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Introduction
In linear regression, the type of data we deal with is quantitative, whereas we use
classification models to deal with qualitative data or categorical data. The algorithms used
for solving a classification problem first predict the probability of each of the categories of
the qualitative variables, as the basis for making the classification. And, as the probabilities
are continuous numbers, classification using probabilities also behave like regression
methods. Logistic regression is one such type of classification model which is used to
classify the dependent variable into two or more classes or categories.

Why don’t we use Linear regression for classification problems?

Let’s suppose you took a survey and noted the response of each person as satisfied, neutral
or Not satisfied. Let’s map each category:

Satisfied – 2

Neutral – 1

Not Satisfied – 0

But this doesn’t mean that the gap between Not satisfied and Neutral is same as Neutral
and satisfied. There is no mathematical significance of these mapping. We can also map the
categories like:

Satisfied – 0

Neutral – 1

Not Satisfied – 2

It’s completely fine to choose the above mapping. If we apply linear regression to both the
type of mappings, we will get different sets of predictions. Also, we can get prediction values
like 1.2, 0.8, 2.3 etc. which makes no sense for categorical values. So, there is no normal
method to convert qualitative data into quantitative data for use in linear regression.
Although, for binary classification, i.e. when there only two categorical values, using the
least square method can give decent results. Suppose we have two categories Black and
White and we map them as follows:

Black – 0

White - 1

We can assign predicted values for both the categories such as Y> 0.5 goes to class white
and vice versa. Although, there will be some predictions for which the value can be greater
than 1 or less than 0 making them hard to classify in any class. Nevertheless, linear
regression can work decently for binary classification but not that well for multi-class
classification. Hence, we use classification methods for dealing with such problems.

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Logistic Regression
Logistic regression is one such regression algorithm which can be used for performing
classification problems. It calculates the probability that a given value belongs to a specific
class. If the probability is more than 50%, it assigns the value in that particular class else if
the probability is less than 50%, the value is assigned to the other class. Therefore, we can
say that logistic regression acts as a binary classifier.

Working of a Logistic Model

For linear regression, the model is defined by: 𝑦 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑥 - (i)

and for logistic regression, we calculate probability, i.e. y is the probability of a given variable
x belonging to a certain class. Thus, it is obvious that the value of y should lie between 0
and 1.

But, when we use equation(i) to calculate probability, we would get values less than 0 as
well as greater than 1. That doesn’t make any sense . So, we need to use such an equation
which always gives values between 0 and 1, as we desire while calculating the probability.

Sigmoid function

We use the sigmoid function as the underlying function in Logistic regression.

Mathematically and graphically.

Why do we use the Sigmoid Function?

1. The sigmoid function’s range is bounded between 0 and 1. Thus it’s useful in calculating
the probability for the Logistic function.
2. It’s derivative is easy to calculate than other functions which is useful during gradient
descent calculation.
3. It is a simple way of introducing non-linearity to the model.

Although there are other functions as well, which can be used, but sigmoid is the most
common function used for logistic regression. We will talk about the rest of the functions in
the neural network section.

Evaluation of a Classification Model

In machine learning, once we have a result of the classification problem, how do we
measure how accurate our classification is? For a regression problem, we have different
metrics like R Squared score, Mean Squared Error etc. what are the metrics to measure the
credibility of a classification model?

Metrics In a regression problem, the accuracy is generally measured in terms of the

difference in the actual values and the predicted values. In a classification problem, the
credibility of the model is measured using the confusion matrix generated, i.e., how
accurately the true positives and true negatives were predicted. The different metrics used
for this purpose are:

Accuracy
Recall

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Precision
F1 Score
Specifity
AUC( Area Under the Curve)
ROC(Receiver Operator Characteristic)
Classification Report

Confusion Matrix
Where the terms have the meaning:

 True Positive(TP): A result that was predicted as positive by the classification model and
also is positive

 True Negative(TN): A result that was predicted as negative by the classification model
and also is negative

 False Positive(FP): A result that was predicted as positive by the classification model but
actually is negative

 False Negative(FN): A result that was predicted as negative by the classification model
but actually is positive.

The Credibility of the model is based on how many correct predictions did the model do.

