UNIT II

MODULE 2: RECENT TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

What is Applied Psychology?

• Applied psychology is a field that focuses on putting practical research into
action.
• Applied psychology focuses on the implementation of real-world results over
abstract theories and lab-based experiments.
• This discipline validates psychology theories in order to achieve tangible
results.
Pure psychology is known as the fundamental knowledge of psychology. When a
psychology student enters their first semester, they will have to take ‘Introduction to
Psychology’ where chapters like biological psychology, sensation and perception,
learning and memory are taught just to give an insight of what makes psychology,
PSYCHOLOGY.
Experimental psychologists who are involved in the basic areas of psychology (pure
psychology) specializes in the study of a single psychological process, educate at
universities and conduct research.
For example, a biological psychologist study how the nervous system and other
organs act as a foundation of how we think and behave. Moreover, nonhuman animal
behaviour is also studied and compared with human behaviour to gain thorough
understanding of the different species in our world.

Basic vs. Applied Psychology

• Basic psychology is what most people are familiar with because this discipline
is pure research. That is, these psychologists seek knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and experimentation.
• Almost all of academic psychology is focused on formulating or challenging
hypothesis, conducting controlled experiments and analyzing the results.
• A regular psychologist may study how peer pressure influences attitudes and
behaviors by surveying or testing study participants, but an applied
psychologist will take the results in order to apply the findings.
• For example, they may consult with public policy makers and school districts
to implement a community-based program that teaches children about peer
pressure.
• A regular educational psychologist will conduct tests of how to improve school
systems, but an applied educational psychologist will implement innovative
programs to achieve this goal, according to the American Psychology
Association.
Branches of Pure Psychology
General, Abnormal, Social, Physiological, Parapsychology

Branches of Applied Psychology

Applied psychology is very important in human life which is based on the theoretical
fields of psychology, in order to make it convenient to understand, study, and access
the behavior in different fields of life.
Applied psychology is divided into different branches, including:

