Computer Basics Computer Memory

This Chapter deals with hardware, software, data representation and Boolean logic. • To save data and instructions, memory is required.
Let us discuss them one by one. • Memory is divided into cells, and they are stored in the storage space present in the
computer.
1. Hardware
• Every cell has its unique location/address.
• Computer hardware includes the physical
• Memory is essential for a computer as this is the way it becomes somewhat more
parts of a computer, such as the central
similar to a human brain.
processing unit (CPU), random access
• Following are the type of memories.
memory (RAM), motherboard, computer
data storage, graphics card, sound card,
and computer case.
• It includes external devices such as a monitor, mouse, keyboard, and speakers.

CPU
• A CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the primary component of any computer or
electronic device.
• It is responsible for carrying out the instructions given to it by the user.
• The CPU acts as the “brain” of the computer. It reads and interprets commands
from software programs and uses them to control other components within the RAM
machine. • RAM stands for Random Access Memory, which is a type of computer memory
a. Elements of a CPU that stores data temporarily for quick access by the CPU.
• Control Unit (CU) • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) • RAM is essential for a computer to run applications and open files.
• Registers • Cache • It is a form of electronic computer memory that can be read and changed in any
• Bus Interface Unit (BIU) • Instruction Decoder order, typically used to store working data and machine code.
b. Functions of a CPU • A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost
• Fetching Instructions • Decoding Instructions the same amount of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside.
• Executing Instructions • Managing Registers
• Controlling Program Flow
• Handling Interrupts
• Managing Caches
• Coordinating with Other System Components
• Arithmetic and Logic Operations
• Virtual Memory Management • RAM is further divided into two types, SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
• I/O Operations and DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory.

SRAM (Static Random Access memory)

• It is called read only memory as we can only read the programs and data stored on
• The function of SRAM is that it provides a direct interface with the Central
it but cannot write on it.
Processing Unit at higher speeds.
• It is restricted to reading words that are permanently stored within the unit.
• SRAM is used as the Cache memory inside the computer.
• The manufacturer of ROM fills the programs into the ROM at the time of
• SRAM is known to be the fastest among all memories.
manufacturing the ROM. After this, the content of the ROM can't be altered.
• SRAM is costlier.
• SRAM has a lower density (number of memory cells per unit area).
• The power consumption of SRAM is less but when it is operated at higher
frequencies, the power consumption of SRAM is compatible with DRAM.

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access memory)

• The function of DRAM is that it is used for programming code by a computer
processor in order to function.
• It is used in our PCs (Personal Computers).
• DRAM is used as the Main Memory inside the computer.
• DRAM is known to be a fast memory but not as fast as SRAM.
• DRAM is cheaper as compared to SRAM.
• DRAM has a higher density (number of memory cells per unit area).
• The power consumption by DRAM is more.

SRAM DRAM
SRAM stand for Static Random DRAM stand for Dynamic Random
Access memory Access memory
More power is required Less power is required
More expensive Less expensive
Faster Slower Storage Devices:
HDD/SSD
ROM
• A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile data storage device.
• ROM, which stands for read only memory, is a memory device or storage medium
• Non-volatile refers to storage devices that maintain stored data when turned off.
that stores information permanently.
• All computers need a storage device, and HDDs are just one example of a type of
• It is also the primary memory unit of a computer along with the random access
storage device.
memory (RAM).
• HDDs are usually installed inside desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer
electronics and enterprise storage arrays in data centers.
• They can store operating systems, software programs and other files using magnetic
disks.
• The disk is divided into tracks.
• Each track is further divided into sectors.
• The point to be noted here is that the outer
tracks are bigger than the inner tracks but
they contain the same number of sectors
and have equal storage capacity.
• The read-write (R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk.
• It is this Read-Write head that performs all the read and write operations on the disk
and hence, the position of the R-W head is a major concern.
• To perform a read or write operation on a memory location, we need to place the R-W Input / Output Devices
head over that position.
Input Device
• An input device is a computer device or hardware that allows the user to provide
SSD
data, input, and instructions to the computer system.
• An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers.
• Examples of input devices include
• This non-volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory.
keyboards, computer mice, scanners,
• Unlike traditional hard disk drives (HDDs), SSDs have no moving parts, allowing them
cameras, joysticks, and microphones.
to deliver faster data access speeds, reduced latency, increased resistance to physical
shock, lower power consumption, and silent operation.
• Solid state drives (SSDs) use a combination of NAND flash memory technology and
advanced controller algorithms.
• NAND flash memory is the primary storage component, divided into blocks and
pages.
Output Device
• An SSD contains a controller chip that manages data storage, retrieval, and
• An output device is a hardware component of a computer system that displays
optimization.
information to users.
• Some common examples of output devices are:
Monitor/Display, Printer, Speakers,
Headphones/Earphones, Projectors,
Plotters, Braille Display, Digital
Signage Display, Touch-screens, etc.

2. Software • Examples of Windows operating systems are as follows.

• An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP, Windows vista, Windows 7, Windows 8
computer by a boot program, manages all the other application programs in a Windows 10
computer.
• It is a program that acts as an interface between the system hardware and the user. Linux
• Some of the types of Operating System are: • Linux is a free, open-source operating system (OS) that is used for computers,
• Batch OS – A set of similar jobs are stored in the main memory for execution. A servers, mobile devices, and more.
job gets assigned to the CPU, only when the execution of the previous job • It is known for its compatibility with many hardware and software platforms, and
completes. is a popular choice for servers. It was released in 1991.
• Multiprogramming OS – The main memory consists of jobs waiting for CPU time. • The Linux Operating System is a type of operating system that is similar to Unix,
The OS selects one of the processes and assigns it to the CPU. Whenever the and it is built upon the Linux Kernel.
executing process needs to wait for any other operation (like I/O), the OS selects • The Linux Kernel is like the brain of the operating system because it manages how
another process from the job queue and assigns it to the CPU. This way, the CPU is the computer interacts with its hardware and resources.
never kept idle and the user gets the flavor of getting multiple tasks done at once. • It makes sure everything works smoothly and efficiently.
• Multitasking OS – Multitasking OS combines the benefits of Multiprogramming OS
and CPU scheduling to perform quick switches between jobs. The switch is so quick
that the user can interact with each program as it runs
• Time Sharing OS – Time-sharing systems require interaction with the user to
instruct the OS to perform various tasks. The OS responds with an output. The
instructions are usually given through an input device like the keyboard.
• Real Time OS – Real-Time OS are usually built for dedicated systems to
accomplish a specific set of tasks within deadlines.
• Examples of Operating Systems are Windows, Linux, macOS, Android, iOS, etc.

Windows
• The Windows Operating System (OS) is one of the most popular and widely used • Advantages of Linux include
operating systems in the world. • The main advantage of Linux is it is an open-source operating system. This means
• Windows Operating System (OS) is a graphical user interface (GUI) based the source code is easily available for everyone and you are allowed to contribute,
operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation. modify and distribute the code to anyone without any permission.
• It is designed to provide users with a user-friendly interface to interact with their • The software updates in Linux are easy and frequent.
computers. • Various Linux distributions are available so that you can use them according to
• The first version of the Windows Operating System was introduced in 1985, and your requirements or according to your taste.
since then, it has undergone many updates and upgrades. • Linux is freely available to use on the internet.
• It provides high stability. System Software
• It maintains the privacy of the user.
• System software refers to the low-level software that manages and controls a
• The performance of the Linux system is much higher than other operating
computer’s hardware and provides basic services to higher-level software.
systems.
• There are two main types of software: systems software and application software.
• The flexibility of Linux is high.
• Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the
• Linux is compatible with a large number of file formats.
computer itself, such as the operating system, file management utilities, and disk
• It is fast and easy to install from the web. It can also install it on any hardware
operating system (or DOS).
even on your old computer system.
• It performs all tasks properly even if it has limited space on the hard disk.

macOS
• macOS is Apple's operating system for Mac computers.
• It's the second most used desktop operating system in the world, after Microsoft
Windows.
• macOS is designed to work with the hardware of Apple devices, and it includes a
suite of apps, iCloud integration, and privacy and security features.
• It is developed and marketed by Apple since 2001.
• Some of the features of macOS include:
• User Friendly Interface: The window and menu that makeup macOS user friendly
interface which make it simple to navigate and find the information you need.
• Built in Apps: In macOS so many apps are pre-installed like Mail for email and
Photos for picture management. similarly, safari is used for online browsing is
also pre installed in it. Application Software
• The term “application software” refers to software that performs specific
functions for a user.
• When a user interacts directly with a piece of software, it is called application
software.
• The sole purpose of application software is to assist the user in doing specified
tasks.
• Microsoft Word and Excel, as well as popular web browsers like Firefox and
Google Chrome, are examples of application software.

Bits and Bytes

• A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data that a computer can process and
store.
• It's short for "binary digit" and is the fundamental building block of all digital
computing and communication systems.
• It is used for storing information and has a value of true/false or on/off.
• An individual bit has a value of either 0 or 1.
• A group of 8 bits is called a byte.
• A group of 4 bits is called a nibble.

Data Representation
Binary Number System
• Binary Number System uses two digits, 0 and 1, and is the foundation for all Data encoding
modern computing. • Data encoding is the process of converting data into a format that can be processed
• The word binary is derived from the word “bi” which means two. by computers and other systems.
• Binary Number System is the number system in which we use two digits “0” and “1” • Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to extract the information from
to perform all the necessary operations. the converted format.
• In the Binary Number System, we have a base of 2. a. ASCII:
• The base of the Binary Number System is also called the radix of the number • ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most common
system. character encoding format for text data in computers and on the internet.
• In standard ASCII-encoded data, there are unique values for 128 alphabetic,
numeric or special additional characters and control codes.
• It is a 7-bit character code where each individual bit represents a unique character.
b. Unicode:
• Unicode is an international character encoding standard that provides a unique
number for every character across languages and scripts.
• Unicode uses two encoding forms: 8-bit and 16-bit.
• The default encoding form is 16-bit, where each character is 16 bits (2 bytes) wide.
• It is basically a text encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium
designed to support the use of text in all of the world's writing systems that can be
digitized.
Boolean logic
Applications of Logic Gates
Logic Gates
• Logic gates are used in digital computers to perform arithmetic, logical, and control
• Logic Gates are the fundamental building blocks in digital electronics.
functions.
• By combining different logic gates complex operations are performed and circuits
• In memory devices, logic gates are used to implement memory cells to store digital
like flip-flop, counters, and processors are designed.
data in the form of bits.
• Logic Gates are designed by using electrical components like diodes, transistors,
• Logic gates are used in manufacturing microprocessors and microcontrollers.
resistors, and more.
• In systems used in the digital signal processing, the logic gates play an important
role to perform various operations such as modulation, filtering, algorithm execution,
etc.
• Logic gates are also used in digital communication systems to perform functions
like encoding, decoding, signal processing, etc.
• In control systems, logic gates are used to manage and control the operations of
machinery.
• Logic gates are also used to implement automated operation of security systems.

Truth Tables

Computer Networks
Local Area Network (LAN):
• A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to
• LAN is the most frequently used network.
share information (data) and resources.
• A LAN is a computer network that connects computers through a common
• The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to
communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally.
communicate more easily.
• A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server.
• A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
• The two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi.
together.
• It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and
• A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media.
low cost.
• Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
• Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college,
Network Basics office, etc.
Types of Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks

Personal Area Network (PAN)

• It is a type of network designed to connect devices within a short range, typically
around one person.
• It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables,
to communicate and share data with each other. Campus Area Network (CAN):
• PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing • CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN.
communication. • This is a type of computer network that is usually used in places like a school or
• Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. colleges.
• This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. • This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several
• Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc. buildings within the campus.
• CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km to 5km.
• Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate
cost.
• Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
• WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path.
• It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations.
• WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with
each other with a range above 50km.
• Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology.
• Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very
high cost.
• The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

• A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
• This is the type of computer network that connects computers over a geographical
distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan
area.
• This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range
from 5km to 50km.
• Its transmission speed is average. Comparison between different Computer Networks:
• It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
• Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area
within multiple buildings, etc.

