Maps and their Classification

Introduction to Maps

The term map is derived from the Latin word mappa, meaning "paper." In
essence, a map is a graphical representation of the Earth’s surface or a portion
of it. This depiction can be either two-dimensional or three-dimensional,
depending on the method of construction. Since it's impractical to show every
physical feature of the Earth in great detail on a map, cartographers create
maps tailored to specific needs—whether for navigation, land ownership,
planning, or any other purpose.

Elements of Maps

Maps consist of several essential components that make them functional and
informative. These include:

1. Location: Specifies the geographical position of objects on the Earth’s

surface.
2. Graticule of Lines: The network of latitude and longitude lines that form
a reference grid on the map.
3. Direction: Indicates the cardinal directions (North, South, East, West),
usually with the help of a compass rose.
4. Scale: Represents the ratio between distances on the map and the
corresponding real-world distances.
5. Symbols and Conventional Signs: These are used to depict physical and
cultural elements such as rivers, mountains, roads, cities, and more.

The Art of Cartography

The cartographer plays a critical role in creating maps by selectively presenting

geographic data. Unlike photographs, which show every feature within the
camera's range, a cartographer can include or exclude details to match the
purpose of the map.

Classification of Maps

Maps can be classified on

various bases, including scale,
purpose, topographic
features, and the nature of
construction. The two
primary classifications are:

I. Classification Based on Scale

The scale of a map refers to the relationship between the size of the map and
the actual size of the area being represented. Broadly, maps can be classified
into two types based on scale:

(i) Large-Scale Maps

Large-scale maps depict a small area of the Earth's surface in great detail.
These maps are particularly useful when specific, granular information about a
location is needed. The following are types of large-scale maps:

● Cadastral Maps: The term "cadastral" is derived from the French word
cadastre, meaning a register of territorial property. These maps are
primarily used to show the ownership boundaries of land and
properties. Governments often use cadastral maps to track land revenue,
property taxes, and to register land ownership. They show detailed
information such as the boundaries of fields, buildings, water bodies, and
public places.

● Village Maps: These maps provide detailed depictions of rural areas,

including field boundaries, footpaths, water bodies, residential houses,
 and public spaces. The scale for village maps can vary between 20 cm to
a kilometer to 40 cm to a kilometer. In addition to cadastral maps, rural
land-use maps and city maps are included in this category.

● Town Plan Maps: These maps represent urban areas, showing features
such as sewer lines, roads, water lines, individual houses, public
buildings, playgrounds, and parks. Town plan maps are highly detailed
and are often published by organizations like the Survey of India on
scales such as 1:20,000.

● Topographical Maps: These maps are based on precise surveys

conducted by organizations like the Survey of India. They represent
general surface features in detail, such as natural landscapes (rivers,
mountains) and cultural features (roads, railways). Topographical maps
are extremely useful for studying geographical features at a micro level,
as they provide detailed information on relief, drainage, and human
settlements. The scale of these maps can vary, but common scales
include 1:25,000, 1:50,000, and 1:250,000.

(ii) Small-Scale Maps

Small-scale maps cover larger areas with fewer details. These maps are
typically used when a broad overview of a region is needed. Examples include:

● Wall Maps: These maps have larger scales than book or atlas maps, but
they are still relatively small-scale. Wall maps are designed for use in
classrooms or public settings, where they are hung on walls to be viewed
from a distance. They depict large areas such as countries, continents, and
the world, and are used for general educational purposes.

● Atlas Maps: An atlas is a book of maps, drawn on very small scales.

Atlas maps provide highly generalized information about physical and
cultural aspects of a region, such as climate, agriculture, drainage, and
soils. Well-known atlases include the National Atlas of India, Oxford
 Atlas, and School Atlases. These maps are often referred to as
chorographical maps.

