GENERAL UNIX COMMANDS

1] pwd: It stands for Print Working Directory/Present Working Directory

The pwd command displays the full pathname of the current directory.

Syntax

pwd

Example:
$pwd
/home/pc10
$

2] Creating & Viewing Files

The 'cat' command is used to display text files. It can also be used for copying, combining and
creating new text files.

To create a new file, use the command

1. cat > filename

2. Add content
3. Press 'ctrl + d' to return to command prompt.

To view a file, use the command -

cat filename

The syntax to combine 2 files is -

cat file1 file2 > newfilename

To add content to existing file, use the command -

cat >>filename

Options

Option Description

-e or -E It prints $ mark to the end of each line.

-n It numbers each line of file.

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3] Deleting Files

The 'rm' command removes files from the system without confirmation.

To remove a file use syntax -

rm [option] file(s)/directory name(s)

Example:
1] rm sample.f - deletes sample.f
2] rm chap?.txt - deletes all files with chap as the first four characters of their name including with
any one more character and having extension.txt.
3] rm -i * - deletes all files in current directory but asks first for each file
4] rm -r /olddir - recursively removes all files in the directory olddir, including the directory itself.

Options
Option Description

-i(interactive) This option removes file interactively.

It is used to remove non-empty directory, together with all the files and
-r(recursive)
subdirectories contains.

This option is used to remove a file forcibly without displaying write

-f(force)
protected message.

4] Moving OR Rename files

To move a file, use the command.

mv filename new_file_location

Suppose we want to move the file "sample2" to location /home/zsp/Document. Executing the
command

mv sample2 /home/zsp/Document

For renaming file:

mv filename newfilename
mv sample.f sample2.f - moves sample.f to sample2.f
mv dir1 newdir/dir2 - moves contents of directory
dir1 to newdir/dir2
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 mv -i file.1 file.new - prompts if file.new will be
overwritten
mv *.txt chapt1 - moves all files with .txt
suffix to directory chapt1

Options

Option Description

-I (interactive) It warns you before overwrite an existing file.

-f (force) It suppress interactive overwrite message.

cp - copies files. Will overwrite unless otherwise specified. Must also have write permission in the
destination directory.

cp sample.f sample2.f - copies sample.f to sample2.f

cp -R dir1 dir2 - copies contents of directory
dir1 to dir2
cp -i file.1 file.new - prompts if file.new will be
overwritten
cp *.txt chapt1 - copies all files with .txt
suffix to directory chapt1
cp /usr/doc/README ~ - copies file to your home
directory
cp ~betty/index . - copies the file "index" from
user betty's home directory
to current directory

Options

Option Description

Destination file is already exist and user want to show an overwriting

-I (interactive)
prompt for an existing file during copy then –I option is used.

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Option Description

The – r option recursively copy an entire directory structure to another

-r (recursive)
directory.

Copy operation changes access and modification time. This option

-p (preserve)
preserve access and modification date time of file.

-l (link) This option creates a link instead of copying a file.

5] Creating Directories

Directories can be created on a Linux operating system using the following command

mkdir directoryname

This command will create a subdirectory in your present working directory, which is usually your
"Home Directory".

For example,

mkdir mydirectory
The mkdir command creates a single directories or multiple directories.

Syntax
The syntax for the mkdir command is:

mkdir [options] directories

Options

Option Description

-m mode Sets the access mode for the new directory.

-p If the parent directories don't exist, this command creates them.

Example

mkdir -m 444 tech

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mkdir -p d1/d2/d3

6] Removing Directories

To remove a directory, use the command -

rmdir directoryname

Example

rmdir zsp

will delete the directory zsp

Options

Option Description

This option remove directories and any intervening parent directories that become empty
-p
as a result useful for removing subdirectory trees.

-v Rmdir do not display any message after removal of empty directory.

7] The 'Man' command

Man stands for manual which is a reference book of a Linux operating system. It is similar to HELP file
found in popular software.

To get help on any command that you do not understand, you can type

man

The terminal would open the manual page for that command

8] The History Command

History command shows all the commands that you have used in the past for the current terminal
session. This can help you refer to the old commands you have entered and re-used them in your
operations again.

9] The clear command

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This command clears all the clutter on the terminal and gives you a clean window to work on, just
like when you launch the terminal.

10] 'pr' command

This command helps in formatting the file for printing on the terminal. There are many options
available with this command which help in making desired format changes on file. The most used
'pr' options are listed below.

Option Function

-x Divides the data into 'x' columns

-h "header" Assigns "header" value as the report header

-t Does not print the header and top/bottom margins

-d Double spaces the output file

-n Denotes all line with numbers

-l page length Defines the lines (page length) in a page. Default is 56

-o margin Formats the page by the margin number

11] Printing a file

Once you are done with the formatting, and it is time for you to get a hard copy of the file, you need
to use the following command:

lp Filename

or

lpr Filename

In case you want to print multiple copies of the file, you can use the number modifier.

12] Listing files (ls)

It shows the files /directories in your current directory.

