Development studies notes

The meaning and perception of development is constantly changing. The definition can vary
from place to place time to time and the individuals as such various definitions of development
have been made along with sort code and models or theories of development that explain
conditions of attaining development.

The following people explained development in their own understanding Gunna muyrdal;
development means the process of rising out of poverty.
E.W Weidener;
Development is a state of mind a tendency a direction rather than a fixed goal. It's a rate of
change in a particular.
Dudley seers 1969;
The realisation of the potential human personality which necessitates substantial improvements
in eradicating poverty unemployment inequality has best on this definition for a country like
Zambia to claim that it has attended development it must somehow be able to justify that there is
a dramatic decline in poverty incidence and also be able to provide adequate opportunities for
employment. And reduce the inequality between the rich and the poor.
Micheal todaro 1977;
On the other hand stressed that development must be regarded as a multidimensional process
involving major changes in social structure popular attitudes it's children's and acceleration of
economic growth.
The reduction of inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty . Important development is
the process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important objectives.
● Life sustenance: Therese the living level of people. This means raising their incomes
conception medical services and education.
● Self esteem: creating conditions conducive to the growth of people's self-esteem through
the establishment of social political and economic systems and institutions which
promote human dignity and respect.
● Freedom from servitude: increasing people's freedom to choose by todaro here in legend
the range of there choices and variables.

Todaro here provide a normative philosophical and humanistic dimension to development by