II. Classification Based on Purpose

Maps can also be classified based on their purpose or the specific theme they
aim to represent. Thematic maps are a common type, focusing on specific
topics like climate, population, or political boundaries. These are broadly
divided into two categories:

(a) Physical Maps

Physical maps depict various aspects of the natural environment. They can be
further categorized into the following types:

● Orographic or Relief Maps: These maps show surface features like

mountains, plains, plateaus, and rivers. They may also represent the
average slope of an area and its relative relief.

● Bathymetric Maps: These maps are used to depict the depths of oceans
and seas, often using different tones of color to represent varying depths.

● Geological Maps: These maps display the distribution and type of rocks
in a particular region. They are used to represent patterns of rock
formation, occurrence, and deposition.

● Climatic Maps: Climatic maps illustrate the climatic conditions of an

area, such as the amount of rainfall, temperature variations, and air
pressure. These maps can also show climatic regions and wind patterns.

● Weather Maps: These maps are used to show the weather conditions at
a specific time, including wind velocity, isobars, sea conditions, and
rainfall. Weather forecasts are also depicted using weather maps.

● Soil Maps: Soil maps show the distribution of different soil types across
a region, often used for agricultural and environmental purposes.
 ● Natural Vegetation Maps: These maps show the types of vegetation
present in a region, including the distribution of forests and other plant
life.
● Astronomical Maps: These maps depict the positions of stars and
planets, used in the study of astronomy.

(b) Cultural Maps

Cultural maps represent human-made features and aspects of human society.

They include:

● Economic Maps: These maps illustrate the distribution of natural

resources, land use, industries, and agricultural crops. They can also
depict economic development stages, economic regions, and
transportation networks.

● Political Maps: Political maps show the boundaries between countries,

states, districts, and tehsils. They often depict the capitals of countries or
states and other important administrative divisions.

● Historical Maps: Historical maps represent events from the past,

showing locations of historic significance, ancient empires, and changes in
territorial boundaries over time.

● Socio-Cultural Maps: These maps depict social aspects such as caste

structure, languages spoken, religious faiths, and migration patterns.
They are useful for understanding the social fabric of a region.

● Population Maps: Population maps show the distribution of people in an

area, including population density, literacy rates, sex ratios, and age
structure. They also highlight the differences between rural and urban
populations.
● Military Maps: These maps are used by defense services and come in
various types. They include general maps for broad planning, strategic
 maps for concentrated military actions, and tactical maps used by smaller
military units.

Definition of Scale

A scale in cartography is the ratio between a certain distance on the map and
the corresponding distance on the actual ground. Essentially, scale allows us to
interpret map distances in terms of real-world measurements.

● Formula:

For example, a scale of 1 cm = 1 km on a map indicates that 1 cm on the map

corresponds to 1 km on the ground. This scale is crucial because it determines
the amount of detail that a map can display, depending on the scale chosen.

Factors Affecting Scale Choice

The scale used for a map depends on the following factors:

● Size of the Area: Larger areas require smaller scales to fit on the paper,
while smaller areas can have larger scales for more detail.
● Amount of Detail: More detail on the map requires a larger scale.
● Size of the Paper: The paper’s size limits how much area can be shown at
a specific scale.

Types of Scale

Scales are classified into two major categories based on the ratio they
represent:

1. Small Scale Maps

● Definition: These maps cover large areas with less detail. They have a
larger denominator in the scale ratio, such as 1:1,000,000.
 ● Example: 1 cm = 10 km on the map.
● Characteristics:
○ Represent large areas like continents or countries.
○ Depict broad, general features such as mountain ranges, rivers, and
major highways.
○ Lose finer details like streets or individual buildings.

2. Large Scale Maps

● Definition: Large scale maps cover smaller areas with more detail. They
have a smaller denominator in the scale ratio, such as 1:10,000.
● Example: 1 cm = 100 m on the map.
● Characteristics:
○ Represent small areas such as a neighborhood, town, or park.
○ Display detailed geographical features like street names, individual
buildings, and smaller geographic elements (e.g., parks, lakes).