Accuracy
The mathematical formula is :

(𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁)
Accuracy= (𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃+𝐹𝑁)
Or, it can be said that it’s defined as the total number of correct classifications divided by the
total number of classifications. Its is not the correct for inbalanc data beacause its always
show you high accurancy becoz its bais to the high count data in binary classification becoz
its not calculate the error / its won't count the error

Recall or Sensitivity

The mathematical formula is:

𝑇𝑃
Recall= (𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑁)
Or, as the name suggests, it is a measure of: from the total number of positive results how
many positives were correctly predicted by the model.

It shows how relevant the model is, in terms of positive results only.

Consider a classification model , the model gave 50 correct predictions(TP) but failed to
identify 200 cancer patients(FN). Recall in that case will be:

50
Recall= (50+200) = 0.2 (The model was able to recall only 20% of the cancer patients)

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Precision
Precision is a measure of amongst all the positive predictions, how many of them were
actually positive. Mathematically,
𝑇𝑃
Precision= (𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑃)
Let’s suppose in the previous example, the model identified 50 people as cancer
patients(TP) but also raised a false alarm for 100 patients(FP). Hence,

50
Precision= (50+100) =0.33 (The model only has a precision of 33%)
But we have a problem!!
As evident from the previous example, the model had a very high Accuracy but performed
poorly in terms of Precision and Recall. So, necessarily Accuracy is not the metric to use for
evaluating the model in this case.

Imagine a scenario, where the requirement was that the model recalled all the defaulters
who did not pay back the loan. Suppose there were 10 such defaulters and to recall those
10 defaulters, and the model gave you 20 results out of which only the 10 are the actual
defaulters. Now, the recall of the model is 100%, but the precision goes down to 50%.

F1 Score
From the previous examples, it is clear that we need a metric that considers both Precision
and Recall for evaluating a model. One such metric is the F1 score.

F1 score is defined as the harmonic mean of Precision and Recall.

2∗((𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛∗𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙)
The mathematical formula is: F1 score= (𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛+𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙))
Specificity or True Negative Rate
This represents how specific is the model while predicting the True Negatives.
Mathematically,

𝑇𝑁
Specificity= (𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃) Or, it can be said that it quantifies the total number of negatives
predicted by the model with respect to the total number of actual negative or non favorable
outcomes.

𝐹𝑃
Similarly, False Positive rate can be defined as: (1- specificity) Or, (𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃)
ROC(Receiver Operator Characteristic)
We know that the classification algorithms work on the concept of probability of occurrence
of the possible outcomes. A probability value lies between 0 and 1. Zero means that there is
no probability of occurrence and one means that the occurrence is certain.

But while working with real-time data, it has been observed that we seldom get a perfect 0
or 1 value. Instead of that, we get different decimal values lying between 0 and 1. Now the
question is if we are not getting binary probability values how are we actually determining
the class in our classification problem?

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There comes the concept of Threshold. A threshold is set, any probability value below the
threshold is a negative outcome, and anything more than the threshold is a favourable or the
positive outcome. For Example, if the threshold is 0.5, any probability value below 0.5
means a negative or an unfavourable outcome and any value above 0.5 indicates a positive
or favourable outcome.

Now, the question is, what should be an ideal threshold?

The horizontal lines represent the various values of thresholds ranging from 0 to 1.
Let’s suppose our classification problem was to identify the obese people from the
given data.
The green markers represent obese people and the red markers represent the non-
obese people.
Our confusion matrix will depend on the value of the threshold chosen by us.
For Example, if 0.25 is the threshold then TP(actually obese)=3 TN(Not obese)=2
FP(Not obese but predicted obese)=2(the two red squares above the 0.25 line)
FN(Obese but predicted as not obese )=1(Green circle below 0.25line )

business case: to predict weather a a patient

will have a diaabetes or not
In [78]: # libraries
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import seaborn as sns
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
%matplotlib inline

In [5]: data = pd.read_csv('diabetes.csv')