taking on a match integrative perspective of emphasising the need for accelerated economic
growth.
Dag Hammerskjoold;
Development is a people-centred gear to the city satisfaction of the basic human needs for both
material and non-material which may include political and self-reliant and ecological l sound
It must include all aspects of people's lives which are political social cultural and economic
transformation.
Evolution of the study of development
Because of development has undergoing significant changes over the past half-century. When is
colours and practitioners have defined the concept differently based on the afterglow Sophie
purpose contact and time. The concept of development dates back to the 19th century and has
been used in several Fields including natural sciences social sciences and physical sciences for
instance in natural sciences it was used by Aristotle to explain the nature of all things that
developed and Charles Darwin in his theory of evolution of species. However in the field of
social sciences the concept of development emerged during the 1950s and the 1960s following
the end of world war II.
Concept development has been associated with many discipline such as economic development
social development human development sustainable development and development as freedom.
The idea of development has traditionally been interpreted AS economic growth which is
measured by capital income and annual growth in national income. However Harry's 2000 in
case that the benefits of economic concepts as the inequality gap between the poor and the rich
widened especially in Africa. Little consideration was given to the evolution of other factors
such as inequality poverty and social well-being.
In the 1970s the focus of development shifted from economic growth and GDP to basic needs.
The central complement of basic needs approach included education nutrition health education
and employment for the poor. The new focus of development was characterised by relatively less
concerned with economic indicators but because the quality of human life and conservation of
natural environment. It has further indicated by Harris 2000 this approach stimulated the creation
of the United Nations development programme and human development index the concept of
human welfare is also concerned with the redistribution of gross that is distribution of benefits
of wealth of development among individuals groups and regions.
What is a theory-is it of ideas of body of knowledge that is systematically and logically
organised explain the interrelationship between phenomena (cause and effect relationship)
Development theories-development theories help us to understand how the process of change
in society take place. Development Theory is a collection of theories of how desirable change in
a society is best attained. Search series draw on a variety of social science discipline and
approaches.
Modernisation Theory-modernisation is the process of change towards those social and
economic and political systems that have been developed in Western Europe and North America
from between the 17th and 18th century and space to other European countries between 19 and
20 century. Modernisation Theory is regarded as being necessary for achieving sustained growth.
The theory includes aspects of rationality economic planning improved institutions and attitudes.
Modernisation refers to a model of a progressive transition from a pre-modern to traditional
societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices.
Provenance of modernisation theory claims that modern states are wealthier and more powerful
and their citizens enjoy a higher standard of living.
Modernisation Theory cast of element as a uniform evolutionary route that goes to start is full of
from agricultural rural and traditional societies to put in su events and modern forms. In other
words also said he's was engaged in the modernisation process follow a predetermined sequence
of processes: traditional economies, precondition to take off take off stage drive to maturity and
high mass production.
Modernisation Theory argues that less developed countries should not do them themselves after
the West aspiring to a modern state of capitalism and liberal democracy. Using these ideas by
w.w. rostow pinty's classical stages of economic growth in 1960, which presented five steps
through which all countries must pass to become developed.
These steps include: traditional society, precondition to take off, take off, drive to maturity, and
high mass production. The model asserted that all countries exist somewhere on these linear
spectrum, and move upwards through each stage in the development process.
Traditional society:
This stage is characterised by a subsistent coma agricultural based economy with intensive
labour in low levels of training of trading and a population that does not have a scientific
perspective.
Preconditions to take off:
Begins to develop some manufacturing and the ideas of nation and international trade.
Take off:
W.w rostow describe this stage as the short period of intensive Cross in which industrialisation
station begins to occur , and workers and institutions become concentrated around a new
industry.
Drive to maturity:
This stage takes place over a long period as standards of living rise, use of technology increases
and the national economy grows and diversifies.
Age of mass consumption
At this stage, a country's economy expands in a capitalist system which is characterised by mass
production and consumption.
Marxist theory
Marxism theory is both a social and political theory which in compasses .Marxist past conflict
Theory and Marxism economics Marxism was first publicly formulated in 1848 in the pamflet
called the communist manifesto by Kash marx Fredrich Engles which lays
Marxisian economists focuses criticism of capitalism which Karl Marx wrote in his book about
Marxism is a social and political theory named after Karl max. The theory examines the effects
of capitalism on labour, productivity, and economic development argues for a worker revolution
to overturn capitalism in favor of Communism. Marxism argues that the struggle between social
classes specifically between bourgeoisie or capitalist and the proletariat or workers defines
economic relations in the capitalist economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary
communism. Karl Marx wrote that the power relationship between capitalists and workers were
inheritary exploitative and would inevitably create class conflict. He believes that this conflict
would ultimately lead to a revolution in which working class would overthrow capitalist class
and cease control of the economy. The following elements of Marxist theories of how class
conflict would play out in a capitalist system
Capitalist society is made of two classes which are bourgeoisie or business owners who control
the means of production and the proletariat or workers who's labour transforms low commodities
into valuable economic goods.
Ordinary labourers who do not own the means of production such as factories, buildings and
materials have little power in the capitalist economic system.workers are also readily replaceable
in the periods of high unemployment,further devaluing their perceived worth.
To maximize profits business owners have an insentive to get the most work out of their
labourers while paying them the Lowe st possible wages this creates an unfair embarrass
between owner and labourers who's work the owners exploit for their own gain
Ultimately the inherent, inequalities and exploitative economic relations between these two
classes will lead to a revolution in which the working class rebels against the and takes control
of means of production
Marx and Engels ideas laid the ground work for the Theory pracks of Communism which
advocates for a classless system in which all property and wealth are communally owned rather
than privately owned. Although the former Soviet union,china and Cuba for example have had
nominally communist governments there is never actually being a purely communist state that
has completely eliminated personal,money and class system
Neo marxsist approaches to development and underdevelopment do not have their roots only in
traditional Marxism. They were also formulated as a reaction against conventional west
theories.neo marxsist however have exposed modernisation as essentially evaluative term
intentionally or s
Otherwise reflecting western prejudices and serving western economic prejudices and foreign
policy interests.
Modernisation theorists tend to assume that each underdeveloped society, an enclosed,self
contained entity, evolves through various stages and en route to the modern society. Neo
marxism insist that world systems must be understood as totality as a simple integrated unity.
Neo marxism emphasizes the row played by now developed countries in under developing what
are now under developed countries. As such, neo Marxist have their roots in traditional Marxist
theories of imperialism which emphasizes the parasitic and destructive nature of colonialism.
Thus, for neo marxsist under development is largely the historical product of relations between
the now underdeveloped satellite and developed Metropolis.
Various levels of development