Methods of Expressing Scale

There are three primary methods for representing scale on a map. Each method
offers a different way to understand and measure distances.

1. Simple Statement Method

● Definition: This method expresses scale using words, such as “1 cm

equals 1 km” or “1 inch equals 1 mile.”
● Advantages:
○ Simple to understand, especially for non-technical users.
● Limitations:
○ It requires familiarity with the units of measurement.
○ If the map is enlarged or reduced, the scale becomes invalid.

Example:
 ● A scale of 1 cm = 1 km indicates that for every 1 cm measured on the
map, the actual distance on the ground is 1 km.

2. Representative Fraction (R.F.) Method

● Definition: The Representative Fraction (R.F.) expresses the ratio of the

distance on the map to the distance on the ground in the same units. It is
typically written as a fraction, such as 1:100,000.
○ Formula:

○ Example: If the R.F. is 1:100,000, then 1 cm on the map equals

100,000 cm on the ground, or 1 km.
● Advantages:
○ Universally applicable regardless of the unit of measurement
(centimeters, inches, etc.).
○ Can be easily converted into different units.
● Disadvantages:
○ Becomes inaccurate when the map is enlarged or reduced.

Examples of R.F. Calculations:

1. If the scale is 5 inches to 1 mile:

○ 1 mile = 63,360 inches.

2. If the scale is 1 cm to 1 km:

○ 1 km = 100,000 cm.
Graphical Scale (Linear Scale)

● Definition: A graphical or linear scale is a line drawn on the map, divided

into units that represent real-world distances. The scale remains valid
even if the map is enlarged or reduced, making it highly useful.
○ Construction:
1. Draw a straight line of a convenient length (typically between
10 cm to 15 cm).
2. Divide the line into equal parts known as primary divisions,
representing units of distance like kilometers.
3. Subdivide the first primary division into smaller parts called
secondary divisions to represent finer measurements.

Example:

● For a scale of 1:100,000:

○ A line of 10 cm would represent 10 km.
○ Divide this line into 10 primary divisions, where each division
represents 1 km.
○ Subdivide the first primary division into smaller divisions for more
accurate measurements (e.g., 100 meters).

Scale Conversion

Often, scales need to be converted between different formats, especially

between the statement method, R.F., and graphical scale.

Steps for Scale Conversion:

1. Convert from Simple Statement to R.F.:

○ Example:
If the scale is 1 inch to 1 mile, and 1 mile
= 63,360 inches:
 2. Convert from R.F. to Simple Statement:
○ Example:
If the R.F. is 1:100,000, convert this to a statement scale:
■ 1 cm on the map represents 1 km on the ground (since 1 km =
100,000 cm).

Types of Graphical Scales

1. Plain Scale:
○ Represents two units of measurement, such as kilometers and
meters.
○ Commonly used on maps to measure distances directly.
2. Pace Scale:
○ Measures distance based on human paces. It’s useful for estimating
distances walked.
3. Time Scale:
○ Used to represent time and distance, such as travel times on a
transportation map.
4. Comparative Scale:
○ Compares distances in two different units, such as miles and
kilometers, on the same scale.
5. Diagonal Scale:
○ Provides an advanced way to measure very small distances by using
diagonal divisions to subdivide units into even smaller parts.

Classification of Projections

Map projections are methods used to represent the curved surface of the Earth
on a flat surface, such as a sheet of paper or a computer screen. Each projection
comes with its own set of advantages and limitations, making it suitable for
certain applications but not others.

Types of Map Projection

Map projections are classified into four major categories based on the type of
surface that is tangent or intersects the globe. These categories are:

1. Planar, Azimuthal, or Zenithal Projections

In planar or azimuthal projections, a flat sheet of paper touches the globe at a

single point, which is typically one of the poles or another central location. Light
is projected from various points—such as the center of the Earth, the opposite
side of the globe, or from an infinite distance—to project the globe onto this flat
surface.