Network Topologies Star Topology

Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology • In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
Network Topologies
• Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Point to Point Mesh Star Bus Ring Tree Hybrid
Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology Topology

Point to Point Topology

• Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the
sender and receiver.
• It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and
the other one is the receiver.
• Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Bus Topology
• Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable.
• It is bi-directional.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
Mesh Topology fails the topology crashes.
• In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular • In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by
channel. LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
• Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels.
• These channels are known as links.
• In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols),
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
Ring Topology Hybrid Topology
• In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring • Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
devices. studied above.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, • Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring • It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to combination of various types of topologies seen above.
reach the 100th node. • Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.
• Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called
Dual Ring Topology.
• In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.

Network Protocols
• A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between
different devices in the network.
• It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when
it is being communicated.
• It permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of
internal and structural differences. Let us discuss some of the Network
Tree Topology Protocols.
• Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology.
• This topology has a hierarchical flow of data.
TCP/IP
• In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
The TCP/IP reference model is divided into four layers.
Configuration) are used.
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Internet or Network layer
• Network Access Layer/Link layer
Each layer has different responsibilities, and all work together for successful
communication across networks.

Layer 1: Application layer Layer 4: Network Access layer

• The application layer deals with communication between the sender and the • Finally, the network access layer is a group of applications that need network
receiver. communications.
• It ensures that the data reaches the receiver error-free and protects the upper-layer • This layer generates data that is transmitted and requests connections for those
applications from data complexity. transmissions.
• It also defines the transmission medium and method of communication between two
Layer 2: Transport layer devices.
• When data travels from one device to another, it splits into groups called packets.
• Each data packet is a specific size. HTTP
• They must all arrive at their destination and reassemble to form the full message • HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a fundamental protocol of the Internet,
sent. enabling the transfer of data between a client and a server.
• The transport layer exchanges data receipt acknowledgments and retransmits • It is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.
missing data packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without being • HTTP provides a standard between a web browser and a web server to establish
corrupted. communication.
• The model uses two protocols at the transport layer: TCP and UDP. • It is a set of rules for transferring data from one computer to another.
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, and it transmits data in a way that • Data such as text, images, and other multimedia files are shared on the World Wide
appears more like character-by-character transmission than division into Web.
packets. Using TCP, devices can communicate with each other as though they
were physically connected in a circuit.

• UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol, and it provides a delivery service for
datagrams - a specific type of packet used by some devices. Devices use UDP
when they need to send a smaller amount of data because it eliminates the process
of validating a connection between the devices. Key Points
• Basic Structure: HTTP forms the foundation of the web, enabling data
Layer 3: Network layer communication and file sharing.
• The network layer defines protocols that head the logical data transmission over a • Web Browsing: Most websites use HTTP, so when you click on a link or download a
network. file, HTTP is at work.
• The first is IP, or Internet Protocol, which looks at the headers of each data packet • Client-Server Model: HTTP works on a request-response system. Your browser
and reads the IP address listed on it. That is the packet’s destination, and the IP (client) asks for information, and the website’s server responds with the data.
protocol then delivers the packet to the device with that address. • Application Layer Protocol: HTTP operates within the Internet Protocol Suite,
• The second protocol is ICMP, Internet Control Message Protocol, which provides managing how data is transmitted and received.
people with information about network problems they are experiencing.
• The final protocol is ARP, Address Resolution Protocol, which finds the device's
hardware address using its known IP address.
FTP DNS
• FTP or File Transfer Protocol is said to be one of the earliest and also the most • The Domain Name System (DNS) is like the internet’s phone book.
common forms of transferring files on the internet. • It helps you find websites by translating easy-to-remember names (like www.example.com)
• Located in the application layer of the OSI model, FTP is a basic system that helps into the numerical IP addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to locate each other on

in transferring files between a client and a server. the internet.

• Without DNS, you would have to remember long strings of numbers to visit your favorite
• FTP is especially useful for:
websites.
➢Transferring Large Files: FTP can transfer large files in one shot; thus applicable
• Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for
when hosting websites, backing up servers, or sharing files in large quantities.
people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the
➢Remote File Management: Files on a remote server can be uploaded, downloaded,
domain name to the IP address.
deleted, renamed, and copied according to the users’ choices. • So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to their numerical IP address.
➢Automating File Transfers: FTP is a great protocol for the execution of file transfers
on predefined scripts and employments.
➢Accessing Public Files: Anonymous FTP means that everybody irrespective of the
identity is allowed to download some files with no permissions needed.

SMTP
• Simple Mail Transfer mechanism (SMTP) is a mechanism for exchanging email
messages between servers.
• It is an essential component of the email communication process and operates at the Internet Technologies
application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
WWW
• SMTP is a protocol for transmitting and receiving email messages.
The World Wide Web (WWW), often called the Web, is a system of interconnected
• SMTP is an application layer protocol.
webpages and information that you can access using the Internet.
• The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to the SMTP server
• It was created to help people share and find information easily, using links that
and then sends the mail across the connection.
connect different pages together.
• The SMTP server is an always-on listening mode.
• The Web allows us to browse websites, watch videos, shop online, and connect with
• As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process
others around the world through our computers and phones.
initiates a connection through port 25.
• WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web.
• After successfully establishing a TCP connection the client process sends the mail
• The WWW was started by CERN in 1989.
instantly.
• WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing
different information shared via local servers (or computers).

EMAIL • Reporting – Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help user to
• Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of exchanging messages check whether their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
over the internet. • Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
• Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. • Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do after
• This service allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to receiving mail i.e save mail, delete before reading or delete after reading.
the other Internet user in any part of world.
• Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains images, audio and videos
data.
SEARCH ENGINES
• Search engines are programs that allow users to search and retrieve information
• The person who is sending mail is called sender and person who receives mail is
from the vast amount of content available on the internet.
called recipient.
• They use algorithms to index and rank web pages based on relevance to a user’s
• It is just like postal mail service.
query, providing a list of results for users to explore.
Here are the basics of email:
• Popular search engines include Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
1. An email address: This is a unique identifier for each user, typically in the format of
name@domain.com. (Eg. - prashantverma335@gmail.com) Usage of Search Engine
2. An email client: This is a software program used to send, receive and manage Search engines have so many usages
emails, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Apple Mail. and some of them are
3. An email server: This is a computer system responsible for storing and forwarding • Searching for information

emails to their intended recipients. • Searching images and videos

• Searching people
To send an email:
• Entertainment
1. Compose a new message in your email client.
• Education
2. Enter the recipient’s email address in the “To” field.
3. Add a subject line to summarize the content of the message. Cloud Computing
4. Write the body of the message.
• Cloud Computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on remote servers
5. Attach any relevant files if needed. that are hosted on the internet instead of the computer’s hard drive or local server.
6. Click “Send” to deliver the message to the recipient’s email server. • Cloud computing is also referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a technology where
7. Emails can also include features such as cc (carbon copy) and bcc (blind carbon the resource is provided as a service through the Internet to the user.
copy) to send copies of the message to multiple recipients, and reply, reply all, and • The data that is stored can be files, images, documents, or any other storable document.
forward options to manage the conversation. • The following are some of the Operations that can be performed with Cloud Computing
Services provided by E-mail system: •Storage, backup, and recovery of data

• Composition – The composition refer to process that creates messages and •Delivery of software on demand
•Development of new applications and services
answers. For composition any kind of text editor can be used.
•Streaming videos and audio
• Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to
recipient.
Network Security Antivirus Software:
• Antivirus software (computer protection software) is a program(s) that is created to
Firewalls:
search, detect, prevent and remove software viruses from your system that can harm your
• A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which
system.
monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules
• Other harmful software such as worms, adware, and other threats can also be detected
accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic.
and removed via antivirus.
• It filters incoming and outgoing network traffic with security policies that have previously
• This software is designed to be used as a proactive approach to cyber security, preventing
been set up inside an organization.
threats from entering your computer and causing issues.
• A firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal network from the open
Internet at its very basic level.
The three most common types of cyber threats are:
• Before Firewalls, network security was performed by Access Control Lists (ACLs)
➢Malware
residing on routers. ACLs are rules that determine whether network access should be
➢spyware
granted or denied to specific IP address.
➢phishing
• But ACLs cannot determine the
nature of the packet it is blocking.
How Antivirus Works?
• Also, ACL alone does not have the
• Antivirus software works by comparing your computer applications and files to a
capacity to keep threats out of the network.
database of known malware kinds.
• Hence, the Firewall was introduced.
• Because hackers are continually creating and disseminating new viruses, they will also
check systems for the presence of new or undiscovered malware threats.
Advantages of Using Firewall
• The antivirus checks files, programs, and applications going in and out of your computer
• Protection From Unauthorized Access: Firewalls can be set up to restrict incoming
to its database to identify matches.
traffic from particular IP addresses or networks, preventing hackers or other malicious
• Similar and identical matches to the database are segregated, scanned, and eliminated.
actors from easily accessing a network or system. Protection from unwanted access.
• Prevention of Malware and Other Threats: Malware and other threat prevention:
Some commonly used antivirus softwares are:
Firewalls can be set up to block traffic linked to known malware or other security concerns,
1.Bitdefender
assisting in the defense against these kinds of attacks.
2.AVAST
• Control of Network Access: By limiting access to specified individuals or groups for
3.Panda
particular servers or applications, firewalls can be used to restrict access to particular
network resources or services.
Benefits of Antivirus Software
• Monitoring of Network Activity: Firewalls can be set up to record and keep track of all
• Spam and advertisements are blocked
network activity.
• Virus protection and transmission prevention
• Regulation Compliance: Many industries are bound by rules that demand the usage of
• Protection against hackers and data thieves
firewalls or other security measures.
• Protected against devices
• Network Segmentation: By using firewalls to split up a bigger network into smaller
• Password Protection
subnets, the attack surface is reduced and the security level is raised.

Data Encryption
Advantages of Data Encryption
• Data encryption is the process of converting readable information (plaintext) into an
• Data encryption keeps information distinct from the security of the device on which it is
unreadable format (ciphertext) to protect it from unauthorized access.
stored. Encryption provides security by allowing administrators to store and send data via
• It is a method of preserving data confidentiality by transforming it into ciphertext, which
insecure channels.
can only be decoded using a unique decryption key produced at the time of the encryption
• If the password or key is lost, the user will be unable to open the encrypted file. Using
or before it.
simpler keys in data encryption, on the other hand, makes the data insecure, and anybody
• The conversion of plaintext into
may access it at any time.
ciphertext is known as encryption.
• Encryption improves the security of our information.
• By using encryption keys and
mathematical algorithms, the data
is scrambled so that anyone
intercepting it without the proper
key cannot understand the contents.

Types of Data Encryption

1. Symmetric Key Encryption
There are a few strategies used in cryptography algorithms. For encryption and decryption
processes, some algorithms employ a unique key. In such operations, the unique key must be
secured since the system or person who knows the key has complete authentication to decode
the message for reading. This approach is known as “symmetric encryption” in the field of
network encryption.