Development is a concept that is difficult to provide,it is inevitable that it will also be changing
to classify countries into groups to better understand the social and economic outcomes. The
most widely accepted criterion is labelling countries as either developed or developing countries.
There is no general criterion that explains the national status of countries according to their level
of development. This might be due to diversity of development outcomes across countries and
the restrictive challenge of adequately classifying countries into two categories. The
developing/developed countries taxonomy became common in the 1960s as a way to easily
categorize countries in the context of policy discussions on transferring resources from richer to
poorer countries (Pearson et al,1960). The United Nations Development programs (UNDP) , the
UNDPs countries classification system is calculated in the human development index(HDI
which aims to take into account the multi. HDI Is a composite index of three indices measuring
countries achievements in longevity in education and income.
It also recognizes other aspects of development such as political freedom to personal security.
The UNDP's 2013 report follows on From the 2010 report used the gross national income per
Capita with local currency estimate converted into equivalent US dollars. Also uses country
ways to construct the HDI distribution. In the classification system developed countries quarter
of the HDI distribution. A developing country is a sovereign state with a less developed
industrial base and a lower human development index relative to other countries.
Characteristics of developing countries
Low per Capita real income: is one of the most defining characteristics of developing countries.
They suffer from a low real income level which results in low savings and low investments. It
means the average person does not earn enough money to invest or save money. They spend
whatever they make which creates a circle of poverty where most of the population struggles to
escape. The percentage of people in absolute poverty (minimum income level) is high in
developing countries.
They either have high population growth rates or large populations.often this is because of lack
of family planning options and the belief that more children could result in a higher labor force
for the family to earn income. The increase in recent decades could be because of higher birth
rates and reduced death rates through improved health care.
High rates of unemployment. Generally less developed countries are characterized with the
problem of unemployment and this is because of lack of productive and ineffective productive
investments which should expand the employment opportunities. Majority of the population in
developing countries live in rural areas, where they suffer the problem of unemployment due to
large seasonal variations. However, unemployment is a more complex problem requiring policies
beyond traditional fixes.
Dependency on the primary sector. Almost 75% of the population of low income countries is
rural based where they mostly depend on raw materials. Most developing countries by nature
depend on exports of primary commodities which originates from the primary sector. For
example copper account ⅔ of Zambia's exports
Technology backwardness. In developing countries productive techniques are inefficient over a
wide range of industrial activity. This is because of lack of research and development. (R & D),
weak communication systems between the research institutes and industries, abundance of labor
and capital scarcity are some obvious reasons for the use of techniques which have otherwise
become absolute. Developing countries do not have large effective institutions working for
discovering appropriate technology. Under the circumstances an attempt is made to import
technology from developed countries which later fails to adapt to local countries.
Poverty and poverty alleviation :
poverty is the state of one who lacks a usual or socially amount of money or material
possessions. Poverty is said to exist when people have the means to satisfy their basic needs. In
this context the identification of poor people first requires a determination of what constitutes the
basic needs. Poverty is an economic state where people experience scarcity or a lack of certain
commodities that are required for the lives of human beings like money and material things.
Therefore poverty is a multipersated concept of social, economic and political elements.
Types of poverty
Absolute poverty: this is also known as extreme poverty or abject poverty which involves the
scarcity of basic food, clean water , health,shelter, education and information. It is a condition
limited by malnutrition and illiteracy,high infant mortality and low life expectancy.
Relative poverty: it is defined from the social perspective that is living standard compared to the
economy of the population living in surroundings. Hence it is a measure of income inequality for
example,a family can be considered poor if it can not afford vacation, cannot buy presents for
children at Christmas, cannot his young or t the children to university.
Situational poverty: It is a Temporal type of poverty based on occurrence of adverse events like
environmental disaster,job loss and severe health problems. People can help themselves even
with a small assistance as the poverty comes because of unfortunate events.
Generational poverty: this is the type of poverty handed over to individuals and families from
one generation to the other. This is more complicated as there is no escape because the people are
trapped in its cause and unable to access the tools required to get out of it.
Rural poverty: it occurs in rural areas with a population below 50 000. It the the area where
there are less job opportunities, less access to services, less support to disabilities and poor
quality education opportunities.
Urban poverty: it occurs in metropolitan areas with a population over 50 000. The following are
some major challenges: limited access to health and education, inadequate housing and services,
violent and unhealthy environment because of overcrowded areas.
Poverty alleviation
Poverty alleviation is a set of measures both economic and humanitarian that are intended to lift
people out of poverty. Poverty alleviation is accompanied by a number of positive social impacts.
These include improved access to food(that results in higher nutritional and health level),
improved access to education (due to higher income levels and ability to pay for fees and
supplies), and improved employment opportunities. These measures are intended to improve the
quality of life for those people currently living in poverty.

Agriculture and food security

Agriculture plays a critical role in the entire life of a given economy especially in less developed
countries where the majority of people find their livelihood in the agricultural sector. This
because agriculture is the backbone of the economic system of a given country or societies. The
livelihoods of most food insecure households worldwide are still largely based on agricultural
activities. Growth in the agricultural sector as a much greater effect on food security than growth
in any other sector. Agricultural development is critically important to improving security and
nutrition. Agriculture's main roles includes: increasing the quantity and diversity of food, driving
economic transformation,and providing the primary source of income for many of the poorest.
As the provider of food agriculture is a cornerStone of human existence. As a furniture of
industrial row materials ,it is an important contributor to economic activity in other sectors of the
economy. Agriculture contributes to poverty alleviation by reducing food prices, creating
employment, improving farm income and increasing wages. This makes the agricultural sector a
central component of policy approaches to food insecurity reduction and increasing economic
growth.