2. Conic Projections

Conic projections involve projecting the Earth onto a cone that touches or
intersects the globe. When the cone is unrolled, the meridians appear as
straight lines converging at the poles, and the parallels are represented as arcs
of circles.

3. Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical projections involve wrapping a

cylinder around the Earth, with the projection
surface tangent at the equator. The
meridians and parallels form a grid of
straight lines when the cylinder is unrolled.
This projection is most accurate near the
equator and becomes increasingly distorted
towards the poles.

Mercator Projection

Developed by Gerardus Mercator in the 16th century, this projection is one of

the most widely used map projections, especially for navigation.

● Key Features:
 ○ Meridians are straight and equally spaced, while parallels are also
straight but spaced farther apart as they approach the poles.
○ The projection preserves direction and shape near the equator,
making it ideal for navigation.
○ However, it greatly distorts the area near the poles, making regions
like Greenland appear much larger than they are.

● Use: Nautical charts and maps where navigation is the primary purpose.
The Transverse Mercator projection, a variation, is used for more
accurate representations of smaller areas like Thailand.

Thematic Maps
Thematic maps are a specialized form of maps designed to represent specific
themes or data sets over geographical areas. They are used to convey
information about various phenomena, such as population distribution,
economic activities, climatic conditions, or geological features. Thematic maps
are generally classified into two broad groups: qualitative and quantitative.

Classification of Thematic Maps

A. Qualitative Thematic Maps

Qualitative thematic maps represent descriptive or nominal data, indicating

the distribution or location of specific phenomena without expressing numerical
values. These maps use symbols, lines, or area patterns to differentiate
categories or types of features.

Characteristics of Qualitative Maps:

● Focus: Emphasizes differences in kind rather than in quantity.

● Boundaries: Divides regions based on categories such as soil types,
vegetation cover, or geological formations.
● Symbols: Point symbols, line patterns, or area symbols are used to
differentiate between categories.
Examples of Qualitative Maps:

● Geological Maps: Show the types and distribution of rocks in an area.

● Soil Maps: Display the different soil types within a region.
● Vegetation Maps: Represent various types of natural vegetation.
● Location Maps: Indicate the positions of significant features like cities,
rivers, or mineral resources.

B. Quantitative Thematic Maps

Quantitative thematic maps depict numerical data using ordinal, interval, or

ratio scales. They convey information about amounts, magnitudes, or
measurements, making them essential for representing statistical data across
regions.

Characteristics of Quantitative Maps:

● Data Scales: Can represent ordinal (ranked), interval, or ratio data.

● Measurement of Values: Quantitative maps show differences in
magnitude, such as population density, temperature, or elevation.

Examples of Quantitative Maps:

● Population Density Maps: Show the number of people living per square
kilometer.
● Economic Activity Maps: Represent industrial production, agricultural
yields, or resource distribution.
● Climate Maps: Indicate temperature, precipitation, or other
meteorological data.

Types of Quantitative Thematic Maps

A. Choropleth Maps
Choropleth maps represent spatially averaged ratio data using shading or
coloring techniques to indicate different classes of data. These maps are
particularly useful for showing data such as population density, average
income, or crop yields.

Characteristics:

● Shading: Different shades or colors

are used to represent different
classes of data. Lighter shades
usually indicate lower values, and
darker shades represent higher
values.
● Class Intervals: Data is divided into six to eight classes, which are shaded
according to the value range.
● Spatial Patterns: These maps help in identifying spatial variability and
patterns within the data.

B. Dasymetric Maps

Dasymetric maps improve upon the choropleth

map by incorporating additional geographic
information to refine boundaries and better
reflect real-world patterns. These maps attempt
to correct one of the major issues with
choropleth maps: the arbitrary nature of
administrative or statistical boundaries.

Characteristics:

● Refined Boundaries: Boundaries are adjusted based on additional

geographic data, such as land use or population distribution, to create
more accurate representations of the data.
 ● Homogeneous Zones: Zones are designed to represent areas of
homogeneity based on the data variable being represented.