Educational Psychology:
Educational psychology is the application of the principles and laws and theories of
psychology in the field of education.
Therefore, educational psychology is concerned with the general characteristics of
the various stages of growth, and to benefit from these characteristics in the
construction of curricula that are consistent with the characteristics of these stages.
So that each person will give the educational experiences in a timely manner when
we are sure of maturity enough to understand what we want to know for him.
Educational psychology includes two aspects:
Theoretical side:
Topics include: learning - abilities - personal-psychological phenomena.
Practical side:
And includes the application of the results of theoretical studies, and how to use them
within the school for different stages of education.
Educational psychology uses psychological tests to measure students' intelligence
and mental abilities and to assess their achievement scores in a practical manner that
takes into consideration the conditions of good testing.
Vocational Psychology:
Science teaches a similar set of work done in different institutions or institutions.
Teaching is a profession because it involves various teaching activities in different
disciplines and in different schools.
Counseling Psychology:
Counseling Psychology helps decent people solve their problems in a particular area,
whether educational, professional or family.
Commercial Psychology:
Commercial psychology is concerned with studying the motives of purchasing and
the needs of consumers and estimating their psychological attitudes towards existing
products, through the conduct of some referendums and tests.
Commercial psychology also examines the psychology of advertising, the design of
the advertisement, its composition, type, size and subject matter, and the ways of
understanding between the seller and the purchaser, in addition to the seller's activity,
optimism, and humor.
Industrial Psychology:
Industrial psychology aims to raise the level of production efficiency of the worker
or the working group, by solving the various problems that affect the fields of
industry.
Industrial psychology is concerned with creating the psychological and social
environment that ensures the production of the finest in the shortest time possible and
with the least effort.
Industrial psychology also deals with vocational guidance, selection, professional
selection, and industrial training, and examines the most suitable natural conditions
of work such as lighting, ventilation.
Industrial Psychology uses psychological tests to select the most suitable workers and
put them in the appropriate professions due to their mental and psychological
preparedness.
Industrial psychology examines the causes of accidents and fatigue in the industry
and its effects on production in general.
Engineering psychology:
Engineering psychology, also known as Human Factors Engineering, is a field of
psychology that concentrates on the relationship between humans and the products
that we use in our daily life.
Engineering psychology a science of human behavior and ability, which is applicable
to the design and operation of systems and technology.
As an interdisciplinary part of ergonomics and an applied field of psychology, its
purpose is to improve relationships between people and machines by redesigning the
device, interaction, or the environment.
The work of engineering psychologist is to make the relationship more "user-
friendly".
Criminal Psychology:
Criminal psychology is known as the psychology of crime, an applied branch of
homosexual psychology.
Criminal psychology examines the motivations and feelings of emotion that trigger
the crime and its motives, and the best ways to treat them using the scientific method
of treatment.
Criminal psychology studies criminality in its various stages, beginning with the
discovery of the crime, the prosecution of the offender and his treatment since his
arrest, the expiration of his sentence or his reform, and following him after leaving
the community to become a citizen.
Forensic psychology:
Forensic psychology is the area between psychology and the justice system.
This includes particularly the expert material of witness testimony and concern, as
well as understanding the fundamental legal principles in relation to relevant judicial
views so that they can communicate properly with judges, lawyers, and other legal
professionals.
An important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify in court as an
expert witness, improving the legal language of psychological findings in the court,
providing information to legal personnel in such a way that can be understood.
Court Psychology:
Court psychology is a subset of Forensic Psychology.
Court psychology examines psychological and poetic psychological factors that are
likely to have an impact on all those involved in the criminal case: the judge - the
accused - the lawyer - the public.
Court psychology is not interested in studying the motives that led the defendant to
commit his crime, as much as it examines the statements before the judiciary and the
condition during the arrest.
Court psychology also examines the impact of public opinion, the press and radio,
and rumors among people about the case.
Military Psychology:
The preparations of the armies are completed when they are psychologically prepared
so that the army remains in its psychological state, which uses psychological tests, to
choose the best soldiers and officers to distribute them to different units.
Military psychologies commensurate with their abilities, potentials and preparations,
and work to identify some of the personality traits contributing to the success of some
military professions.
Some psychologists use it to carry out the process of professional testing, the design
of vocational training programs, support the morale and contribute to the
establishment of healthy social relations among workers in this area.
Aerospace Psychology
Aerospace psychology (Aviation psychology) is a branch of psychology which
studies psychological aspects of aviation, improving identification of psychological
causes of aircraft accidents, refining the selection of applicants for occupations and
and interaction between employees.
Also increasing efficiency and safety of aviation, and promoting the application of
cognitive psychology to understand human actions and behaviors, and cognitive and
emotional processes in aviation.
Health Psychology:
Health psychology is concerned with studying the mutual effect between the state of
health and the psychological state.
Cancer disease - physical condition - may be related to the occurrence of depression
- psychological condition.
We also know, for example, that recurrent stress - a psychological state - can lead to
hypertension or heart disease - a physical condition - in order to evaluate, diagnose,
interpret, treat and prevent diseases.
Health psychology deals with the study and research of health-related behavior, ie,
the study of the effect of good health habits on disease prevention.
For example, addiction to alcohol may lead to cirrhosis of the liver and some cancers,
as well as to a significant cognitive deterioration, and is concerned with the treatment
of addiction and the prevention of relapse, the re-emergence of addiction again.
One of the topics studied by health psychology is the subject of pressure and its
impact on individuals from the physiological and behavioral aspects, and how their
impact varies from one individual to another.
Clinical psychology:
Clinical psychology is one of the disciplines in psychology and is concerned with the
diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.
Diagnosis is usually performed by clinical interviews and sometimes by
psychometric tests.
Treatment is carried out by various psychological means, without drugs, which are
not entitled to be prescribed.
Clinical psychology studies some personality disorders, mental illnesses, different
diagnostic methods, and appropriate treatment techniques for the type of disorder.
Clinical psychology uses different treatment methods according to the training, such
as:
• Cognitive therapy.
• Behavioral therapy.
• Psychological analysis and others.
Neuropsychology:
Neuropsychology is a precise specialization of the psychology and mental health
between the brain and behavior, as well as functions directly related to the brain, such
as:
• Reading
• Writing
• Understanding
• Perception
• Memory
The neuropsychologist helps identify the damaged parts of the brain.
Experimental Psychology:
This science studies the methods of psychological experimentation, laboratory, and
the basic elements of psychological experience.
Experimental psychology also offers training in psychological experimentation on
vision, hearing, motor coordination, learning, memory, time of reaction and others.
The science includes the contributions of the early pioneers of experiential
psychology, in addition to basic concepts such as:
• Empirical research
• Laboratory experiment
• Experimental settings
• Experimental error
• Experimental designs
Management Psychology:
Management psychology is the science that tries to apply the principles, laws, and
methodology of general psychology to the staff, employees, and supervisors in the
field of management, and thus it tries to answer questions related to the behavior of
employees in different companies and institutions.
Management psychology helps guide and lead these employees, by what they know
themselves and their potential, and helps them to make wise choices for their jobs
and put them in appropriate jobs to their potentials and qualifications and experiences
and it raise their morale and increases their efficiency and production.
Sports Psychology:
Sports psychology is concerned with the study of psychological, social and
educational factors affecting sports behavior towards achieving a high level of
performance and athletic achievement.
In adapting sports psychology to serve athletes, a new trend has emerged which
speaks of the importance of suggesting patterns or psychological models that are
consistent with the nature of each sport and the individual personality traits of the
player, his duties and his role in the team.

Career Prospects and Job Scope for M.Sc Applied Psychology

• Operations Manager.
• Senior Psychiatrist.
• Senior Research Analyst.
• Senior Psychological Consultant.
• Human Resource Management.
• Marketing Development.
• Research and Development Head.