In [6]: data

Out[6]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigreeFun

0 6 148 72 35 0 33.6

1 1 85 66 29 0 26.6

2 8 183 64 0 0 23.3

3 1 89 66 23 94 28.1

4 0 137 40 35 168 43.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

763 10 101 76 48 180 32.9

764 2 122 70 27 0 36.8

765 5 121 72 23 112 26.2

766 1 126 60 0 0 30.1

767 1 93 70 31 0 30.4

768 rows × 9 columns

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In [7]: data.info()

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 768 entries, 0 to 767
Data columns (total 9 columns):
# Column Non-Null Count Dtype
--- ------ -------------- -----
0 Pregnancies 768 non-null int64
1 Glucose 768 non-null int64
2 BloodPressure 768 non-null int64
3 SkinThickness 768 non-null int64
4 Insulin 768 non-null int64
5 BMI 768 non-null float64
6 DiabetesPedigreeFunction 768 non-null float64
7 Age 768 non-null int64
8 Outcome 768 non-null int64
dtypes: float64(2), int64(7)
memory usage: 54.1 KB

In [10]: data.describe()

Out[10]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI Diab

count 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000

mean 3.845052 120.894531 69.105469 20.536458 79.799479 31.992578

std 3.369578 31.972618 19.355807 15.952218 115.244002 7.884160

min 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000

25% 1.000000 99.000000 62.000000 0.000000 0.000000 27.300000

50% 3.000000 117.000000 72.000000 23.000000 30.500000 32.000000

75% 6.000000 140.250000 80.000000 32.000000 127.250000 36.600000

max 17.000000 199.000000 122.000000 99.000000 846.000000 67.100000

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EDA
In [12]: # Univariate analysis

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In [13]: !pip install sweetviz

Requirement already satisfied: sweetviz in c:\users\shrik\anaconda3\lib\si

te-packages (2.3.0)
Requirement already satisfied: pandas!=1.0.0,!=1.0.1,!=1.0.2,>=0.25.3 in
c:\users\shrik\anaconda3\lib\site-packages (from sweetviz) (2.0.3)
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ib\site-packages (from sweetviz) (1.24.3)
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a3\lib\site-packages (from sweetviz) (3.7.2)
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b\site-packages (from sweetviz) (4.65.0)
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b\site-packages (from sweetviz) (1.11.1)
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\lib\site-packages (from sweetviz) (3.1.2)
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k\anaconda3\lib\site-packages (from sweetviz) (6.1.1)
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\lib\site-packages (from jinja2>=2.11.1->sweetviz) (2.1.1)
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3\lib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (1.0.5)
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a3\lib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (1.4.4)
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\lib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (23.1)
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ib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (9.4.0)
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conda3\lib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (3.0.9)
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onda3\lib\site-packages (from matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (2.8.2)
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b\site-packages (from pandas!=1.0.0,!=1.0.1,!=1.0.2,>=0.25.3->sweetviz) (2
023.3.post1)
Requirement already satisfied: tzdata>=2022.1 in c:\users\shrik\anaconda3
\lib\site-packages (from pandas!=1.0.0,!=1.0.1,!=1.0.2,>=0.25.3->sweetviz)
(2023.3)
Requirement already satisfied: colorama in c:\users\shrik\anaconda3\lib\si
te-packages (from tqdm>=4.43.0->sweetviz) (0.4.6)
Requirement already satisfied: six>=1.5 in c:\users\shrik\anaconda3\lib\si
te-packages (from python-dateutil>=2.7->matplotlib>=3.1.3->sweetviz) (1.1
6.0)

In [14]: import sweetviz as sv

my_report = sv.analyze(data)
my_report.show_html()

Done! Use 'show' commands to display/save. [100%] 00:01 -> (00:00 left)

Report SWEETVIZ_REPORT.html was generated! NOTEBOOK/COLAB USERS: the web b

rowser MAY not pop up, regardless, the report IS saved in your notebook/co
lab files.

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In [15]: data.head()

Out[15]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigreeFunct

0 6 148 72 35 0 33.6 0.6

1 1 85 66 29 0 26.6 0.3

2 8 183 64 0 0 23.3 0.6

3 1 89 66 23 94 28.1 0.