2. Asymmetric Key Encryption

Some cryptography methods employ one key for data encryption and another key for data
decryption. As a result, anyone who has access to such a public communication will be unable
to decode or read it. This type of cryptography, known as “public-key” encryption, is used in
the majority of internet security protocols. The term “asymmetric encryption” is used to
describe this type of encryption.
 Databases Features of RDBMS
•Data must be stored in tabular form in DB file, that is, it should be organized in the
Database Concepts form of rows and columns.
•Each row of table is called record/tuple . Collection of such records is known as the
Relational databases
cardinality of the table
• A relational database (RDBMS) is a collection of data organized into tables with rows
•Each column of the table is called an attribute/field. Collection of such columns is
and columns.
called the arity of the table.
• It's a way to store and manage data in a structured way, making it easier to
•No two records of the DB table can be same. Data duplicity is therefore avoided by
understand how different data sets relate to each other.
using a candidate key. Candidate Key is a minimum set of attributes required to identify
• RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management Systems.
each record uniquely.
•Tables are related to each other with the help for foreign keys.
• The data in common databases is modeled in tables, making querying and processing
•Database tables also allow NULL values, that is if the values of any of the element of
efficient.
the table are not filled or are missing, it becomes a NULL value, which is not equivalent
• It is a program that allows us to create, delete, and update a relational database.
to zero. (NOTE: Primary key cannot have a NULL value).
• A Relational Database is a database system that stores and retrieves data in a
tabular format organized in the form of rows and columns.
• It is a smaller subset of DBMS which was designed by E.F Codd in the 1970s. SQL
• The major DBMSs like SQL, My-SQL, and ORACLE are all based on the principles •SQL, or Structured Query Language, is a programming language used to store,
of relational DBMS. retrieve, and manipulate data in relational databases.
•It is a standard Database language that is used to create, maintain, and retrieve the
relational database.
•SQL is a powerful language that can be used to carry out a wide range of operations
like insert ,delete and update.
SQL is mainly divided into four main categories:
1.Data definition language 2.Data manipulation language
3.Transaction control language 4.Data query language
Uses of SQL
•Data storage: SQL is used to store information in a database in tabular form, with
rows and columns representing different data attributes.
•Data retrieval: SQL is used to retrieve specific data items or a range of items from a
database.
•Data manipulation: SQL is used to add new data, remove or modify existing data.
•Access control: SQL is used to restrict a user's ability to retrieve, add, and modify
data.
•Data sharing: SQL is used to coordinate data sharing by concurrent users.

Components of a SQL System It is used to store, organize, and retrieve large amounts of data in an efficient and
A SQL system consists of several key components that work together to enable organized manner.
efficient data storage, retrieval, and manipulation. It allows users to create, modify, and query a database, as well as manage the security
Some of the Key components of a SQL System are: and access controls for that database.
•Databases: Databases are structured collections of data organized into tables, rows,
and columns. Characteristics of a DBMS:
•Tables: Tables are the fundamental building blocks of a database, consisting of rows •Data storage: DBMS uses a digital repository on a server to store and manage
(records) and columns (attributes or fields). information.
•Queries: Queries are SQL commands used to interact with databases. •Data manipulation: DBMS provides a logical and clear view of the process that
manipulates data.
Components of a SQL System •Data security: DBMS provides data security.
They enable users to retrieve, update, insert, or delete data from tables, allowing for •Data backup and recovery: DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery
efficient data manipulation and retrieval. procedures.
•Constraints: Constraints are rules applied to tables to maintain data integrity. •ACID properties: DBMS contains ACID properties that maintain data in a healthy
Constraints define conditions that data must meet to be stored in the database, state in case of failure.
ensuring accuracy and consistency. •Concurrency control: In multi-user environments, DBMS manages concurrent access
•Stored Procedures: Stored procedures are pre-compiled SQL statements stored in to the database to prevent conflicts and ensure data consistency.
the database.
•Transactions: Transactions are groups of SQL statements that are executed as a Types of DBMS
single unit of work. Transactions ensure data consistency and integrity by allowing for •Relational Database Management System RDBMS
the rollback of changes if any part of the transaction fails. •NoSQL DBMS
•Object-oriented database management system (OODBMS): This DBMS is based on
Characteristics of SQL the principles of object-oriented programming.
•User-Friendly and Accessible, Declarative Language •Hierarchical DBMS: This type of DBMS stores data in a parent-children relationship
•Efficient Database Management, Standardized Language node.
•SQL does not require a continuation character for multi-line queries, allowing •Multi-model DBMS: This system supports more than one database model.
flexibility in writing commands across one or multiple lines.
•Queries are executed using a termination character (e.g., a semicolon ;), enabling Application of Database
immediate and accurate command processing. •Banking: Manages accounts, transactions, and financial records.
•SQL includes a rich set of built-in functions for data manipulation, aggregation, and •Airlines: Handles bookings, schedules, and availability.
formatting, empowering users to handle diverse data-processing needs effectively. •E-commerce: Supports catalogs, orders, and secure transactions.
•Healthcare: Stores patient records and billing.
Database Management Systems (DBMS) •Education: Manages student data and course enrollments.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system that helps users •Telecom: Tracks call records and billing.
manage, create, define, and manipulate databases.
•Government: Maintains census and taxation data. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
•Social Media: Stores user profiles and posts efficiently.
includes most common SQL statements such SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, etc., and it is used to store, modify, retrieve, delete and update data in a
Key Features of DBMS
database.
•Data modeling: A DBMS provides tools for creating and modifying data models, which
Data query language(DQL) is the subset of “Data Manipulation Language”.
define the structure and relationships of the data in a database.
The most common command of DQL is SELECT statement. SELECT statement
•Data storage and retrieval: A DBMS is responsible for storing and retrieving data
helps in retrieving the data from the table without changing anything in the table.
from the database, and can provide various methods for searching and querying the
•SELECT: retrieve data from a database
data.
•INSERT: insert data into a table
•Data integrity and security: A DBMS provides tools for enforcing data integrity and
•UPDATE: updates existing data within a table
security constraints, such as constraints on the values of data and access controls
•DELETE: Delete all records from a database table
that restrict who can access the data.
•MERGE: UPSERT operation (insert or update)
•Backup and recovery: A DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up and recovering
•CALL: call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
the data in the event of a system failure.
•LOCK TABLE: concurrency Control

Database Languages
•Data Definition Language
Data Control Language (DCL)
•Data Manipulation Language DCL is short for Data Control Language which acts as an access specifier to the
•Data Control Language database. (basically to grant and revoke permissions to users in the database)
•Transactional Control Language •GRANT: grant permissions to the user for running DML(SELECT, INSERT,
DELETE,…) commands on the table
•REVOKE: revoke permissions to the user for running DML(SELECT, INSERT,
Data Definition Language (DDL)
DELETE,…) command on the specified table
DDL is the short name for Data Definition Language, which deals with database
schemas and descriptions, of how the data should reside in the database.
•CREATE: to create a database and its objects like (table, index, views, store
Transactional Control Language (TCL)
procedure, function, and triggers) TCL is short for Transactional Control Language which acts as an manager for
•ALTER: alters the structure of the existing database DROP: delete objects from the all types of transactional data and all transactions. Some of the command of
database TCL are
•TRUNCATE: remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the •Roll Back: Used to cancel or Undo changes made in the database
records are removed •Commit: It is used to apply or save changes in the database
•COMMENT: add comments to the data dictionary •Save Point: It is used to save the data on the temporary basis in the database
•RENAME: rename an object

Advantages of DBMS
•Data organization: A DBMS allows for the organization and storage of data in a
Data Structures
Some of the important data structures are as under:
structured manner, making it easy to retrieve and query the data as needed.
•Data integrity: A DBMS provides mechanisms for enforcing data integrity Arrays
constraints, such as constraints on the values of data and access controls that restrict Array is a collection of items of the same variable type that are stored at contiguous
who can access the data. memory locations.
•Concurrent access: A DBMS provides mechanisms for controlling concurrent access It is one of the most popular and simple data structures used in programming.
to the database, to ensure that multiple users can access the data without conflicting
with each other. Basic terminologies of Array
•Data security: A DBMS provides tools for managing the security of the data, such as •Array Index: In an array, elements are identified by their indexes. Array index
controlling access to the data and encrypting sensitive data. starts from 0.
•Backup and recovery: A DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up and recovering •Array element: Elements are items stored in an array and can be accessed by their
the data in the event of a system failure. index.
•Data sharing: A DBMS allows multiple users to access and share the same data, •Array Length: The length of an array is determined by the number of elements it
which can be useful in a collaborative work environment. can contain.

Disadvantages of DBMS Memory representation of Array

•Complexity: DBMS can be complex to set up and maintain, requiring specialized In an array, all the elements are stored in contiguous memory locations. So, if we
knowledge and skills. initialize an array, the elements will be allocated sequentially in memory.
•Performance overhead: The use of a DBMS can add overhead to the performance of This allows for efficient access and manipulation of elements.
an application, especially in cases where high levels of concurrency are required.
•Scalability: The use of a DBMS can limit the scalability of an application, since it
requires the use of locking and other synchronization mechanisms to ensure data
consistency.
•Cost: The cost of purchasing, maintaining and upgrading a DBMS can be high,
especially for large or complex systems.
•Limited Use Cases: Not all use cases are suitable for a DBMS, some solutions don’t
need high reliability, consistency or security and may be better served by other types of
data storage. Types of Arrays
Arrays can be classified in two ways:
•On the basis of Size
•On the basis of Dimensions
•One-dimensional Array (1-D Array): You can imagine a 1-d array as a row, where
elements are stored one after another.
 •Three-Dimensional Array (3-D Array): A 3-D Multidimensional array contains three
dimensions, so it can be considered an array of two-dimensional arrays.

Applications of Array Data Structure

Arrays mainly have advantages like random access and cache friendliness over other
data structures that make them useful.
Below are some applications of arrays.
•Storing and accessing data: Arrays store elements in a specific order and allow
.Multi-dimensional Array: A multi-dimensional array is an array with more than one
constant-time O(1) access to any element.
dimension.
•Searching: If data in array is sorted, we can search an item in O(log n) time. We can
We can use multidimensional array to store complex data in the form of tables, etc. We
also find floor(), ceiling(), kth smallest, kth largest, etc efficiently.
can have 2-D arrays, 3-D arrays, 4-D arrays and so on.
•Matrices: Two-dimensional arrays are used for matrices in computations like graph
•Two-Dimensional Array (2-D Array or Matrix): 2-D Multidimensional arrays can be
algorithms and image processing.
considered as an array of arrays or as a matrix consisting of rows and columns.
•Implementing other data structures: Arrays are used as the underlying data structure
for implementing stacks and queues.
•Dynamic programming: Dynamic programming algorithms often use arrays to store
intermediate results of sub-problems in order to solve a larger problem.
•Data Buffers: Arrays serve as data buffers and queues, temporarily storing incoming
data like network packets, file streams, and database results before processing.