Others
• Hospitals
• Clinics
• Universities
• Research Centres
 The History of Indian Psychology in Higher Education Timeline
By Dolly Jose
1.1 Introduction
The aim of this paper is to present the historical roots of Indian Educational
Psychology through Timeline. History is subjective; for every piece of information
there are countless bits of historical fact from different dimensions which are not
completed here. The focus of this timeline is to present the facts which are more
relevant to Higher education. The timeline includes main historical information from
1916 regarding the establishment of departments of psychology, universities,
transition and developments, great personalities and their contributions, and the new
beginnings in psychological field.

1.2 Dawn of Psychology in India

Sinha (1990) describes Indian psychology, as a distinctive psychological tradition,
rooted in Indian ethos and thought, including the variety of psychological practices
that exist in the country. He adds that Indian models of psychology would have vast
implications for health psychology, education, organizational management and
human and social development. The roots of psychology in India can be traced back
to religious and philosophical literature. However, from the time of British colonial
era until last decade, the psychology has been dominated by the Western theories and
concepts. In 1850s the British East India Company adopted a policy of finding only
European style education within its territories in India. The aim of this policy was to
produce a class of Indians with English thinking. To attain this goal, the college and
university education was modelled after Cambridge and Oxford ( (Misra G. & Anand
C. P, 2012).
The applied education system has psychological influence and Indian intellectuals
exposed to European thought and modern science. They followed the Western brands
of psychology. When India began to be an independent country it has major
expansion in Indian educational system too. Indian psychologists slowly started to
recognise that they are led by European thoughts and theories. This enlightened
insight was a search and wish for an indigenous psychology. The historical
development depicted by timeline in the next section.
1.3 Psychology in Higher Education -Time Line

• 1916 -The first psychology department and first psychology laboratory in India
was established in 1916 under the leadership of Dr. N.N Sen Gupta (Dalal A.
K & Misra A., 2010) at Calcutta University. He was a Hardward educated
Indian psychologist, Philosopher and professor. He, along with Gunamudian
Davi Boaz, is known as the founder of modern psychology in India.

• 1922- In 1922 Dr. Girindra Shekar Bose, who succeeded Dr. N.N Sengupta at
Calcutta University established the Indian Psychoanalytical Society, by his
intimate contact and support of Sigmund Freud. It is affiliated to the
international psychoanalytic Association (Jain, 2005) (Dalal, 2011). Girindra
Shekar Bose has the appreciation as the first PhD scholar from Indian
psychological field. He received his PhD from Calcutta on the ‘concept of
repression’.

• 1923- In 1923, Sen Gupta as a leading proponent of the scientific nature of

psychological research took effort to include psychology as distinct division of
the Indian science congress. Thus psychology in India acquired the status of a
science at an early age along with the discipline of science, which western
psychology achieved after a long struggle (Dalal, 2011).

• 1924 – The second oldest Department of psychology established at the

University of Mysore in 1924, headed by M. V Gopalaswamy. The department
was offering M.A Degree in psychology until 1998. From 1998 syllabus
revision has took place and the degree offered as M.Sc in psychology (Dalal A.
K & Misra A., 2010).

• 1925- The first Indian Psychological Association established by the constant

effort of S.N Gupta (Jain, 2005).
• 1926- The Indian journal of psychology is founded and the first official
founding editor was N.N Sen Gupta (Jain, 2005).

• 1929- In 1929, N.N Sen Gupta, along with Radhakamal Mukerjee published
instruction to social psychology which named the first text covering the topic
of social psychology published in India. In the same year when Sen Gupta
appointed as the professor of Philosophy at the University of Lucknow, he
introduced psychology into the philosophy curricula. It prepared the ground to
establish Department of Experimental psychology at the University of
Lucknow (Dalal, 2011).

• 1934- In 1934 Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. It

was a real effort for introducing Indian approach to psychology. At the
beginning of modern psychology, when Western psychology emphasised
sensation, and perception, Indian psychologists took out Indian theories to
describe the phenomenon of perception.

• 1938-During the time of Silver jubilee session of the Indian Science Congress
Jung, Meyers and Spearman were invited and it helped India to establish an
applied psychology wing at Calcutta University. Through this development,
Indian psychology assumed an applied stance from the outset (Robert B.
Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008). (www.caluniv.ac.in).

• 1943- The Department of psychology emerged from the department of

Philosophy in the University of Madras. The founder-head of the Department
was DR. G. D Boaz.

• 1944- The establishment of "The Madras Psychology Society" took place in the
year 1944. It was one of the major contribution in the field of academic and
research by the Department of Psychology at university of Madras
• 1946- Psychology department instituted at Patna headed by H.P Maiti. The
department provided opportunities for psychological research and services.
Today Patna is famous for teaching, research and counselling services (Dalal,
2011).