4 0 137 40 35 168 43.1 2.2

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In [16]: # bi variate analysis

In [17]: sns.countplot(x= data.Pregnancies, hue = data.Outcome)

plt.show()

In [18]: # missing values

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In [19]: data.isnull().sum()

Out[19]: Pregnancies 0
Glucose 0
BloodPressure 0
SkinThickness 0
Insulin 0
BMI 0
DiabetesPedigreeFunction 0
Age 0
Outcome 0
dtype: int64

In [20]: data.loc[data['BMI']==0]

Out[20]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigreeFun

9 8 125 96 0 0 0.0

49 7 105 0 0 0 0.0

60 2 84 0 0 0 0.0

81 2 74 0 0 0 0.0

145 0 102 75 23 0 0.0

371 0 118 64 23 89 0.0

426 0 94 0 0 0 0.0

494 3 80 0 0 0 0.0

522 6 114 0 0 0 0.0

684 5 136 82 0 0 0.0

706 10 115 0 0 0 0.0

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In [21]: data['BMI'].mean()

Out[21]: 31.992578124999998

In [22]: # replacing 0 values with either mean or meadian

data['BMI'] = data['BMI'].replace(0, data['BMI'].mean())
data['Glucose'] = data['Glucose'].replace(0, data['Glucose'].mean())
data['BloodPressure'] = data['BloodPressure'].replace(0, data['BloodPressure
data['SkinThickness'] = data['SkinThickness'].replace(0, data['SkinThickness
data['Insulin'] = data['Insulin'].replace(0, data['Insulin'].mean())

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In [23]: data.describe()

Out[23]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI Diab

count 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000 768.000000

mean 3.845052 121.681605 72.254807 26.606479 118.660163 32.450805

std 3.369578 30.436016 12.115932 9.631241 93.080358 6.875374

min 0.000000 44.000000 24.000000 7.000000 14.000000 18.200000

25% 1.000000 99.750000 64.000000 20.536458 79.799479 27.500000

50% 3.000000 117.000000 72.000000 23.000000 79.799479 32.000000

75% 6.000000 140.250000 80.000000 32.000000 127.250000 36.600000

max 17.000000 199.000000 122.000000 99.000000 846.000000 67.100000

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In [24]: data

Out[24]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigree

0 6 148.0 72.0 35.000000 79.799479 33.6

1 1 85.0 66.0 29.000000 79.799479 26.6

2 8 183.0 64.0 20.536458 79.799479 23.3

3 1 89.0 66.0 23.000000 94.000000 28.1

4 0 137.0 40.0 35.000000 168.000000 43.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

763 10 101.0 76.0 48.000000 180.000000 32.9

764 2 122.0 70.0 27.000000 79.799479 36.8

765 5 121.0 72.0 23.000000 112.000000 26.2

766 1 126.0 60.0 20.536458 79.799479 30.1

767 1 93.0 70.0 31.000000 79.799479 30.4

768 rows × 9 columns

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outliers
In [30]: data.columns
data1 = ['Pregnancies', 'Glucose', 'BloodPressure', 'SkinThickness', 'Insuli
'BMI', 'DiabetesPedigreeFunction', 'Age', 'Outcome']

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In [32]: plt.figure(figsize=(20,25), facecolor= 'White')

plotnumber =1
​
for column in data:
if plotnumber <= 9:
ax = plt.subplot(3,3, plotnumber)
sns.boxplot(data[column])
plt.xlabel(column, fontsize = 20)
plotnumber +=1
plt.show()

feature selection

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In [39]: tc = data.drop('Outcome', axis =1)

sns.heatmap(tc.corr(), annot = True)
plt.show()

In [40]: # Model Creation

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In [41]: data

Out[41]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigree

0 6 148.0 72.0 35.000000 79.799479 33.6

1 1 85.0 66.0 29.000000 79.799479 26.6

2 8 183.0 64.0 20.536458 79.799479 23.3

3 1 89.0 66.0 23.000000 94.000000 28.1

4 0 137.0 40.0 35.000000 168.000000 43.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

763 10 101.0 76.0 48.000000 180.000000 32.9

764 2 122.0 70.0 27.000000 79.799479 36.8

765 5 121.0 72.0 23.000000 112.000000 26.2

766 1 126.0 60.0 20.536458 79.799479 30.1

767 1 93.0 70.0 31.000000 79.799479 30.4

768 rows × 9 columns

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In [42]: X = data.drop('Outcome', axis=1)

y = data['Outcome']