Linked Lists
A linked list is a fundamental data structure in computer science.
It mainly allows efficient insertion and deletion operations compared to arrays.
Like arrays, it is also used to implement other data structures like stack, queue and
deque

Comparison between Linked Lists and Arrays b)Doubly Linked List

Features of Linked List: •A doubly linked list is a more complex data structure than a singly linked list, but it
•Data Structure: Non-contiguous offers several advantages.
•Memory Allocation: Typically allocated one by one to individual elements •The main advantage of a doubly linked list is that it allows for efficient traversal of the
•Insertion/Deletion: Efficient list in both directions.
•Access: Sequential •This is because each node in the list contains a pointer to the previous node and a
pointer to the next node.
Features of Array: •This allows for quick and easy insertion and deletion of nodes from the list, as well as
•Data Structure: Contiguous efficient traversal of the list in both directions.
•Memory Allocation: Typically allocated to the whole array •A doubly linked list is a data structure that consists of a set of nodes, each of which
•Insertion/Deletion: Inefficient contains a value and two pointers, one pointing to the previous node in the list and one
•Access: Random pointing to the next node in the list.
•This allows for efficient traversal of the list in both directions, making it suitable for
Types of Linked Lists applications where frequent insertions and deletions are required.
a) Singly Linked List
A singly linked list is a fundamental data structure.
It consists of nodes where each node contains a data field and a reference to the next
node in the linked list.
The next of the last node is null, indicating the end of the list.
Linked Lists support efficient insertion and deletion operations.

Operations on Doubly Linked List Deletion in Doubly Linked List:

Understanding Node Structure • Deletion of a node at the
•Traversal in Doubly Linked List
In a singly linked list, each node consists of two parts: data and a pointer to the next
•Searching in Doubly Linked List beginning of Doubly Linked List
node. This structure allows nodes to be dynamically linked together, forming a chain-
•Finding Length of Doubly Linked List • Deletion of a node at the end of
like sequence.
•Insertion in Doubly Linked List Doubly Linked List
Operations on Singly Linked List • Insertion at the beginning of Doubly Linked List • Deletion of a node at a specific
•Traversal • Insertion at the end of the Doubly Linked List position in Doubly Linked List
•Searching • Insertion at a specific position in Doubly Linked
•Length List
•Insertion Deletion:
•Insert at the beginning •Delete from the beginning
•Insert at the end •Delete from the end
•Insert at a specific position •Delete a specific node
c) Circular Linked List Types of Stack
A circular linked list is a data structure where the last node connects back to the first, Fixed Size Stack : As the name suggests, a fixed size stack has a fixed size and
forming a loop. cannot grow or shrink dynamically.
This structure allows for continuous traversal without any interruptions. •If the stack is full and an attempt is made to add an element to it, an overflow error
Circular linked lists are especially helpful for tasks like scheduling and managing occurs.
playlists, this allowing for smooth navigation. •If the stack is empty and an attempt is made to remove an element from it, an
A circular linked list is a special type of linked list where all the nodes are connected to underflow error occurs.
form a circle. Dynamic Size Stack : A dynamic size stack can grow or shrink dynamically.
Unlike a regular linked list, which ends with a node pointing to NULL, the last node in a •When the stack is full, it automatically increases its size to accommodate the new
circular linked list points back to the first node. element, and when the stack is empty, it decreases its size.
This means that you can keep traversing the list without ever reaching a NULL value. •This type of stack is implemented using a linked list, as it allows for easy resizing of
the stack.
Applications of Linked Lists in real world:
•The list of songs in the music player are linked to the previous and next songs. Basic Operations on Stack
•In a web browser, previous and next web page URLs can be linked through the In order to make manipulations in a stack, there are certain operations provided to us.
previous and next buttons (Doubly Linked List) •push() to insert an element into the stack
•In image viewer, the previous and next images can be linked with the help of the •pop() to remove an element from the stack
previous and next buttons (Doubly Linked List) •top() Returns the top element of the stack.
•is Empty() returns true if stack is empty else false.
Stacks •isFull() returns true if the stack is full else false.
•A Stack is a linear data structure that follows a particular order in which the To implement stack, we need to maintain reference to the top item.
operations are performed.
•The order may be LIFO(Last In First Out) or FILO(First In Last Out).
•LIFO implies that the element that is inserted last, comes out first and FILO implies
that the element that is inserted first, comes out last.
•It behaves like a stack of plates, where the last plate added is the first one to be
removed.
1.Pushing an element onto the stack is like adding a new plate on top.
2.Popping an element removes the top plate from the stack.

Queues 3.Circular Queue

•A Queue Data Structure is a fundamental concept in computer science used for 4.Double Ended Queue (Deque)
storing and managing data in a specific order. 5.Priority Queue
•It follows the principle of "First in, First out" (FIFO), where the first element added to •Ascending Priority Queue
the queue is the first one to be removed. •Descending Priority Queue
•Queues are commonly used in various algorithms and applications for their simplicity
and efficiency in managing data flow.

1.Circular Queue
•Circular Queue is a linear data structure in which the operations are performed based
on FIFO (First In First Out) principle and the last position is connected back to the first
position to make a circle.
•It is also called ‘Ring Buffer’.
Basic Operations on Queue:
Some of the basic operations for Queue in Data Structure are: 2.Input restricted Queue
•enqueue() – Insertion of elements to the queue. •In this type of Queue, the input can be taken from one side only(rear) and deletion of
•dequeue() – Removal of elements from the queue. elements can be done from both sides(front and rear).
•peek() or front()- Acquires the data element available at the front node of the queue •This kind of Queue does not follow FIFO(first in first out).
without deleting it. •This queue is used in cases where the consumption of the data needs to be in FIFO
•rear() – This operation returns the element at the rear end without removing it. order but if there is a need to remove the recently inserted data for some reason and
•isFull() – Validates if the queue is full. one such case can be irrelevant data, performance issue, etc.
•isEmpty() – Checks if the queue is empty.
•size(): This operation returns the size of the queue i.e. the total number of elements it
contains.

3.Output restricted Queue

•In this type of Queue, the input can be taken from both sides(rear and front) and the
deletion of the element can be done from only one side(front).
•This queue is used in the case where the inputs have some priority order to be executed
Types of Queues: and the input can be placed even in the first place so that it is executed first.
There are five different types of queues that are used in different scenarios. They are:
1.Input Restricted Queue (this is a Simple Queue)
2.Output Restricted Queue (this is also a Simple Queue)
4.Double ended Queue a)Folder structure in an operating system.
•Double Ended Queue is also a Queue data structure in which the insertion and deletion b)Tag structure in an HTML (root tag the as html tag) or XML document.
operations are performed at both the ends (front and rear). •The topmost node of the tree is called the root, and the nodes below it are called the
•That means, we can insert at both front and rear positions and can delete from both child nodes.
front and rear positions. •Each node can have multiple child nodes, and these child nodes can also have their
•Since Deque supports both stack and queue operations, it can be used as both. own child nodes, forming a recursive structure.
•The Deque data structure supports clockwise and anticlockwise rotations in O(1) time
which can be useful in certain applications.
•Also, the problems where elements need to be removed and or added both ends can be
efficiently solved using Deque.

Basic Terminologies in Tree Data Structure

•Parent Node: The node which is an immediate predecessor of a node is called the
5.Priority Queue parent node of that node. {B} is the parent node of {D, E}.
•A priority queue is a special type of queue in which each element is associated with a •Child Node: The node which is the immediate successor of a node is called the child
priority and is served according to its priority. node of that node. Examples: {D, E} are the child nodes of {B}.
•There are two types of Priority Queues. They are: •Root Node: The topmost node of a tree or the node which does not have any parent
a)Ascending Priority Queue: Element can be inserted arbitrarily but only smallest node is called the root node. {A} is the root node of the tree. A non-empty tree must
element can be removed. For example, suppose there is an array having elements 4, 2, contain exactly one root node and exactly one path from the root to all other nodes of
8 in the same order. So, while inserting the elements, the insertion will be in the same the tree.
sequence but while deleting, the order will be 2, 4, 8. •Leaf Node or External Node: The nodes which do not have any child nodes are called
b)Descending priority Queue: Element can be inserted arbitrarily but only the largest leaf nodes. {I, J, K, F, G, H} are the leaf nodes of the tree.
element can be removed first from the given Queue. For example, suppose there is an •Ancestor of a Node: Any predecessor nodes on the path of the root to that node are
array having elements 4, 2, 8 in the same order. So, while inserting the elements, the called Ancestors of that node. {A,B} are the ancestor nodes of the node {E}
insertion will be in the same sequence but while deleting, the order will be 8, 4, 2. •Descendant: A node x is a descendant of another node y if and only if y is an ancestor
The time complexity of the Priority Queue is O(logn). of x.
•Sibling: Children of the same parent node are called siblings. {D,E} are called siblings.
•Level of a node: The count of edges on the path from the root node to that node. The
Trees
root node has level 0.
•Tree data structure is a hierarchical structure that is used to represent and organize
•Internal node: A node with at least one child is called Internal Node.
data in the form of parent child relationship.
•Neighbour of a Node: Parent or child nodes of that node are called neighbors of that
•The following are some real world situations which are naturally a tree.
node.
•Subtree: Any node of the tree along with its descendant.

Representation of Tree Data Structure: Alorithms:

•A tree consists of a root node, and zero or more subtrees T1, T2, … , Tk such that
there is an edge from the root node of the tree to the root node of each subtree.
Sorting Algorithms
•Subtree of a node X consists of all the nodes which have node X as the ancestor node. •Sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format. Sorting algorithm specifies the
way to arrange data in a particular order.
•Most common orders are in numerical or lexicographical order.
•The importance of sorting lies in the fact that data searching can be optimized to a
very high level, if data is stored in a sorted manner.
•Sorting is also used to represent data in more readable formats.
In-place Sorting and Not-in-place Sorting
In-place Sorting:
•Sorting algorithms may require some extra space for comparison and temporary
storage of few data elements.

Types of Tree data structures: •These algorithms do not require any extra space and sorting is said to happen in-

Tree data structure can be classified into three types based upon the number of place, or for example, within the array itself. This is called in-place sorting.

children each node of the tree can have. The types are: •Bubble sort is an example of in-place sorting.

•Binary tree: In a binary tree, each node can have a maximum of two children linked to Not-in-place Sorting:

it. Some common types of binary trees include full binary trees, complete binary trees, •However, in some sorting algorithms, the program requires space which is more than

balanced binary trees, and degenerate or pathological binary trees. or equal to the elements being sorted.

Examples of Binary Tree are Binary Search Tree and Binary Heap. •Sorting which uses equal or more space is called not-in-place sorting.

•Ternary Tree: A Ternary Tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most •Merge-sort is an example of not-in-place sorting.

three child nodes, usually distinguished as “left”, “mid” and “right”.

•N-ary Tree or Generic Tree: Generic trees are a collection of nodes where each node Stable and Not Stable Sorting

is a data structure that consists of records and a list of references to its Stable sorting:

children(duplicate references are not allowed). If a sorting algorithm, after sorting the

Unlike the linked list, each node stores the address of multiple nodes. contents, does not change the

Basic Operations of Tree Data Structure: sequence of similar content in which

•Create – create a tree in the data structure. they appear, it is called stable sorting.

•Insert − Inserts data in a tree.