• 1947- Girindra Shelter Bose published journal Samiksha. Patna guidance

bureau inspired departments of psychology to establish similar bureaus or
guidance in other states. Accordingly, UP psychological bureau is started for
guidance and counselling by the headship of Sohan Lal. Psychological bureau
at Bihar and the Parsi panchayat vocational guidance bureau at Bombay are
some of these. They adapted intelligence and aptitude tests in Hindi and
provided counselling services to the public (Dalal, 2011).

• 1949- Psychological research wing was established by India Government

Defence Ministry with the aim of the inclusion of psychologists on research and
selection boards (Jain, 2005).

• 1950- Department of psychology was established at University of Pune, named

as experimental psychology. Prof. V. K Kothurkar who trained at Cambridge
University was the founder and head of the department. During 1980s the
department renamed as department of psychology (www.unipune.ac.in).

• 1950- Centring at UNESCO, the ministry of education procured the services of

Gardner Murphy to develop a research project to find out the causes of
communal violence. Many Indian psychologists team up on this project and
published a book named, In the minds of men. This joined project gave lot of
interest for research for the scholars (Dalal, 2011).

• 1950s-1960s. In 1956, UGC was constituted and the availability of UGC funds
resulted in the establishment of 32 psychology departments in universities of
all over India by the end of 1960s (Dalal, 2011). According to the prominence
 in research area, most of the departments developed a distinct identity. Some of
the examples for this phenomenon are Rural and Social Psychology
(Allahabad), Test Construction (Mysore), Industrial Psychology (Osmania),
and Measurement and Guidance (Patna). An interesting point is that these
distinctive identities correspond to interest of the headed department
personalities of each place. As a result, when the department heads transferred
the interest too reduced (Dalal, 2011). During these years, applied psychology
extended its application to industrial psychology, organisational management,
developing training programmes and job - productivity oriented work activities.

• 1957- ‘The Madras psychology society ‘published the first Journal of

Psychological Researches Published.

• 1961- Department of psychology got late entry in the University of Allahabad

which was the 4th oldest university in India, known as the ‘Oxford of the East’.
Prof. Durganand Sinha was the first head of the department, one who trained at
Cambridge University and Patna University (Adrian C.B & Johann L &
William Van H., 2004). (www.allduniv.ac.in).

• 1964- The department of psychology established at Delhi University as an

independent department in 1964under the headship of Prof. H.C. Ganguli.
However, the psychology at the master’s level was introduced in Delhi
University in 1957 (www.du.ac.in).

• 1964- ‘The Madras psychology society’ published the Indian Journal of

Applied Psychology.

• 1955- With the collaborative support of Erikson and McClelland, advanced

training programmes in clinical psychology were introduced at All India
Institute of mental Health (Today known as NIMHANS) Bangalore (Jain,
2005).
• 1953- As a parallel study to western psychology, Indian psychologist Jadunath
Sinha wrote a book on Cognition (Dalal, 2011).

• 1959-The department of Applied psychology was established in the university

of Mumbai. The four streams of study in applied psychology are clinical,
counselling, industrial and social.

• 1960s to 1970s, larger number of Indian scholars went to Britain, Canada and
the United States for doctoral and post-doctoral training. They applied Western
theories and methods to understand and solve Indian social issues.

• 1961- The national council of educational research and training reviewed all the
psychological tests that had been prepared up to 1961 (Dalal, 2011).

• 1967- Though the applied psychology has beginning from 1931, the department
of psychology in Calcutta officially established applied psychology in 1967 by
Prof. S. N Roy (www.caluniv.ac.in).

• 1968-The Indian association of clinical psychologists was started in 1968 (Jain,

2005). On 12 December 1968 an autonomous organisation (Indian Council of
Social Science) was established to provide valuable help to scholars from all
over country through fellowships and project grants.

• 1970 - In the 1970s, the increased interest for research caused to come up many
well organised research centres. Some of the centres are ANS institute of social
studies (Patna), the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (New Delhi),
The National Institute of Community Development (Hyderabad), National
Council of Educational Research and Training (New Delhi), National Institute
of Educational Policy and Administration (New Delhi), National Institute of
 Public co-operation and Child Development (New Delhi), National Institute of
Health and Family Welfare (New Delhi), Indian Institute of Science
(Bangalore), Academic Staff College (Bangalore) and Indian Statistical
Institute (Calcutta). Together with this, the discovery of first statistical package
for the social sciences (SPSS) manual published by Norma H. Nie, Dale H.
Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull’s made the research works in psychology an
outstanding one.

• 1974- A directory made by compiling 503 psychological tests. The department

of psychology started at Bangalore University
(www.banagaloreuniversity.ac.in) and Bharathiar University
(www.buc.edu.in).

• 1975- By the end of 1975, 51 of the 101 recognised universities were offered
psychology.

• 1976- The department of psychology in Madras University developed the

department by establishing criminology, applied psychology, organization
psychology and counselling. The publication of journal of Indian psychology
established (Dalal A. K & Misra A., 2010).