Food security is defined by food and agriculture organization(FAO) as : when all people, at all
times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, and nutritious food that meets
their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food insecurity occurs
whenever a household or individual lacks predictable access to food insufficient quantity and
quality to maintain an active and healthy lifestyle.the concept of food security rests on four
pillars: availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability.
Employment and unemployment
Employment most generally Means a State if having paid job.to employ someone is to pay them
a reward for their work and this is where an employed provides employment to employees too.
Employment can also refer to the act of employing people.
Employment refers to the economic situation in which an individual whose actively searching for
employment is unable to find work .It is important to note that to be considered unemployed the
Person must be an active member of the labour force and in search of the remunerative.
Underemployment is a situation is a mismatch between employment opportunities and the skills
and education level of the employee or employees
Agriculture and food security
List developed countries (LDCs) are primarily agricultural economies with nearly 70% of the
population engaged in agriculture. In this case agriculture becomes their main employment
through which they realise their livelihoods. The vast majority of the poor and the phone to the
insecure are in rural areas therefore poverty alleviation and food security must start in these
areas. The livelihood of most food insecure households worldwide is still largely based on
agricultural activities. Grouse in the agricultural sector has a much greater effect on food security
than in any other sector. Agricultural development is critically important in improving food
security. The agricultural sector include; driving economic transformation, increasing the
quantity and diversity of food and providing the primary source of income for many of the
world's poor people.
Agriculture contributes to poverty alleviation by reducing food prices, creating employment,
improving farm income and increasing wages. Making agriculture work must be a central
companies to policy approaches to food insecurity with Declan and increasing economic growth
● Food security is defined by the food and agriculture organisation (FAO).as "when do
people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious
food that need theatre in needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life".
● Aspects of food security; availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability.

Corruption and development

Corruption and development to literally related concepts equally shifting in meaning across time.
The predominant 21st century review of governments that regards corruption as acceptable as it's
theoretical roles in western thought as well as is then thought. Corruption is a form of dishonesty
which is undertaken by a person or one organisation interested with a position of authority in
order to acquire alissic benefits or abuse of power for personal gain.
In other words corruption is defined as the abuse of entrusted power for personal gain.
Corruption erodes trust, democratic economic development and enlarges inequality, poverty,
social division and environmental crisis.
Corruption erodes trust we have in the public sector to act in our best interest. It also wastes
away taxes that have been marked 4 important community projects and this means we have to
put up with poor quality services and miss out altogether.
Corruption also discourages investment, limited economic growth and hotels day composition of
government spending for future economic growth.
Corruption is a complex social political economic phenomena that affects a country. It
undermines democratic institutions, close down economic development. It also attacks the
foundation of government institutions by distorting electoral processes and preventing the rule of
law. Economic development is slowed because foreign direct investment is discouraged as small
businesses within the country find it impossible to overcome the startup cast.
Conflict and development
Conflict is a state of human interaction where there is this honesty. Conflict is a form of
competitive behaviour between people or groups complete for over incompatible goes and
unlimited resources.
There are five main causes of conflict: information conflict, values of conflict, interest conflict,
relationship conflict and structural conflict.
Information conflict
It arises when people have different information or disagree on what info is correct.
Values conflict
This is created when people have perceived actual incompatible belief systems where a person or
group tries to impose their values on others and claims the emojis are better.
Interest conflict
It is caused by competition of perceived or actual desired needs and such conflicts may occur
over issues of money.
Relationship conflict
Yu-Gi-Oh cards when they have strong negative emotions or poor communication 1% may
distract the other and believe the other person's actions are motivated by Malice.
Structural conflict
It is caused by oppressive behaviour exhibited on others due to limited resources and opportunity
as well as organisational structure which often promote conflict behaviour.

Conflict always results in the following: decreased investment and trade, decreased productivity,
human and physical capital destruction. Facebook and you took our team and devastating effects
on education and health care which are some of the key channels conflict affect economic
growth. Furthermore, effects of conflict may include loss of property, reduction in income,
disruption of economic activities and employment for others. Also violent conflict contributes to
poverty in a number of ways including damage in infrastructure, as it's, breakup of communities
and social networks, displacement, increased unemployment and inflation.
Conflicts can be triggered by internal problems in development and governance. This mainly
happens when a society as a lower income opportunity, and equal distribution, political
marginalisation, external shocks (external shocks) calamities (climate change, disaster) and war.