C. Isopleth Maps

Isopleth maps use isolines (lines connecting

points of equal value) to represent continuous
data over space. These maps are ideal for
representing gradual changes in variables
such as temperature, elevation, or air pressure.

Characteristics:

● Isolines: Lines are drawn to connect points with equal values, such as
isobars for atmospheric pressure or isotherms for temperature.
● Continuous Data: Isopleth maps are suited for representing continuous
variables that do not change abruptly across space.

Types of Isopleth Maps:

1. Isometric Maps: These maps are constructed from data gathered at

specific points.
2. Isoplethic Maps: Constructed from data gathered over geographical
areas. This form is more common when mapping phenomena like
temperature or population density.

Purpose of Isopleth Maps:

Isopleth maps visually represent surfaces, helping to show how values differ
across space. This is done through contour lines (isoline maps) or filled contours
(isopleth maps), where the quantitative values are shaded accordingly.

Data:
 ● Isopleth maps are generated using interval or ratio scale data (e.g.,
temperature, rainfall). They cannot represent absolute values as the area
sizes may vary.
● Contours: Lines that connect points of equal value, indicating features like
elevation, temperature, or precipitation.

Symbols:

● Contours are nested lines, often shaded differently based on their values.
Lighter shades may indicate lower values, and darker shades represent
higher values.

Legend:

Since the contours are labeled with values, a legend may not always be
necessary. However, the map should have a clear title and source information.

Flow Maps

A Flow Map is a type of thematic map that shows the movement of

objects—such as people, goods, or information—from one location to another.
Flow maps blend characteristics of both maps and flowcharts, making them
ideal for illustrating connectivity, routes, and quantitative flows.

Purpose of Flow Maps:

Flow maps are useful for visualizing various forms of movement, including:

● Migration patterns
● Trade routes
● Transportation networks
● Traffic flows

Components of Flow Maps:

 ● Lines: Represent the movement between locations. These lines vary in
width to indicate the quantity of flow. Wider lines suggest larger
quantities, while thinner lines indicate smaller flows.
● Arrows: Indicate the direction of movement.

Types of Flow Maps:

1. Radial Flow Maps: Show relationships between a single source and

multiple destinations using lines radiating from a central point.
2. Network Flow Maps: Depict flow over existing networks like
transportation or communication systems.
3. Distributive Flow Maps: Show how a large flow from a single source
splits into smaller flows toward multiple destinations.

Characteristics of Good Flow Maps:

● Clear Distortion: Any distortion in the map should not obscure the map's
message.
● Merging Edges: When multiple lines share a destination, edges should
be merged to reduce clutter.
● Routing of Edges: Lines should be routed to avoid overlapping important
data points.
● Logical Display of Line Widths: Flow maps should use either linear or
logarithmic scales for line widths, depending on the data.

Example:

A flow map depicting the volume of goods traded between the U.S. and its top
15 trade partners might show thicker lines for countries with more trade
volume.

Cadastral Maps
Cadastral Maps are specialized maps that show
the boundaries and ownership of land parcels.
These maps are crucial in legal documentation
of property ownership and are commonly used
for property management, taxation, and land
administration.

● Purpose of Cadastral Maps: Cadastral

maps establish real property boundaries
and are essential for legal identification of
land ownership. They are typically used in urban and rural property
management, estate planning, and land reform.
● Scale: Cadastral maps are large-scale maps, often drawn at scales like
1:500 to 1:4000 for urban areas and larger for rural areas. The precision
in these maps ensures accurate boundary demarcation.

Importance of Cadastral Maps:

● Legal Ownership: They establish the legal link between a property and
its owner.
● Land Management: Cadastral maps are vital for managing and
maintaining land records, particularly in rural and urban land disputes.

Example:: A cadastral map may show individual property lines, land use
classifications, and owner names, making it a critical tool in resolving land
ownership disputes.