•Search − Searches specific data in a tree to check whether it is present or not. Unstable sorting:

•Traversal: If a sorting algorithm, after sorting

Depth-First-Search Traversal Breadth-First-Search Traversal the contents, changes the sequence

of similar content in which they
appear, it is called unstable sorting.
 Various Sorting Algorithms:
Bubble Sort
Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Sorting Algorithm
•Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
Adaptive Algorithm:
•This sorting algorithm is comparison-based algorithm in which each pair of adjacent
A sorting algorithm is said to be adaptive, if it takes advantage of already 'sorted'
elements is compared and the elements are swapped if they are not in order.
elements in the list that is to be sorted.
•This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case
That is, while sorting if the source list has some element already sorted, adaptive
complexity are of O(n2) where n is the number of items.
algorithms will take this into account and will try not to re-order.
•Bubble Sort is an elementary sorting algorithm, which works by repeatedly
Non-adaptive algorithm:
exchanging adjacent elements, if necessary.
A non-adaptive algorithm is one which does not take into account the elements which
•When no exchanges are required, the file is sorted.
are already sorted. They try to force every single element to be re-ordered to confirm
Insertion Sort
their sortedness.
•Insertion sort is a very simple method to sort numbers in an ascending or descending
order.
Important Terms:
•This method follows the incremental method.
a) Increasing Order
•It can be compared with the technique how cards are sorted at the time of playing a
A sequence of values is said to be in increasing order, if the successive element is
game.
greater than the previous one. For example, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 are in increasing order, as
•This is an in-place comparison-based sorting algorithm.
every next element is greater than the previous element.
•Here, a sub-list is maintained which is always sorted.
b) Decreasing Order
Selection sort
A sequence of values is said to be in decreasing order, if the successive element is less
•Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm.
than the current one. For example, 9, 8, 6, 4, 3, 1 are in decreasing order, as every
•This sorting algorithm, like insertion sort, is an in-place comparison-based algorithm
next element is less than the previous element.
in which the list is divided into two parts, the sorted part at the left end and the
c) Non-Increasing Order
unsorted part at the right end.
A sequence of values is said to be in non-increasing order, if the successive element is
•Initially, the sorted part is empty and the unsorted part is the entire list.
less than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when the
•The smallest element is selected from the unsorted array and swapped with the
sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 9, 8, 6, 3, 3, 1 are in non-increasing
leftmost element, and that element becomes a part of the sorted array.
order, as every next element is less than or equal to (in case of 3) but not greater than
•This process continues moving unsorted array boundaries by one element to the
any previous element.
right.
d) Non-Decreasing Order
•This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case
A sequence of values is said to be in non-decreasing order, if the successive element is
complexities are of O(n2), where n is the number of items.
greater than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when
•This type of sorting is called Selection Sort as it works by repeatedly sorting
the sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 1, 3, 3, 6, 8, 9 are in non-
elements.
decreasing order, as every next element is greater than or equal to (in case of 3) but
•That is we first find the smallest value in the array and exchange it with the element in
not less than the previous one.
the first position, then find the second smallest element and exchange it with the
element in the second position, and we continue the process in this way until the entire
array is sorted.

Merge sort
•Merge sort is a sorting technique based on divide and conquer technique. Searching Algorithms
•With worst-case time complexity being Ο(n log n), it is one of the most used and •Searching is a process of finding a particular record, which can be a single element or
approached algorithms. a small chunk, within a huge amount of data.
•Merge sort first divides the array into equal halves and then combines them in a sorted •The data can be in various forms: arrays, linked lists, trees, heaps, and graphs etc.
manner. •With the increasing amount of data nowadays, there are multiple techniques to perform
•Merge sort keeps on dividing the list into equal halves until it can no more be divided. the searching operation.
•By definition, if it is only one element in the list, it is considered sorted. •Searching Algorithms in Data Structures
•Then, merge sort combines the smaller sorted lists keeping the new list sorted too. •Various searching techniques can be applied on the data structures to retrieve certain
Shell sort data.
•Shell sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on insertion sort algorithm. •A search operation is said to be successful only if it returns the desired element or
•This algorithm avoids large shifts as in case of insertion sort, if the smaller value is to the data; otherwise, the searching method is unsuccessful.
far right and has to be moved to the far left. There are two categories of searching techniques.
•This algorithm uses insertion sort on a widely spread elements, first to sort them and Sequential Searching
then sorts the less widely spaced elements. This spacing is termed as interval. Interval Searching
•This algorithm is quite efficient for medium-sized data sets as its average and worst case
complexity are of O(n), where n is the number of items Sequential Searching
Heap Sort •As the name suggests, the sequential searching operation traverses through each
•Heap Sort is an efficient sorting technique based on the heap data structure. element of the data sequentially to look for the desired data.
•The heap is a nearly-complete binary tree where the parent node could either be •The data need not be in a sorted manner for this type of search.
minimum or maximum. Example − Linear Search
•The heap with minimum root node is called min-heap and the root node with maximum
root node is called max-heap.
•The elements in the input data of the heap sort algorithm are processed using these two
methods. Interval Searching
•The time complexity of the heap sort algorithm is O(nlogn), similar to merge sort. •Unlike sequential searching, the interval searching operation requires the data to be in
Quick sort a sorted manner.
•Quick sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on partitioning of array of •This method usually searches the data in intervals; it could be done by either dividing
data into smaller arrays. the data into multiple sub-parts or jumping through the indices to search for an element.
•A large array is partitioned into two arrays one of which holds values smaller than the Example − Binary Search, Jump Search etc.
specified value, say pivot, based on which the partition is made and another array holds
values greater than the pivot value.
•Quick sort partitions an array and then calls itself recursively twice to sort the two
resulting subarrays.
•The worst case complexity of Quick-Sort algorithm is O(n2). However, using this
technique, in average cases generally we get the output in O (n log n) time.
 c) Interpolation Search Algorithm
Various Searching Algorithms •Interpolation search is an improved variant of binary search.
a)Linear Search Algorithm •This search algorithm works on the probing position of the required value.
•Linear search is a type of sequential searching algorithm. •For this algorithm to work properly, the data collection should be in a sorted form and
•In this method, every element within the input array is traversed and compared with the equally distributed.
key element to be found. •Runtime complexity of interpolation search algorithm is Ο(log (log n)) as compared to
•If a match is found in the array the search is said to be successful; if there is no match Ο(log n) of BST in favorable situations.
found the search is said to be unsuccessful and gives the worst-case time complexity. d) Jump Search Algorithm
•The algorithm for linear search is relatively simple. •Jump Search algorithm is a slightly modified version of the linear search algorithm.
•Linear search traverses through every element sequentially therefore, the best case is •The main idea behind this algorithm is to reduce the time complexity by comparing lesser
when the element is found in the very first iteration. elements than the linear search algorithm.
•The best-case time complexity would be O(1). •The input array is hence sorted and divided into blocks to perform searching while
•However, the worst case of the linear search method would be an unsuccessful search jumping through these blocks.
that does not find the key value in the array, it performs n iterations. •The time complexity of the jump search technique is O(√n) and space complexity is O(1).
•Therefore, the worst-case time complexity of the linear search algorithm would be e) Exponential Search Algorithm
O(n). •Exponential search algorithm targets a range of an input array in which it assumes that
b Binary Search Algorithm the required element must be present in and performs a binary search on that particular
•Binary search is a fast search algorithm with run-time complexity of Ο(log n). small range.
•This search algorithm works on the principle of divide and conquer, since it divides the •This algorithm is also known as doubling search or finger search.
array into half before searching. •It is similar to jump search in dividing the sorted input into multiple blocks and conducting
•For this algorithm to work properly, the data collection should be in the sorted form. a smaller scale search.
•Binary search looks for a particular key value by comparing the middle most item of •However, the difference occurs while performing computations to divide the blocks and
the collection. the type of smaller scale search applied (jump search applies linear search and
•If a match occurs, then the index of item is returned. exponential search applies binary search).
•But if the middle item has a value greater than the key value, the right sub-array of the •Hence, this algorithm jumps exponentially in the powers of 2.
middle item is searched. •In simpler words, the search is performed on the blocks divided using pow(2, k) where k is
•Otherwise, the left sub-array is searched. an integer greater than or equal to 0.
•This process continues recursively until the size of a subarray reduces to zero. •Once the element at position pow(2, n) is greater than the key element, binary search is
•Binary Search algorithm is an interval searching method that performs the searching performed on the current block.
in intervals only. •Even though it is called Exponential search it does not perform searching in exponential
•The input taken by the binary search algorithm time complexity.
must always be in a sorted array since •But as we know, in this search algorithm, the basic search being performed is binary
it divides the array into subarrays search.
based on the greater or lower values. •Therefore, the time complexity of the exponential search algorithm will be the same as
•The time complexity of the binary the binary search algorithm’s, O(log n).
search algorithm is O(log n).

f) Fibonacci Search Algorithm •This process continues until a match is found or it reaches the end of a list.
•As the name suggests, the Fibonacci Search Algorithm uses Fibonacci numbers to •The main aim of this algorithm is to prove that one linked list is a sub-list of another
search for an element in a sorted input array. list.
•Fibonacci Series is a series of numbers that have two primitive numbers 0 and 1. •Searching in this process is done linearly, checking each element of the linked list one
•The successive numbers are the sum of preceding two numbers in the series. by one; if the output returns true, then it is proven that the second list is a sub-list of
•This is an infinite constant series, therefore, the numbers in it are fixed. the first linked list.
•The main idea behind the Fibonacci series is also to eliminate the least possible places •The time complexity of the sublist search depends on the number of elements present
where the element could be found. in both linked lists involved.
•In a way, it acts like a divide & conquer algorithm (logic being the closest to binary •The worst case time taken by the algorithm to be executed is O(m*n) where m is the
search algorithm). number of elements present in the first linked list and n is the number of elements
•This algorithm, like jump search and exponential search, also skips through the indices present in the second linked list.
of the input array in order to perform searching.
•The Fibonacci Search Algorithm makes use of the Fibonacci Series to diminish the
range of an array on which the searching is set to be performed.
•With every iteration, the search range decreases making it easier to locate the element
in the array.
•The Fibonacci Search algorithm takes logarithmic time complexity to search for an
element.
•Since it is based on a divide on a conquer approach and is similar to idea of binary
search, the time taken by this algorithm to be executed under the worst case
consequences is O(log n).
g) Sublist Search Algorithm
•Until now we have only seen how to search for one element in a sequential order of
elements.
•But the sublist search algorithm provides a procedure to search for a linked list in
another linked list.
•It works like any simple pattern matching algorithm where the aim is to determine
whether one list is present in the other list or not.
•The algorithm walks through the linked list where the first element of one list is
compared with the first element of the second list; if a match is not found, the second
element of the first list is compared with the first element of the second list.
•This process continues until a match is found or it reaches the end of a list.
•The main aim of this algorithm is to prove that one linked list is a sub-list of another
list.
 Emerging Technologies
Deep Learning
Deep learning is a type of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks to help
Artificial Intelligence (AI) computers learn and make decisions based on data.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad field of computer science dedicated to creating Deep learning is a subset of machine learning, which is a subset of artificial intelligence
machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. (AI).
An artificial neural network or ANN uses layers of interconnected nodes called
Machine Learning neurons that work together to process and learn from the input data.

Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence (AI) that allows computers to learn
and improve from data without being explicitly programmed.
It uses algorithms to analyze large amounts of data, identify patterns, and make
predictions.
Types of Machine Learning
Machine learning can be broadly
categorized into three types:
• Supervised Learning:
Trains models on labeled data to
predict or classify new, unseen data.
• Unsupervised Learning:
Finds patterns or groups in unlabeled
data, like clustering or dimensionality reduction.
• Reinforcement Learning:
Learns through trial and error to maximize rewards, ideal for decision-making tasks.

Features of Machine Learning

• Machine Learning is the field of study that gives computers the capability to learn
without being explicitly programmed.
• It is similar to data mining, as both deals with substantial amounts of data.
• For large organizations, branding is crucial, and targeting a relatable customer base
becomes easier.
• Given a dataset, ML can detect various patterns in the data. Learning Applications:

• Machines can learn from past data and automatically improve their performance. Computer vision

• Machine learning is a data-driven technology. A large amount of data is generated The first Deep Learning application is Computer vision.

by organizations daily, enabling them to identify notable relationships and make In computer vision, Deep learning AI models can enable machines to identify and

better decisions. understand visual data.

