education and Training for Employment at
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States. Her research
is focused on learning technologies, learning design, human-computer
interaction, and artificial intelligence in education and training. Her work
has been published in over 100 refereed papers and book chapters.

Email: correia.12@osu.edu

ORCID: 0000-0003-0806-7835 Ana-Paula Correia, Ph.D.

Website: https://www.ana-paulacorreia.com

Article information
Article type: Full paper, double-blind peer review.

Publication history: Received: 16 July 2024. Revised: 14 October 2024. Accepted: 14 October 2024. Online:
28 October 2024.

Cover image: Badly Disguised Bligh via flickr.

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