• 1970s-1980s- From the mid of 1970s up to 1980s, the discovery that sixty years
of western psychology in India had not yielded any significant discoveries
promoted a crisis in the discipline of psychology. The crisis took Indian
psychologists to reflect back to the cultural roots and to seek out Indian identity
in the field of psychology (Dalal, 2011).

• 1981- Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the will which contributed
to the Indian psychology approach.
 • 1995-Out of 219 recognised universities, 70 universities offered psychology
(Jain, 2005)

• 1997- The first Asian conference Psychology was held in Singapore. It includes
ten countries named Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
India, Austria, New Zealand, Korea and Singapore and together formed the
Asia Oceanic Psychological Association (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian
M. B, 2008).

• 1998- The inaugural meeting of the international society of clinical

psychologists was held in San Francisco, United States (Robert B. Lawson, Jean
E.G, Kristian M. B, 2008).

• 2005- The Asian Applied psychology international regional conference was

held in Bangkok, Thailand. In the same year, Asian psychological association
was also held in Jakarta, Indonesia (Robert B. Lawson, Jean E.G, Kristian M.
B, 2008).

• 2009- Indian School Psychology Association established in 2009 to promote

school psychology in India and Abroad by the guidance and headship of Prof.
B. Mukhopadhyay (www.inspa.info)
Conclusion
In India, psychology has European roots. However, in the 21st century, Indian
psychology is capable to stand in its own foot with several universities, significant
psychologists and outstanding organizations rooted in psychological interventions.
Today, seventy universities in India have well-established psychology departments
and institutes for both applied research and the provision of psychological services to
the public (Robert B Lawson, Jean E. Graham, Kristin M. Baker, 2008). There is a
remarkable shift from experimental work to the understanding of the psycho-cultural
context using Indian traditional ideas in research, in building psychological theories,
in developing psychological tests and in the application of psychology to all the
disciplines of university studies and to the needs of nation.
 Biopsychology
Biopsychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain,
neurotransmitters, and other aspects of our biology influence our behaviors, thoughts,
and feelings. This field of psychology is often referred to by a variety of names
including biopsychology, physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and
psychobiology.
Biopsychologists often look at how biological processes interact with emotions,
cognitions, and other mental processes. The field of biopsychology is related to
several other areas, including comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology.
The Brain and Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The
outermost part of the brain is known as the cerebral cortex. This portion of the brain
is responsible for functioning in cognition, sensation, motor skills, and emotions.

The brain is comprised of four lobes:

• Frontal lobe: This portion of the brain is involved in motor skills, higher-level
cognition, and expressive language.
• Occipital lobe: This portion of the brain is
involved in interpreting visual stimuli and
information.
• Parietal lobe: This portion of the brain is
involved in the processing of tactile sensory
information such as pressure, touch, and pain
as well as several other functions.
• Temporal lobe: This portion of the brain is
involved in the interpretation of the sounds
and language we hear, memory processing, as well as other functions.
Another important part of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system, which
is divided into two parts:
• The motor (efferent) division connecting the central nervous system to the
muscles and glands.
• The sensory (afferent) division carries all types of sensory information to the
central nervous system.

There is another component of the nervous system known as the autonomic nervous
system, which regulates automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing, and blood
pressure. There are two parts of the autonomic nervous system:
• The parasympathetic nervous system: This works to bring your body back to a
state of rest and regulates processes such as digestion.
• The sympathetic nervous system: This controls the "fight or flight" response.
This reflex prepares the body to respond to danger or stress in the environment.
 Psychological Testing: Neuroimaging (Brain Imaging)
Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly
image the structure, function/pharmacology of the brain. It is a relatively new
discipline within medicine and neuroscience/psychology.[1]
Overview
Neuroimaging falls into two broad categories:
I. Structural imaging, which deals with the structure of the brain and the
diagnosis of gross (large scale) intracranial disease (such as tumor), and injury,
and
II. Functional imaging, which is used to diagnose metabolic diseases and lesions
on a finer scale (such as Alzheimer's disease) and also for neurological and
cognitive psychology research and building brain-computer interfaces.
Functional imaging enables, for example, the processing of information by centers in
the brain to be visualized directly. Such processing causes the involved area of the
brain to increase metabolism and "light up" on the scan.
History
In 1918 the American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy introduced the technique of
ventriculography. X-ray images of the ventricular system within the brain were
obtained by injection of filtered air directly into one or both lateral ventricles of the
brain. Dandy also observed that air introduced into the subarachnoid space via lumbar
spinal puncture could enter the cerebral ventricles and also demonstrate the
cerebrospinal fluid compartments around the base of the brain and over its surface.
This technique was called pneumoencephalography.
In 1927 Egas Moniz introduced cerebral angiography, whereby both normal and
abnormal blood vessels in and around the brain could be visualized with great
precision.
In the early 1970s, Allan McLeod Cormack and Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield
introduced Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT scanning), and ever
more detailed anatomic images of the brain became available for diagnostic and
research purposes. Cormack and Hounsfield won the 1979 Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine for their work. Soon after the introduction of CAT in the
early 1980s, the development of radioligands allowed single photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) of the
brain.
More or less concurrently, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI or MR scanning)
was developed by researchers including Peter Mansfield and Paul Lauterbur, who
were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2003. In the early 1980s
MRI was introduced clinically, and during the 1980s a veritable explosion of
technical refinements and diagnostic MR applications took place. Scientists soon
learned that the large blood flow changes measured by PET could also be imaged by
the correct type of MRI.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) was born, and since the 1990s,
fMRI has come to dominate the brain mapping field due to its low invasiveness, lack
of radiation exposure, and relatively wide availability. As noted above fMRI is also
beginning to dominate the field of stroke treatment.
In early 2000s the field of neuroimaging reached the stage where limited practical
applications of functional brain imaging have become feasible. The main application
area is crude forms of brain-computer interface.