Some of the main applications of deep learning in computer vision include: • Game playing: Deep reinforcement learning models have been able to beat human
• Object detection and recognition: Deep learning model can be used to identify and experts at games such as Chess
locate objects within images and videos, making it possible for machines to perform • Robotics: Deep reinforcement learning models can be used to train robots to
tasks such as self-driving cars, surveillance, and robotics. perform complex tasks such as grasping objects, navigation, and manipulation.
• Image classification: Deep learning models can be used to classify images into • Control systems: Deep reinforcement learning models can be used to control
categories such as animals, plants, and buildings. This is used in applications such complex systems such as power grids, traffic management, and supply chain
as medical imaging, quality control, and image retrieval. optimization.
• Image segmentation: Deep learning models can be used for image segmentation into
different regions, making it possible to identify specific features within images. Advantages of Deep Learning:
1. High accuracy: Deep Learning algorithms can achieve state-of-the-art
Natural language processing (NLP): performance in various tasks, such as image recognition and natural language

In Deep learning applications, second application is NLP. NLP, the Deep learning processing.

model can enable machines to understand and generate human language. Some of the 2. Automated feature engineering: Deep Learning algorithms can automatically

main applications of deep learning in NLP include: discover and learn relevant features from data without the need for manual feature

• Automatic Text Generation – Deep learning model can learn the corpus of text and engineering.

new text like summaries, essays can be automatically generated using these trained 3. Scalability: Deep Learning models can scale to handle large and complex

models. datasets, and can learn from massive amounts of data.

• Language translation: Deep learning models can translate text from one language 4. Flexibility: Deep Learning models can be applied to a wide range of tasks and can

to another, making it possible to communicate with people from different linguistic handle various types of data, such as images, text, and speech.

backgrounds. 5. Continual improvement: Deep Learning models can continually improve their

• Sentiment analysis: Deep learning models can analyze the sentiment of a piece of performance as more data becomes available.

text, making it possible to determine whether the text is positive, negative, or neutral.
This is used in applications such as customer service, social media monitoring, and Natural language processing (NLP)
political analysis. Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of computer science and a subfield of
• Speech recognition: Deep learning models can recognize and transcribe spoken artificial intelligence that aims to make computers understand human language.
words, making it possible to perform tasks such as speech-to-text conversion, voice NLP uses computational linguistics, which is the study of how language works, and
search, and voice-controlled devices. various models based on statistics, machine learning, and deep learning.
These technologies allow computers to analyze and process text or voice data, and to
Reinforcement learning: grasp their full meaning, including the speaker’s or writer’s intentions and emotions.

In reinforcement learning, deep learning works as training agents to take action in an Here are some of the key NLP techniques:

environment to maximize a reward. Some of the main applications of deep learning in 1. Text Processing and Preprocessing In NLP

reinforcement learning include: • Tokenization: Dividing text into smaller units, such as words or sentences.
• Stemming and Lemmatization: Reducing words to their base or root forms.
• Stopword Removal: Removing common words (like “and”, “the”, “is”) that may not 8. Question Answering
carry significant meaning. • Retrieval-Based QA: Finding and returning the most relevant text passage in
• Text Normalization: Standardizing text, including case normalization, removing response to a query.
punctuation, and correcting spelling errors. • Generative QA: Generating an answer based on the information available in a text
2. Syntax and Parsing In NLP corpus.
• Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging: Assigning parts of speech to each word in a 9. Dialogue Systems
sentence (e.g., noun, verb, adjective). • Chatbots and Virtual Assistants: Enabling systems to engage in conversations with
• Dependency Parsing: Analyzing the grammatical structure of a sentence to identify users, providing responses and performing tasks based on user input
relationships between words. 10.Sentiment and Emotion Analysis in NLP
• Constituency Parsing: Breaking down a sentence into its constituent parts or • Emotion Detection: Identifying and categorizing emotions expressed in text.
phrases (e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases). • Opinion Mining: Analyzing opinions or reviews to understand public sentiment
3.Semantic Analysis toward products, services, or topics.
• Named Entity Recognition (NER): Identifying and classifying entities in text, such as
names of people, organizations, locations, dates, etc. Applications of Natural Language Processing (NLP)
• Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD): Determining which meaning of a word is used in
• Spam Filters:
a given context.
One of the most irritating things about email is spam.
• Coreference Resolution: Identifying when different words refer to the same entity in
Gmail uses natural language processing (NLP) to discern which emails are legitimate
a text (e.g., “he” refers to “John”).
and which are spam.
4.Information Extraction
These spam filters look at the text in all the emails you receive and try to figure out
• Entity Extraction: Identifying specific entities and their relationships within the text.
what it means to see if it’s spam or not.
• Relation Extraction: Identifying and categorizing the relationships between entities
• Algorithmic Trading:
in a text.
Algorithmic trading is used for predicting stock market conditions.
5. Text Classification in NLP
Using NLP, this technology examines news headlines about companies and stocks and
• Sentiment Analysis: Determining the sentiment or emotional tone expressed in a
attempts to comprehend their meaning in order to determine if you should buy, sell, or
text (e.g., positive, negative, neutral).
hold certain stocks.
• Topic Modeling: Identifying topics or themes within a large collection of documents.
• Questions Answering:
• Spam Detection: Classifying text as spam or not spam.
NLP can be seen in action by using Google Search or Siri Services.
6. Language Generation
A major use of NLP is to make search engines understand the meaning of what we are
• Machine Translation: Translating text from one language to another.
asking and generate natural language in return to give us the answers.
• Text Summarization: Producing a concise summary of a larger text.
• Summarizing Information:
• Text Generation: Automatically generating coherent and contextually relevant text.
On the internet, there is a lot of information, and a lot of it comes in the form of long
7. Speech Processing
documents or articles.
• Speech Recognition: Converting spoken language into text.
NLP is used to decipher the meaning of the data and then provides shorter
• Text-to-Speech (TTS) Synthesis: Converting written text into spoken language.
summaries of the data so that humans can comprehend it more quickly.

Internet of Things (IoT) Data Analytics

Connected Devices IoT analytics refers to collect, process and analyze data that are generated by IoT
• Connected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) are physical objects that can devices.
connect to other systems and devices over the internet. As more devices are connected in the internet , it generate a large amount of data that
• They can be controlled remotely and transmit and receive data. provides a valuable insights and provide valuable information from that particular data.
• Consumer-connected devices include smart TVs, smart speakers such as Google IoT can be the subset of Bigdata and it consists of heterogenous streams that
Home, toys, wearables and smart appliances. combined and transformed to correct information.
• In a smart home, for example, IoT devices are designed to sense and respond to a The Significance of Data Analytics in IoT
person's presence. • Data analytics is a process of analyzing unstructured data to give meaningful
• When a person arrives home, their car communicates with the garage to open the conclusions. Numerous of the methods and processes of data analytics are automated
door. and algorithms designed to process raw data for humans to understand.
• IoT devices have sensors and small computer processors that utilize machine • IoT devices give large volumes of precious data that are used for multiple
learning, which simulates human interactions by collecting data from different applications. The main goal is to use this data in a comprehensive and precise way so
environments. that it's organized, and structured into a further usable format.
• This data can learn someone’s behaviors and preferences and automate tasks. • A Data analytics uses methods to process large data sets of varying sizes and
• For example, a smart kettle is an IoT technology that can boil water at specific characteristics, it provides meaningful patterns, and extracts useful outputs from raw
times of the day, depending on the user’s schedule. data.
• Over time, users don’t need to program these devices because machine learning • Manually analyzing these large data sets is veritably time consuming, resource
can adapt to someone’s behavior without following instructions. intensive, and expensive. Data analytics is used for saving time, energy, resources and
• Many IoT devices connect to smartphones, allowing you to control a device from gives precious information in the form of statistics, patterns ,and trends.
an app. • Organizations use this information to improve their decision making processes,
• For example, you can set up a smart speaker on your phone. Many smart speakers apply further effective strategies, and achieve desired outcomes.
also provide Bluetooth support, enabling you to stream music from your phone without Roles of Data Analysts in IoT
relying on a Wi-Fi network. The roles of data analysts within organizations are contingent on their knowledge,
• IoT devices are vulnerable to security skills, and expertise. Here are seven prominent roles that data analysts fulfill.
threats because they can connect to 1. Determining Organizational Goals:
an unsecured network or device to A data analyst's most crucial part is helping a business define its primary
transmit data. organizational objectives.
• IoT data and network protocols can This original step is vital for setting a business apart, outperforming challengers, and
reduce or eliminate security concerns. attracting the right audience.
• These protocols include MQTT, AMQP, Data analysts collaborate with staff and team members to monitor, track, gather, and
LoRaWAN, Zigbee, HTTP, and XMPP. analyze data, necessitating access to all available data used within the organization.
• Protocols are communication modes that secure an IoT device when it collects and
shares data with other IoT devices.
2. Data Mining: IoT analytics can do the following:
Data analysts gather and mine data from internet sources and company databases, 1. Data Processing and Integration: Handle large volumes of data generated by IoT
conducting analysis and research. devices, integrating and processing different data types for meaningful insights.
This research helps businesses understand market dynamics, current trends, 2. Real-Time Decision-Making: Give nonstop monitoring of IoT data streams,
competitor activities, and consumer preferences. enabling immediate responses to changing conditions or events.
3. Data Cleaning: 3. Predictive Analytics: Forecast trends and potential issues based on historical
Data analysts play an essential part in data cleansing, a critical aspect of data data, facilitating visionary decision- making and preventative measures.
preparation. 4. Functional Effectiveness: Optimize processes, resource allocation, and energy
Data cleansing involves correcting, identifying, and analyzing raw data, significantly usage by identifying patterns and inefficiencies in IoT- generated data.
improving decision making by providing accurate and precise data. 5. Predictive conservation: Anticipate equipment failures or maintenance
4. Data Analysis: requirements, reducing time-out and minimizing functional dislocations.
Data analysts offer data entry services that include data analysis. 6. Cost Optimization: Identify areas for cost reduction and efficiency enhancement
They employ ways to efficiently explore data, excerpt relevant information, and give by analyzing IoT data for resource utilization and process optimization.
accurate answers to business-specific questions. 7. Supply Chain Optimization: Improve supply chain visibility and effectiveness by
Data analysts bring statistical and logical tools to the table, enhancing a business's analyzing data from connected devices throughout the supply chain process.
competitive advantage. 8. Regulatory Compliance: Helps organizations in adhering to data privacy and
5. Recognizing Patterns and Identifying Trends: regulatory essentials by providing tools for secure data management and compliance
Data analysts excel in recognizing trends within industries and making sense of vast reporting.
datasets. Applications Of IoT
Their expertise in identifying industry trends enables businesses to enhance 1.Smart Agriculture
performance, estimate strategy effectiveness, and more. 2.Smart vehicles
6. Reporting: 3.Smart homes
Data analysts convert essential insights from raw data into reports that drive 4.Smart pollution control
advancements in business operations. 5.Smart healthcare
Reporting is vital for monitoring online business performance and safeguarding 6.Smart cities
against data misuse. It serves as the primary means to measure overall business
performance.
7. Data and System Maintenance:
Data analysts also contribute to maintaining data systems and databases, ensuring
data coherence, availability, and storage align with organizational requirements.
Data analysts employ ways to enhance data gathering, structuring, and evaluation
across various datasets.