In [43]: X

Out[43]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigree

0 6 148.0 72.0 35.000000 79.799479 33.6

1 1 85.0 66.0 29.000000 79.799479 26.6

2 8 183.0 64.0 20.536458 79.799479 23.3

3 1 89.0 66.0 23.000000 94.000000 28.1

4 0 137.0 40.0 35.000000 168.000000 43.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

763 10 101.0 76.0 48.000000 180.000000 32.9

764 2 122.0 70.0 27.000000 79.799479 36.8

765 5 121.0 72.0 23.000000 112.000000 26.2

766 1 126.0 60.0 20.536458 79.799479 30.1

767 1 93.0 70.0 31.000000 79.799479 30.4

768 rows × 8 columns

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In [44]: # scale the individual features

# 1. min-max scaler
# 2. standard scaler

In [45]: from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

scaler = StandardScaler()
X_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X)

In [46]: X_scaled

Out[46]: array([[ 0.63994726, 0.86527574, -0.0210444 , ..., 0.16725546,

0.46849198, 1.4259954 ],
[-0.84488505, -1.20598931, -0.51658286, ..., -0.85153454,
-0.36506078, -0.19067191],
[ 1.23388019, 2.01597855, -0.68176235, ..., -1.33182125,
0.60439732, -0.10558415],
...,
[ 0.3429808 , -0.02240928, -0.0210444 , ..., -0.90975111,
-0.68519336, -0.27575966],
[-0.84488505, 0.14197684, -1.01212132, ..., -0.34213954,
-0.37110101, 1.17073215],
[-0.84488505, -0.94297153, -0.18622389, ..., -0.29847711,
-0.47378505, -0.87137393]])

In [47]: from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

X_train, x_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X_scaled, y, test_size=0

In [48]: from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression

log_reg = LogisticRegression()
log_reg.fit(X_train, y_train)

Out[48]: ▾ LogisticRegression
LogisticRegression()

In [50]: y_train_pred = log_reg.predict(X_train)

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In [51]: y_train_pred

Out[51]: array([1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0,
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1,
1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1,
0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1,
0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0,
1, 0, 0, 0], dtype=int64)

In [52]: y_pred = log_reg.predict(x_test)

In [53]: y_pred

Out[53]: array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1,
0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1,
0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0], dtype=int64)

In [55]: y_pred.shape

Out[55]: (192,)

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In [56]: data

Out[56]:
Pregnancies Glucose BloodPressure SkinThickness Insulin BMI DiabetesPedigree

0 6 148.0 72.0 35.000000 79.799479 33.6

1 1 85.0 66.0 29.000000 79.799479 26.6

2 8 183.0 64.0 20.536458 79.799479 23.3

3 1 89.0 66.0 23.000000 94.000000 28.1

4 0 137.0 40.0 35.000000 168.000000 43.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

763 10 101.0 76.0 48.000000 180.000000 32.9

764 2 122.0 70.0 27.000000 79.799479 36.8

765 5 121.0 72.0 23.000000 112.000000 26.2

766 1 126.0 60.0 20.536458 79.799479 30.1

767 1 93.0 70.0 31.000000 79.799479 30.4

768 rows × 9 columns

 

In [57]: # evaluating logistic regression model

In [77]: from sklearn.metrics import (accuracy_score, confusion_matrix, precision_sco

recall_score, f1_score, roc_auc_score, classification_report)

In [59]: accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)

accuracy

Out[59]: 0.78125

In [60]: precision = precision_score(y_test, y_pred)

In [61]: precision

Out[61]: 0.7708333333333334

In [63]: recall = recall_score(y_test, y_pred)

In [64]: recall

Out[64]: 0.5441176470588235

In [66]: f1_score= f1_score(y_test, y_pred)

In [67]: f1_score

Out[67]: 0.6379310344827587

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In [68]: pd.crosstab(y_test, y_pred)

Out[68]:
col_0 0 1

Outcome

0 113 11

1 31 37

In [70]: auc = roc_auc_score(y_test, y_pred)

In [71]: auc

Out[71]: 0.7277039848197343

In [73]: report = classification_report(y_test,y_pred)

In [75]: print(report)

precision recall f1-score support

0 0.78 0.91 0.84 124

1 0.77 0.54 0.64 68

accuracy 0.78 192

macro avg 0.78 0.73 0.74 192
weighted avg 0.78 0.78 0.77 192

Multiclass classification
In [80]: import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns

In [81]: data = sns.load_dataset('iris')

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In [82]: data

Out[82]:
sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width species

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa

1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa

2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa

3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa

4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

... ... ... ... ... ...