Brain imaging techniques

Computed axial tomography

Computed tomography (CT) or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanning uses
a series of x-rays of the head taken from many different directions. Typically used
for quickly viewing brain injuries, CT scanning uses a computer program that
performs a numerical integral calculation (the inverse Radon transform) on the
measured x-ray series to estimate how much of an x-ray beam is absorbed in a small
volume of the brain. Typically the information is presented as cross sections of the
brain.
In approximation, the denser a material is, the whiter a volume of it will appear on
the scan (just as in the more familiar "flat" X-rays). CT scans are primarily used for
evaluating swelling from tissue damage in the brain and in assessment of ventricle
size. Modern CT scanning can provide reasonably good images in a matter of
minutes.
Diffuse optical imaging
Diffuse optical imaging (DOI) or diffuse optical tomography (DOT) is a medical
imaging modality which uses near infrared light to generate images of the body. The
technique measures the optical absorption of haemoglobin, and relies on the
absorption spectrum of haemoglobin varying with its oxygenation status.
Event-related optical signal
Event-related optical signal (EROS) is a brain-scanning technique which uses
infrared light through optical fibers to measure changes in optical properties of active
areas of the cerebral cortex.
Whereas techniques such as diffuse optical imaging (DOT) and near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) measure optical absorption of haemoglobin, and thus are based
on blood flow, EROS takes advantage of the scattering properties of the neurons
themselves, and thus provides a much more direct measure of cellular activity.
EROS can pinpoint activity in the brain within millimeters (spatially) and within
milliseconds (temporally). Its biggest downside is the inability to detect activity more
than a few centimeters deep. EROS is a new, relatively inexpensive technique that is
non-invasive to the test subject.
It was developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign where it is now
used in the Cognitive Neuroimaging Laboratory of Dr. Gabriele Gratton and Dr.
Monica Fabiani.
Magnetic resonance imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce
high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without use of
ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.
During an MRI, a large cylindrical magnet
creates a magnetic field around the head of the
patient through which radio waves are sent.
When the magnetic field is imposed, each
point in space has a unique radio frequency at
which the signal is received and transmitted
(Preuss). Sensors read the frequencies and a
computer uses the information to construct an
image. The detection mechanisms are so
precise that changes in structures over time can
be detected.
Using MRI, scientists can create images of
both surface and subsurface structures with a
high degree of anatomical detail. MRI scans
can produce cross sectional images in any
direction from top to bottom, side to side, or
front to back.
The problem with original MRI technology
was that while it provides a detailed
assessment of the physical appearance, water content, and many kinds of subtle
derangements of structure of the brain (such as inflammation or bleeding), it fails to
provide information about the metabolism of the brain (i.e. how actively it is
functioning) at the time of imaging.
A distinction is therefore made between "MRI imaging" and "functional MRI
imaging" (fMRI), where MRI provides only structural information on the brain while
fMRI yields both structural and functional data.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Axial MRI slice at the level of the basal ganglia, showing fMRI BOLD signal changes
overlayed in red (increase) and blue (decrease) tones.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) relies on the paramagnetic properties
of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin to see images of changing blood flow
in the brain associated with neural activity. This allows images to be generated that
reflect which brain structures are activated (and how) during performance of different
tasks.
Most fMRI scanners allow subjects to be presented with different visual images,
sounds and touch stimuli, and to make different actions such as pressing a button or
moving a joystick. Consequently, fMRI can be used to reveal brain structures and
processes associated with perception, thought and action. The resolution of fMRI is
about 2-3 millimeters at present, limited by the spatial spread of the hemodynamic
response to neural activity. It has largely superseded PET for the study of brain
activation patterns. PET, however, retains the significant advantage of being able to
identify specific brain receptors (or transporters) associated with particular
neurotransmitters through its ability to image radiolabelled receptor "ligands"
(receptor ligands are any chemicals that stick to receptors).