Types of Hackers:
Cybersecurity The types of hackers are:

Data Breaches 1. Black Hat Hackers:

• These types of hackers, often known as crackers and always have a malicious
• A data breach is any security incident in which unauthorized parties access
motive and gain illegal access to computer networks and websites.
sensitive or confidential information, including personal data (Social Security
• Their goal is to make money by stealing secret organizational data, stealing funds
numbers, bank account numbers, healthcare data) and corporate data (customer
from online bank accounts, violating privacy rights to benefit criminal organizations,
records, intellectual property, financial information).
and so on.
• A data breach, also known as data leakage, is "the unauthorized exposure,
2. White Hat Hackers/Ethical Hackers:
disclosure, or loss of personal information".
• White hat hackers (sometimes referred to as ethical hackers) are the polar
• The first reported breach was in 2002 and the number occurring each year has
opposites of black hat hackers.
grown since then.
• They employ their technical expertise to defend the planet against malicious
Hacking
hackers.
• An effort to attack a computer system or a private network inside a computer is
• White hats are employed by businesses and government agencies as data security
known as hacking.
analysts, researchers, security specialists, etc.
• Simply, it is unauthorized access to or control of computer network security
• White hat hackers, with the permission of the system owner and with good motives,
systems with the intention of committing a crime.
use the same hacking tactics that the black hackers use.
• Hacking is the process of finding some security holes in a computer system or
3. Gray Hat Hackers:
network in order to gain access to personal or corporate information.
• They fall somewhere between the above-mentioned types of hackers, in that they
• One example of computer hacking is the use of a password cracking technique to
gain illegal access to a system but do so without any malicious intent.
gain access to a computer system.
• The goal is to expose the system’s weaknesses.
• The process of gaining illegal access to a computer system, or a group of
• Instead of exploiting vulnerabilities for unlawful gains, grey hat hackers may offer to
computer systems, is known as hacking.
repair vulnerabilities they’ve identified through their own unauthorized actions.
• This is accomplished by cracking the passwords and codes that grant access to
4. Red Hat Hackers:
systems.
• Also known as eagle-eyed hackers.
• The hacker is the individual who performs the hacking. Following are some of the
• Red hat hackers want to stop threat actors from launching unethical assaults.
things that can be hacked:
• The red hat hackers aim the same as ethical hackers, but their methods differ, the
➢Single systems
red hat hackers may utilize illegal or extreme methods.
➢Email account
• Red hat hackers frequently use cyber attacks against threat actors’ systems.
➢A group of systems
5. Blue Hat Hackers:
➢LAN network
• Safety experts that work outside of the organization are known as blue hat hackers.
➢A website
• Before releasing new software, companies frequently encourage them to test it and
➢Social media sites, etc.
uncover security flaws.
• Companies occasionally hold meetings for blue hat hackers to help them uncover
flaws in their critical internet systems.
6. Green Hat Hackers: c) Man-in-the-middle attack

• Green hat hackers aren’t familiar with safety measures or the internal dynamics Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, also known as eavesdropping attacks, occur when

of the internet, but they’re quick learners who are driven (if not desperate) to attackers insert themselves into a two-party transaction.

advance in the hacking world. Once the attackers interrupt the traffic, they can filter and steal data.

• Although it is unlikely that they want to damage others, they may do so while Two common points of entry for MitM attacks are:

“experimenting” with various viruses and attack strategies. 1. On unsecure public Wi-Fi, attackers can insert themselves between a visitor’s device

• As a result, green hat hackers can be dangerous since they are frequently and the network. Without knowing, the visitor passes all information through the

unaware of the implications of their activities – or, even worse, how to correct them. attacker.
2. Once malware has breached a device, an attacker can install software to process
all of the victim’s information.
Cyber attacks
d) Denial-of-service attack
• A cyber attack is an intentional attempt to access a computer system, network,
A denial-of-service attack floods systems, servers, or networks with traffic to exhaust
or device to steal, alter, or destroy data.
resources and bandwidth.
• A cyber attack is any intentional effort to steal, expose, alter, disable, or
As a result, the system is unable to fulfill legitimate requests.
destroy data, applications, or other assets through unauthorized access to a
Attackers can also use multiple compromised devices to launch this attack.
network, computer system or digital device.
This is known as a distributed-denial-of-service (DDoS) attack.
Common types of cyber attacks
e) SQL injection
a) Malware
A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection occurs when an attacker inserts
Malware is a term used to describe malicious software, including spyware,
malicious code into a server that uses SQL and forces the server to reveal information
ransomware, viruses, and worms.
it normally would not.
Malware breaches a network through a vulnerability, typically when a user clicks a
An attacker could carry out a SQL injection simply by submitting malicious code into a
dangerous link or email attachment that then installs risky software.
vulnerable website search box.
Once inside the system, malware can do the following:
f) Zero-day exploit
• Blocks access to key components of the network (ransomware)
A zero-day exploit hits after a network vulnerability is announced but before a patch or
• Installs malware or additional harmful software
solution is implemented.
• Covertly obtains information by transmitting data from the hard drive (spyware)
Attackers target the disclosed vulnerability during this window of time.
• Disrupts certain components and renders the system inoperable
Zero-day vulnerability threat detection requires constant awareness.
b) Phishing
g) DNS Tunneling
Phishing is the practice of sending fraudulent communications that appear to come
• DNS tunneling utilizes the DNS protocol to communicate non-DNS traffic over port
from a reputable source, usually through email.
53.
The goal is to steal sensitive data like credit card and login information or to install
• It sends HTTP and other protocol traffic over DNS.
malware on the victim’s machine.
• There are various, legitimate reasons to utilize DNS tunneling.
Phishing is an increasingly common cyberthreat.

• However, there are also malicious reasons to use DNS Tunneling VPN services. Big Data
• They can be used to disguise outbound traffic as DNS, concealing data that is
DataMining
typically shared through an internet connection.
• Data mining is the process of sorting through large data sets to identify patterns and
• For malicious use, DNS requests are manipulated to exfiltrate data from a
relationships that can help solve business problems through data analysis.
compromised system to the attacker’s infrastructure.
• Data mining techniques and tools help enterprises to predict future trends and make
• It can also be used for command and control callbacks from the attacker’s
more informed business decisions.
infrastructure to a compromised system.
• Data mining is the process of extracting knowledge or insights from large amounts
of data using various statistical and computational techniques.
Mitigation Strategies
• The data can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, and can be stored in
Cyber risk mitigation is the application of policies, technologies and procedures to
various forms such as databases, data warehouses, and data lakes.
reduce the likelihood and impact of a successful cyber attack.
• The primary goal of data mining is to discover hidden patterns and relationships in
It is a critical practice to help guide decision-making around risk control and mitigation
the data that can be used to make informed decisions or predictions.
and allows your organization to stay protected and achieve its business goals.
• This involves exploring the data using various techniques such as clustering,
Cybersecurity mitigation strategies are actions that can be taken to reduce the impact
classification, regression analysis, association rule mining, and anomaly detection.
of cyber attacks. These strategies include:
Data Mining Architecture
• Risk assessment: Evaluate your organization's level of risk and identify areas for
Data mining architecture refers to the overall design and structure of a data mining
improvement
system.
• Network access controls: Authenticate and authorize users who request access to
A data mining architecture typically includes several key components, which work
data or systems
together to perform data mining tasks and extract useful insights and information from
• Incident response plan: Create a plan that describes how to respond to an attack to
data.
minimize delays.
Some of the key components of a typical data mining architecture include:
• Security patches and updates: Regularly update software, operating systems, and
applications to fix known vulnerabilities
• Data Sources: Data sources are the sources of data that are used in data mining.
• Network traffic monitoring: Continuously monitor network traffic to detect and
These can include structured and unstructured data from databases, files, sensors,
respond to cyber attacks
and other sources. Data sources provide the raw data that is used in data mining and
• Security awareness training: Educate employees about cybersecurity risks and how
can be processed, cleaned, and transformed to create a usable data set for analysis.
to avoid them
• Multifactor authentication: Require users to provide at least two forms of ID
• Data Preprocessing: Data preprocessing is the process of preparing data for
verification
analysis. This typically involves cleaning and transforming the data to remove errors,
• Firewall and threat detection software: Use software to detect and block threats
inconsistencies, and irrelevant information, and to make it suitable for analysis. Data
• Physical security: Review your organization's physical security measures
preprocessing is an important step in data mining, as it ensures that the data is of high
• Minimize attack surface: Reduce the number of ways that attackers can gain
quality and is ready for analysis.
access to your systems
• Data Mining Algorithms: Data mining algorithms are the algorithms and models that • For storing data of TB size, the storage shifted to the Data Warehouse.
are used to perform data mining. These algorithms can include supervised and • Besides this, a transactional database doesn’t offer itself to analytics.
unsupervised learning algorithms, such as regression, classification, and clustering, as • To effectively perform analytics, an organization keeps a central Data Warehouse
well as more specialized algorithms for specific tasks, such as association rule mining to closely study its business by organizing, understanding, and using its historical data
and anomaly detection. Data mining algorithms are applied to the data to extract useful for making strategic decisions and analyzing trends.
insights and information from it. Benefits of Data Warehouse
• Better business analytics: Data warehouse plays an important role in every
• Data Visualization: Data visualization is the process of presenting data and insights business to store and analysis of all the past data and records of the company. which
in a clear and effective manner, typically using charts, graphs, and other can further increase the understanding or analysis of data for the company.
visualizations. Data visualization is an important part of data mining, as it allows data • Faster Queries: The data warehouse is designed to handle large queries that’s why it
miners to communicate their findings and insights to others in a way that is easy to runs queries faster than the database.
understand and interpret. • Improved data Quality: In the data warehouse the data you gathered from different
Types of Data Mining sources is being stored and analyzed it does not interfere with or add data by itself so
There are many different types of data mining, but they can generally be grouped into your quality of data is maintained and if you get any issue regarding data quality then
three broad categories: descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive. the data warehouse team will solve this.
• Descriptive data mining involves summarizing and describing the characteristics of • Historical Insight: The warehouse stores all your historical data which contains
a data set. This type of data mining is often used to explore and understand the data, details about the business so that one can analyze it at any time and extract insights
identify patterns and trends, and summarize the data in a meaningful way. from it.
• Descriptive data mining involves summarizing and describing the characteristics of
a data set. This type of data mining is often used to explore and understand the data,
identify patterns and trends, and summarize the data in a meaningful way.
• Prescriptive data mining involves using data and models to make recommendations
or suggestions about actions or decisions. This type of data mining is often used to
optimize processes, allocate resources, or make other decisions that can help
organizations achieve their goals.

Data Warehousing
• A Data Warehouse is separate from DBMS, it stores a huge amount of data, which
is typically collected from multiple heterogeneous sources like files, DBMS, etc.
• The goal is to produce statistical results that may help in decision-making.
• An ordinary Database can store MBs to GBs of data and that too for a specific
purpose.