145 6.7 3.0 5.2 2.3 virginica

146 6.3 2.5 5.0 1.9 virginica

147 6.5 3.0 5.2 2.0 virginica

148 6.2 3.4 5.4 2.3 virginica

149 5.9 3.0 5.1 1.8 virginica

150 rows × 5 columns

In [84]: data.species.unique()

Out[84]: array(['setosa', 'versicolor', 'virginica'], dtype=object)

In [85]: data.species.value_counts()

Out[85]: species
setosa 50
versicolor 50
virginica 50
Name: count, dtype: int64

In [91]: X = data.loc[:,['sepal_length', 'sepal_width', 'petal_length', 'petal_width

y = data.species

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In [90]: X

Out[90]:
sepal_length sepal_width petal_length petal_width

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2

1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2

2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2

3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2

4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2

... ... ... ... ...

145 6.7 3.0 5.2 2.3

146 6.3 2.5 5.0 1.9

147 6.5 3.0 5.2 2.0

148 6.2 3.4 5.4 2.3

149 5.9 3.0 5.1 1.8

150 rows × 4 columns

In [92]: y

Out[92]: 0 setosa
1 setosa
2 setosa
3 setosa
4 setosa
...
145 virginica
146 virginica
147 virginica
148 virginica
149 virginica
Name: species, Length: 150, dtype: object

In [93]: from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

sc = StandardScaler()
X_new = sc.fit_transform(X)

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In [94]: X_new

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Out[94]: array([[-9.00681170e-01, 1.01900435e+00, -1.34022653e+00,

-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.14301691e+00, -1.31979479e-01, -1.34022653e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.38535265e+00, 3.28414053e-01, -1.39706395e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.50652052e+00, 9.82172869e-02, -1.28338910e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.02184904e+00, 1.24920112e+00, -1.34022653e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-5.37177559e-01, 1.93979142e+00, -1.16971425e+00,
-1.05217993e+00],
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-1.18381211e+00],
[-1.02184904e+00, 7.88807586e-01, -1.28338910e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.74885626e+00, -3.62176246e-01, -1.34022653e+00,
-1.31544430e+00],
[-1.14301691e+00, 9.82172869e-02, -1.28338910e+00,
-1.44707648e+00],
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-1.31544430e+00],
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-1.31544430e+00],
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-1.44707648e+00],
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-1.05217993e+00],
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-1.31544430e+00],
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-1.31544430e+00],
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[-1.26418478e+00, -1.31979479e-01, -1.34022653e+00,
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[ 7.95669016e-01, 3.28414053e-01, 7.62758269e-01,
1.05393502e+00],
[ 6.74501145e-01, -8.22569778e-01, 8.76433123e-01,
9.22302838e-01],
[ 1.15917263e+00, -1.31979479e-01, 9.90107977e-01,
1.18556721e+00],
[-1.73673948e-01, -1.28296331e+00, 7.05920842e-01,
1.05393502e+00],
[-5.25060772e-02, -5.92373012e-01, 7.62758269e-01,
1.58046376e+00],
[ 6.74501145e-01, 3.28414053e-01, 8.76433123e-01,
1.44883158e+00],
[ 7.95669016e-01, -1.31979479e-01, 9.90107977e-01,
7.90670654e-01],
[ 2.24968346e+00, 1.70959465e+00, 1.67215710e+00,
1.31719939e+00],
[ 2.24968346e+00, -1.05276654e+00, 1.78583195e+00,
1.44883158e+00],
[ 1.89829664e-01, -1.97355361e+00, 7.05920842e-01,
3.95774101e-01],
[ 1.28034050e+00, 3.28414053e-01, 1.10378283e+00,
1.44883158e+00],
[-2.94841818e-01, -5.92373012e-01, 6.49083415e-01,
1.05393502e+00],