As well as research on healthy subjects, fMRI is increasingly used for the medical
diagnosis of disease. Because fMRI is exquisitely sensitive to blood flow, it is
extremely sensitive to early changes in the brain resulting from ischemia (abnormally
low blood flow), such as the changes which follow stroke.
Early diagnosis of certain types of stroke is increasingly important in neurology, since
substances which dissolve blood clots may be used in the first few hours after certain
types of stroke occur, but are dangerous to use afterwards. Brain changes seen on
fMRI may help to make the decision to treat with these agents. With between 72%
and 90% accuracy where chance would achieve 0.8%,[3] fMRI techniques can decide
which of a set of known images the subject is viewing.[4]
Electroencephalography
Electroencephalography (EEG) is an imaging technique used to measure the electric
fields in the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp of a human. EEG offers a very
direct measurement of neural electrical activity with very high temporal resolution
but relatively low spatial resolution.
Magnetoencephalography
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an imaging technique used to measure the
magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain via extremely sensitive
devices such as superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). MEG
offers a very direct measurement neural electrical activity (compared to fMRI for
example) with very high temporal resolution but relatively low spatial resolution. The
advantage of measuring the magnetic fields produced by neural activity is that they
are not distorted by surrounding tissue, unlike the electric fields measured by EEG
(particularly the skull and scalp).
There are many uses for the MEG, including assisting surgeons in localizing a
pathology, assisting researchers in determining the function of various parts of the
brain, neurofeedback, and others.
Positron emission tomography
Positron emission tomography (PET) measures emissions from radioactively labeled
metabolically active chemicals that have been injected into the bloodstream. The
emission data are computer-processed to produce 2- or 3-dimensional images of the
distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain.
The positron emitting radioisotopes used are produced by a cyclotron, and chemicals
are labeled with these radioactive atoms. The labeled compound, called a radiotracer,
is injected into the bloodstream and eventually makes its way to the brain. Sensors in
the PET scanner detect the radioactivity as the compound accumulates in various
regions of the brain.
A computer uses the data gathered by the sensors to create multicolored 2- or 3-
dimensional images that show where the compound acts in the brain. Especially
useful are a wide array of ligands used to map different aspects of neurotransmitter
activity, with by far the most commonly used PET tracer being a labeled form of
glucose (see Fludeoxyglucose (18F) (FDG)).

The greatest benefit of PET scanning is that different compounds can show blood
flow and oxygen and glucose metabolism in the tissues of the working brain. These
measurements reflect the amount of brain activity in the various regions of the brain
and allow to learn more about how the brain works. PET scans were superior to all
other metabolic imaging methods in terms of resolution and speed of completion (as
little as 30 seconds), when they first became available. The improved resolution
permitted better study to be made as to the area of the brain activated by a particular
task.
The biggest drawback of PET scanning is that because the radioactivity decays
rapidly, it is limited to monitoring short tasks. Before fMRI technology came online,
PET scanning was the preferred method of functional (as opposed to structural) brain
imaging, and it still continues to make large contributions to neuroscience.
PET scanning is also used for diagnosis of brain disease, most notably because brain
tumors, strokes, and neuron-damaging diseases which cause dementia (such as
Alzheimer's disease) all cause great changes in brain metabolism, which in turn
causes easily detectable changes in PET scans.
PET is probably most useful in early cases of certain dementias (with classic
examples being Alzheimer's disease and Pick's disease) where the early damage is
too diffuse and makes too little difference in brain volume and gross structure to
change CT and standard MRI images enough to be able to reliably differentiate it
from the "normal" range of cortical atrophy which occurs with aging (in many but
not all) persons, and which does not cause clinical dementia.
Single photon emission computed tomography
Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is similar to PET and uses
gamma ray emitting radioisotopes and a gamma camera to record data that a
computer uses to construct two- or three-dimensional images of active brain
regions[8] SPECT relies on an injection of radioactive tracer, which is rapidly taken
up by the brain but does not redistribute. Uptake of SPECT agent is nearly 100%
complete within 30 – 60s, reflecting cerebral blood flow (CBF) at the time of
injection. These properties of SPECT make it particularly well suited for epilepsy
imaging, which is usually made difficult by problems with patient movement and
variable seizure types.
SPECT provides a "snapshot" of cerebral blood flow since scans can be acquired after
seizure termination (so long as the radioactive tracer was injected at the time of the
seizure). A significant limitation of SPECT is its poor resolution (about 1 cm)
compared to that of MRI.
Like PET, SPECT also can be used to differentiate different kinds of disease
processes which produce dementia, and it is increasingly used for this purpose.
Neuro-PET has a disadvantage of requiring use of tracers with half-lives of at most
110 minutes, such as FDG. These must be made in a cyclotron, and are expensive or
even unavailable if necessary transport times are prolonged more than a few half-
lives. SPECT, however, is able to make use of tracers with much longer half-lives,
such as technetium-99m, and as a result, is far more widely available.
Computational Modeling
• Traditionally, psychology has focused on observable behaviors and how they
changes with experimental manipulations in order to understand the underlying
mechanisms of cognition, perception and language.
• More recently, we've turned to neuroscience to enrich these explanations.
• However, both techniques are like trying to guess what complex processes live
inside essentially a black box.
• Imagine trying to infer how a computer (which is vastly less complex than the
human brains) works, by only interacting with it using your keyboard and
mouse.
• By analogy, neuroscience can tell us that there are sound cards and video cards,
and so forth, and psychology can reveal a lot about basic function, but how
would one figure out that there were operating systems with various properties
and that ultimately binary was the language of the computer.