'ls -al' gives detailed information of the files. The command provides information in a columnar
format. The columns contain the following information:

1st Column File type and access permissions

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 2nd Column # of Hard Links to the File

3rd Column Owner/the creator of the file

4th Column Group of the owner

5th Column File size in Bytes

6th Column Date and Time

7th Column Directory or File name

ls -a

Listing Hidden Files

Hidden items in UNIX/Linux begin with .(period) symbol at the start, of the file or directory.

Any Directory/file starting with a '.' will not be seen unless you request for it. To view hidden files,
use the command.

The ls command lists all files in the directory that match the name. If name is left blank, it will list all
of the files in the directory.

Syntax
The syntax for the ls command is:

ls [options] [names]

ls abc* # list all files starting with abc---

ls *abc* # list all files containing --abc--
ls *abc # list all files ending with --abc

The Unix command to return the files that ends with single digit and has .txt extension

ls -l *[0-9].txt

Options

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Option Description

-a Displays all files.

-b Displays nonprinting characters in octal.

-c Displays files by file timestamp.

-C Displays files in a columnar format (default)

-d Displays only directories.

-f Interprets each name as a directory, not a file.

-F Flags filenames.

-g Displays the long format listing, but exclude the owner name.

-i Displays the inode for each file.

-l Displays the long format listing.

-L Displays the file or directory referenced by a symbolic link.

-m Displays the names as a comma-separated list.

-n Displays the long format listing, with GID and UID numbers.

-o Displays the long format listing, but excludes group name.

-p Displays directories with /

-q Displays all nonprinting characters as ?

-r Displays files in reverse order.

-R Displays subdirectories as well.

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Option Description

-t Displays newest files first. (based on timestamp)

-u Displays files by the file access time.

-x Displays files as rows across the screen.

-1 Displays each entry on a line.

13] cd

The change directory (cd) command is used to move one directory to another directory.
Syntax

cd [path name/directory name]

Examples of CD commands

cd Changes to user home directory

cd / It changes directory to system root
cd . this represents the current directory
cd .. this represents the parent directory or move one level up
cd ../.. Move two directory level up
cd ~ Switch to home directory of the user, similar to cd without argument

cd ./filename Add the child directories

Standard Abbreviation for directories are as follows

.(dot)=> indicates current directory

..(two-dots)=> used to move to its parent directory

/(slash)=> for root directory

~(tild) =>for home directory

14] chmod command

The chmod command changes the access mode of one file or multiple files. It works in two modes –
Symbolic or Relative and Absolute Mode

Syntax

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The syntax for the chmod command is:

chmod [option] mode files

1] Using chmod in Symbolic Mode:

The easiest way to modify file or directory permission is to use the symbolic mode. With this, we can
add, delete or specify the permission by using following set of operators.

Chmod operator description

+ Add given permission to file/directory
- Remove given permission to file/directory
= Set the permission

2] Using chmod with absolute permission:

The second way to modify permission with chmod command is to use a number to specify each set
of permission on the file.
Each permission is assigned a value as per following table and the total of each set of permission
provides a number for that set.
Example:
$chmod 777 f1
ls –l f1
rwx-rwx-rwx 1 bca bca 1012 Nov 19 10:00 f1

Number Octal permission Representation Reference

0 No permission ---
1 Execute permission --x
2 Write permission -w-
3 Execute and write permission:1(execute) + 2(write)=3 -wx
4 Read permission r--
5 Read and Execute permission: Read(4) + Execute(1)=5 rw-
6 Read and write permission:Read(4) + Write(2)=6 rw-
7 All permission 4(read) +2 (Write)+1 (execute) =7 rwx

Example

chmod 751 tech

chmod u=rwx, g=rx, o=x tech
chmod =r tech

Options

Option Description

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Option Description

-R Descend directory arguments recursively while setting modes.

-f Suppress error messages if command fails.

15] passwd

The passwd command changes the password for the user.

Syntax

passwd [options] [user]

Option Description

-s Displays password information.

16] more

The more command displays the file called name in the screen. The RETURN key displays the next
line of the file. The spacebar displays the next screen of the file.

Syntax
The syntax for the more command is:

more [options] [files]

Options

Option Description

-c Page through the file by clearing the window. (not scrolling).

-d Displays "Press space to continue, 'q' to quit"

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Option Description

-f Count logical lines rather than screen lines (wrapping text)

-l Ignores form feed (^L) characters.

-r Display all control characters.

-s Displays multiple blank lines as one blank line.

-u Does not display underline characters and backspace (^H).

-w Waits for a user to press a key before exiting.

-n Displays n lines per window.

+num Displays the file starting at line number num.

+/pattern Displays the file starting at two lines before the pattern.

Example

more -d tech

filter utilitie

head

syn

Options

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Option Description

-Nc It prints first N – character of file.

-N (number of lines) It prints first N-lines instead of default 10 –lines of file.

-q (quit ) It never print name of files as header , more than one file is given.

Tail

Option Description

-Nc (number of character) It display last N- character of file.

-n(number of lines) It show last n-lines of file.

-q (quit ) It never show filename as heading for specified files.

+n( n is number) It display lines from nth to last line of input file.

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