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2/2/24, 7:29 PM Session-11 Machine Learning - Jupyter Notebook
[ 2.24968346e+00, -5.92373012e-01, 1.67215710e+00,
1.05393502e+00],
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7.90670654e-01],
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1.18556721e+00],
[ 1.64384411e+00, 3.28414053e-01, 1.27429511e+00,
7.90670654e-01],
[ 4.32165405e-01, -5.92373012e-01, 5.92245988e-01,
7.90670654e-01],
[ 3.10997534e-01, -1.31979479e-01, 6.49083415e-01,
7.90670654e-01],
[ 6.74501145e-01, -5.92373012e-01, 1.04694540e+00,
1.18556721e+00],
[ 1.64384411e+00, -1.31979479e-01, 1.16062026e+00,
5.27406285e-01],
[ 1.88617985e+00, -5.92373012e-01, 1.33113254e+00,
9.22302838e-01],
[ 2.49201920e+00, 1.70959465e+00, 1.50164482e+00,
1.05393502e+00],
[ 6.74501145e-01, -5.92373012e-01, 1.04694540e+00,
1.31719939e+00],
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3.95774101e-01],
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2.64141916e-01],
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[ 5.53333275e-01, 7.88807586e-01, 1.04694540e+00,
1.58046376e+00],
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7.90670654e-01],
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1.18556721e+00],
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1.58046376e+00],
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1.44883158e+00],
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1.44883158e+00],
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1.44883158e+00],
[ 6.86617933e-02, -1.31979479e-01, 7.62758269e-01,
7.90670654e-01]])

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2/2/24, 7:29 PM Session-11 Machine Learning - Jupyter Notebook

In [102]: X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X_new, y, random_state=

In [103]: y_train

Out[103]: 4 setosa
32 setosa
142 virginica
85 versicolor
86 versicolor
...
71 versicolor
106 virginica
14 setosa
92 versicolor
102 virginica
Name: species, Length: 112, dtype: object

In [104]: from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression

​

In [105]: LR = LogisticRegression(multi_class= 'ovr')

In [106]: LR.fit(X_train, y_train)

Out[106]: ▾ LogisticRegression
LogisticRegression(multi_class='ovr')

In [107]: y_hat = LR.predict(X_test)

In [108]: y_hat

Out[108]: array(['versicolor', 'setosa', 'virginica', 'versicolor', 'versicolor',

'setosa', 'versicolor', 'virginica', 'versicolor', 'versicolor',
'virginica', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'virginica',
'virginica', 'versicolor', 'versicolor', 'virginica', 'setosa',
'virginica', 'setosa', 'virginica', 'virginica', 'virginica',
'virginica', 'virginica', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'setosa',
'versicolor', 'setosa', 'setosa', 'virginica', 'versicolor',
'setosa'], dtype=object)

In [111]: # single parameter

new = [[0.5,0.5,0.5,0.5]]

In [112]: LR.predict(new)

Out[112]: array(['virginica'], dtype=object)

In [113]: X_test.shape

Out[113]: (38, 4)

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2/2/24, 7:29 PM Session-11 Machine Learning - Jupyter Notebook

In [115]: pd.crosstab(y_test, y_hat)

Out[115]:
col_0 setosa versicolor virginica

species

setosa 15 0 0

versicolor 0 10 1

virginica 0 0 12

In [118]: recall = recall_score(y_test, y_hat, average= 'weighted')

recall

Out[118]: 0.9736842105263158

In [120]: precision = precision_score(y_test, y_hat, average = 'weighted')

precision

Out[120]: 0.9757085020242916

In [121]: print(classification_report(y_test, y_hat))

precision recall f1-score support

setosa 1.00 1.00 1.00 15

versicolor 1.00 0.91 0.95 11
virginica 0.92 1.00 0.96 12

accuracy 0.97 38
macro avg 0.97 0.97 0.97 38
weighted avg 0.98 0.97 0.97 38

For any queries:

# premierintellectruals@gmail.com

In [ ]: ​

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