In the last 20 years, computational modeling, has developed as an important

complement to these approaches. By formalizing our theoretical notions in terms of
mathematical equations, we can test them under various circumstances to see

1) if the theory works (e.g. if it solves the cognitive problem we set out to solve);
2) if the theory has an unexpected consequences; and
3) if the theory makes predictions that look like human performance.

To go back to our computer analogy, the idea is to make inferences about what's
inside the computed by building some small part of it and matching it to the behavior.
Much modeling is strongly paradigmatic, using tools based on some larger theory.
Connectionism, for example, is very loosely based on how populations of neurons
interact with each other; and dynamic systems is based on the mathematics of real-
time processes.
Our modeling work uses a range of approaches including connectionist and dynamic
systems, but also simpler ideas like statistical learning, associative learning, logistic
regression and sometimes even jelly beans in jars.
Our thought is that one should use modeling tools that map closely to the theoretical
idea under investigation, and when we've answered the questions we set out to
answer, throw the model away (after all, it's just a model). Using this broader
approach, we've investigated a range of issues, from low-level speech perception, to
the development of speech perception, to how children map words to objects, and the
shape of the vocabulary acquisition curve.

What is computational modeling of behavioral data?

• The goal of computational modeling in behavioral science is to use precise
mathematical models to make better sense of behavioral data.
• The behavioral data most often come in the form of choices, but can also be
reaction times, eye movements, or other easily observable behaviors, and even
neural data.
• The models come in the form of mathematical equations that link the
experimentally observable variables (e.g. stimuli, outcomes, past experiences)
to behavior in the immediate future.
• In this sense, computational models instantiate different ‘algorithmic
hypotheses’ about how behavior is generated.
• Exactly what it means to ‘make sense’ of behavioral data is, to some extent, a
matter of taste that will vary according to the researcher’s goals (Kording et al.,
2018).
• In some cases, a simple model that can explain broad qualitative features of the
data is enough. In other cases, more detailed models that make quantitative
predictions are required (Breiman, 2001).
• The exact form of the models, and exactly what we do with them, is limited
only by our imaginations, but four uses dominate the literature: simulation,
parameter estimation, model comparison, and latent variable inference.
Simulation involves running the model with particular parameter settings to generate
‘fake’ behavioral data. These simulated data can then be analyzed in much the same
way as one would analyze real data, to make precise, falsifiable predictions about
qualitative and quantitative patterns in the data. Simulation is a way to make
theoretical predictions more precise and testable.

Parameter estimation involves finding the set of parameter values that best account
for real behavioral data for a given model. These parameters can be used as a succinct
summary of a given data set (Ratcliff, 1978; Wilson et al., 2013; Daw et al., 2011;
Donkin et al., 2016), for investigating individual differences (Frank et al., 2007;
Starns and Ratcliff, 2010; Collins and Frank, 2012; Gillan et al., 2016; Somerville et
al., 2017; Nilsson et al., 2011) and for quantifying the effects of interventions such
as drugs, lesions, illness, or experimental conditions (Frank et al., 2004; Lorains et
al., 2014; Dowd et al., 2016; Zajkowski et al., 2017; Warren et al., 2017; Wimmer et
al., 2018; van Ravenzwaaij et al., 2011).

Model comparison involves trying to compute which of a set of possible models

best describes the behavioral data, as a way to understand which mechanisms are
more likely to underlie behavior. This is especially useful when the different models
make similar qualitative predictions but differ quantitatively (Wilson and Niv, 2011;
Daw et al., 2011; Collins and Frank, 2012; Collins and Frank, 2012; Fischer and
Ullsperger, 2013; Steyvers et al., 2009; Haaf and Rouder, 2017; Donkin et al., 2014).

Latent variable inference involves using the model to compute the values of hidden
variables (for example values of different choices) that are not immediately
observable in the behavioral data, but which the theory assumes are important for the
computations occurring in the brain. Latent variable inference is especially useful in
neuroimaging where it is used to help search for the neural correlates of the model
(O'Doherty et al., 2007; Wilson and Niv, 2015; Donoso et al., 2014; Cohen et al.,
2017), but also for electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocorticography (ECOG),
electrophysiology and pupillometry among many other data sources (O'Reilly et al.,
2013; Collins and Frank, 2018; Samejima et al., 2005; Cavanagh et al., 2014; Nassar
et al., 2012).