Features of Data Warehousing

• Centralized Data Repository: Data warehousing provides a centralized repository • Volume: The sheer amount of data requires robust visualization tools that can
for all enterprise data from various sources, such as transactional databases, summarize and present data effectively without losing critical information.
operational systems, and external sources. This enables organizations to have a • Variety: Data comes in various formats (structured, unstructured, semi-structured)
comprehensive view of their data, which can help in making informed business from diverse sources· Effective visualizations must accommodate this diversity.
decisions. • Velocity: Data streams in at high speeds, especially from sources like social media
• Data Integration: Data warehousing integrates data from different sources into a and IoTdevices· Real-time visualization is often necessary to keep pace with the influx.
single, unified view, which can help in eliminating data silos and reducing data Importance of Big Data Visualization
inconsistencies. 1. Enhanced Decision-Making
• Historical Data Storage: Data warehousing stores historical data, which enables Big data visualization provides a clear and immediate understanding of data, enabling
organizations to analyze data trends over time. This can help in identifying patterns businesses and organizations to make informed decisions quickly.
and anomalies in the data, which can be used to improve business performance. 2. Improved Data Comprehension
• Query and Analysis: Data warehousing provides powerful query and analysis It aids in transforming raw numbers into meaningful insights, making it easier for
capabilities that enable users to explore and analyze data in different ways. This can analysts and non-technical users to understand the underlying trends and
help in identifying patterns and trends, and can also help in making informed business relationships.
decisions. 3. Increased Engagement
• Data Transformation: Data warehousing includes a process of data transformation, Interactive visualizations can engage users more effectively than static reports.
which involves cleaning, filtering, and formatting data from various sources to make it Dashboards and real-time visual data representations allow users to interact with the
consistent and usable. This can help in improving data quality and reducing data data, drilling down into specifics and exploring different scenarios, leading to deeper
inconsistencies. insights and more meaningful engagement with the information.
• Data Mining: Data warehousing provides data mining capabilities, which enable
organizations to discover hidden patterns and relationships in their data. This can help Types of Visualizations for Big Data
in identifying new opportunities, predicting future trends, and mitigating risks. Big Data Visualization leverages advanced graphical techniques and specialized tools
• Data Security: Data warehousing provides robust data security features, such as such as:
access controls, data encryption, and data backups, which ensure that the data is 1. Heatmaps
secure and protected from unauthorized access.

Data Visualization
Big Data Visualization refers to the techniques and tools used to graphically represent
large and complex datasets in a way that is easy to understand and interpret·
Given the volume, variety, and velocity of big data, traditional visualization methods
often fall short, requiring more sophisticated approaches to make sense of such vast
amounts of information.
Big Data Visualization is characterized by its ability to handle:
The heat map is a visualization of data that is displayed on the map or table and uses Tree Maps

different specific features and variations of different colours to represent the data. Tree maps display hierarchical data as a set of

• Heat mapping is regarded as an essential tool that if used correctly can give us nested rectangles, where each branch of the

relief from analyzing never-ending data. Value diversity on an individual basis often tree is given a rectangle, which is then tiled with

looks like an anarchy. smaller rectangles representing sub-branches.

• A heat map of values is much more friendly to view and analyze large and complex This method is useful for visualizing

amounts of figures at a glance. part-to-whole relationships within a dataset.

• Useful for showing the density of data points or the magnitude of activities across
different regions or categories.
Stream Graphs

2. Network diagrams: Stream graphs are a type of stacked area

Network diagrams are particularly valuable for visualizing complex interconnections graph that is ideal for representing changes

between entities, making them essential in fields such as social network analysis, in data over time. They are often used to

internet infrastructure, and bioinformatics. display volume fluctuations in streams of

• These diagrams are composed of nodes data and are particularly effective in

(representing entities) and edges showing the presence of patterns and

(representing relationships)· trends across different categories.

• Ideal for visualizing relationships and

interactions in data, such as social Parallel Coordinates

connections or data flows. Parallel Coordinates is used for plotting

individual data elements across multiple

Geospatial Maps dimensions. It is particularly useful for

Geospatial maps integrate geographical data with analytical data, providing a spatial visualizing and analyzing multivariate

dimension to the visualization. This type of visualization is crucial for any data with a data, allowing users to see correlations

geographic component, ranging from global economic trends to local event planning. and patterns across several

Integrating large-scale geographical data with traditional data sets to provide spatial interconnected variables.

analysis. Chord Diagrams

Chord diagrams are used to show inter-relationships between data points in a circle.
The arcs connect data points, and their thickness or color can indicate the weight or
value of the relationship, useful for representing connectivity or flows within a system.
These diagrams help identify patterns, clusters, or trends within complex datasets,
aiding in decision-making and analysis.

Applications of Big Data Information Technology Applications

Visualization
1.Healthcare
1.E-commerce
2.Finance
•E-commerce, or electronic commerce, is the buying and selling of goods and services,
3.Retail
or the transfer of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the internet.
4.Manufacturing
•E-commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds
5.Marketing
transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing,
6.Transport and logistics
electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated
data collection systems.

Online Shopping
•Online shopping is the act of buying goods or services over the internet using a
computer, smartphone, or tablet.
•Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce, also known as "ecommerce".
Ecommerce businesses can be online-only or have a physical presence as well.
•Some advantages of online shopping include Safety, Convenience, Better prices,
Variety, Authenticity, No pressure shopping, and Time-saving.
•Online shopping is becoming more and more widespread and accepted due to these
many conveniences.

Online Business
•An online business is a business that
conducts its primary activities over the
internet, such as buying, selling,
or providing services online.
•Online businesses can be started by anyone and can be inexpensive to get off the
ground.
•Here are some examples of online businesses:
•E-commerce: A business that sells products or services online, or uses the internet to
generate sales leads. E-commerce businesses can be run from a single website or
through multiple online channels.
•Selling handmade goods: You can sell handmade products on sites like Etsy, Amazon,
and eBay.
•Selling art: You can sell your art as prints, canvases, framed posters, or digital •Online education can be flexible and allow students to study at their own pace. There
downloads. You can also use a print-on-demand service to have your artwork printed are several types of online learning, including:
on mugs, T-shirts, or other goods. Asynchronous
•Affiliate marketing: You can promote other businesses' products through affiliate Students complete coursework and exams within a given time frame, and interaction
marketing. usually takes place through discussion boards, blogs, and wikis.
•Software development: You can develop software solutions. Synchronous
Students and the instructor interact online simultaneously through text, video, or audio
chat.
E-Learning
Distance Learning: Distance learning refers to the way of learning that does not
•E-learning, or online learning, is a way of learning that uses the internet and other
require you to be present physically at the university or institution.
digital technologies to deliver instruction.
•Learning materials and lectures are available online.
•It's an alternative to traditional classroom learning.
•Learners can stay at their homes while taking the course from an online university or
•E-learning courses can be accessed through electronic devices like computers,
other institution.
tablets, and cell phones.
•They will usually also have the opportunity to attend in-person workshops, residencies,
•E-learning courses can be live, pre-recorded, or a combination of both.
or other learning components, but the material is primarily taught through online
•E-learning courses can include videos, quizzes, games, and other interactive
courses.
elements.
•Learning management systems can help facilitate e-learning by storing courses,
assessments, and grades.
•Benefits of e-learning include:
•Flexibility: Students can learn at their own pace and from any location.
•Cost-effective: There's no need to spend money on travel, seminars, and hotel rooms.
•Wider coverage: E-learning can reach a large number of people in many different
locations.
•Personalized: E-learning can be tailored to the needs of individual learners.

Online Education
•Online education, also known as distance learning, e-learning, or remote learning, is •E-governance, or electronic governance, is the use of information and communication
a way to learn and teach that uses the internet. technologies (ICTs) to improve the efficiency and transparency of government
•Online education can be used in all sectors of education, from elementary schools to services.
higher education. It can be an effective alternative to traditional classroom education. •E-governance, meaning 'electronic governance' is using information and
•It can include: Watching videos, Reading articles, Taking online courses, Interacting communication technologies (ICTs) (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and
with teachers and other students online, and Submitting work electronically. mobile computing) at various levels of the government and the public sector and
beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.

•E-governance uses ICTs like the internet, mobile computing, and wide area networks •Examples of online government services include:
•It improves the exchange of information and transactions between governments, •DigiLocker: A secure cloud-based platform for storing and sharing documents like
businesses, and citizens Aadhaar cards, driving licenses, and PAN cards
•It can also improve internal government operations •UMANG: A mobile app that provides access to government services like Aadhaar,
•Benefits of e-governance include: Digital Locker, PAN, and Employee Provident Fund services.
•E-governance can make government processes more efficient, transparent, and (Unified Mobile Application for New-age Government)
accountable. •PayGov: A service that allows citizens to make online payments to public and private
•It can help strengthen the connection between public officials and communities. banks
•It can lead to a more inclusive and accountable democracy. •Mobile Seva: A service that provides government services through mobile phones and
tablets
•myGov.in: A national platform that allows citizens to share ideas and participate in
Online Government Services
policy and governance matters
•Online government services, also known as e-government, are services that are
delivered to citizens and between government departments using information and
communication technologies (ICTs). Digital India Initiatives
•The goal of e-government is to improve governance, efficiency, Digital India Initiatives refer to the Government of India's flagship program aimed at
and transforming India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
transparency. Launched on 1st July 2015, the program emphasizes the use of technology to improve
•Digital government services (also called e-government) are defined as service delivery governance, enhance connectivity, and foster inclusivity.
within government — as well as between government and the public — using Below are key pillars and major initiatives under the program:
information and communication technologies.
•Benefits of online government services are Improved user experience for citizens, Key Pillars of Digital India
Increased public participation, Improved internal efficiency and productivity, Reduced
labor costs, and More innovation.
1.Broadband Highways: Major Initiatives Under Digital India
Aim: Provide high-speed internet connectivity across the country, especially in rural 1.Aadhaar:
areas. A unique identification system for residents with biometric and demographic details.
Initiatives: BharatNet, GramNet, and National Knowledge Network.
2.Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity: 2.BharatNet:
Aim: Expand mobile network coverage to all rural and remote areas. High-speed broadband connectivity to over 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.
Progress: Network expansion to connect uncovered villages.
3.Public Internet Access Program: 3.UMANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-Age Governance):
Aim: Establish Common Service Centres (CSCs) and Post Offices as multi-service A unified platform for accessing various government services through a mobile app.
digital access points.
Examples: CSC 2.0. 4.Digital Locker:
4.e-Governance – Reforming Government through Technology: A secure cloud-based platform for storing and sharing government-issued documents.
Aim: Use IT to simplify government processes.
5.e-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services: 5.BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money):
Aim: Provide electronic delivery of various government services. A UPI-based payment app promoting cashless transactions.
Examples: e-Hospital, National Scholarship Portal, and e-NAM for farmers.
6.Information for All: 6.Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) Trinity:
Aim: Ensure transparency by providing access to information in a timely and reliable Integration of financial inclusion, unique identification, and mobile connectivity for
manner. direct benefit transfers.
Platforms: MyGov portal, SMS alerts.
7.Electronics Manufacturing: 7.Smart Cities Mission:
Aim: Boost domestic manufacturing of electronics, reduce imports, and increase job Incorporating ICT (Information and Communication Technology) to make cities
creation. sustainable and efficient.
Initiatives: Modified Incentive Special Package Scheme (M-SIPS), Electronics
Development Fund. 8.Make in India and Start-Up India:
8.IT for Jobs: Support for technology-driven startups and innovation.
Aim: Provide training in IT skills to increase employability.
Programs: Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA). 9.GeM (Government e-Marketplace):
9.Early Harvest Programs: A platform for procurement of goods and services by government
Aim: Implement initiatives with short timelines for quick benefits. organizations.
Examples: Wi-Fi in schools, biometric attendance in government offices.

10. eCourts:
Digitization of judiciary for faster case resolutions.

Impact of Digital India

•Increased Connectivity: Internet penetration has improved significantly in rural areas.
•Digital Payments: Widespread adoption of digital payment methods like UPI and mobile
wallets.
•Transparency: Reduction in corruption due to direct benefit transfers and e-
governance.
•Job Creation: Enhanced opportunities in IT, electronics manufacturing, and e-
services.
•Inclusive Growth: Bridging the digital divide between urban and rural areas. The Digital
India Mission continues to evolve, empowering citizens with digital tools, enhancing
infrastructure, and fostering innovation across the country.