MEASUREMENT OF

ANGLES &
DIRECTIONS
MERIDIANS
The direction of line is usually defined by the horizontal
angle it makes with a fixed reference line or direction. In
surveying, this is called Meridians. A vertical line passing
through a fixed point of reference and through the
observer’s position.
TRUE MERIDIAN
The true meridian is also known as the astronomic or
geographic meridian. This line passes through the
geographic north and south poles of the earth and the
observer’s position. Since all true meridians converge at
the poles, they are not parallel to each other.
TRUE MERIDIAN
The direction of true meridian at a survey station is
invariable and any record of true directions taken remains
permanent and unchanged regardless of time. Lines in
most extensive surveys usually referred to the true
meridian.
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN
A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies
parallel with the magnetic lines if force if the earth. It’s
direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic
needle of a compass held at the observer’s position.
Magnetic meridian are not parallel to the true meridians
since they converge at a magnetic pole.
GRID MERIDIAN
A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference parallel to the
central meridian of a system of plane rectangular
coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides with a
true meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians
are made parallel to this meridian.
ASSUMED MERIDIAN
An assumed meridian is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of
reference which is taken for convenience. This meridian is
usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining
station or some well-defined and permanent point.
DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS
DIRECTION OF LINES
The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle
the line makes with an established line of reference.
There are various kinds of angles which can be used to
describe the direction of lines. In surveying, directions
may be defined by means of: interior angles, exterior
angles, deflection angles, angles to the right, angles to
the left, bearings and azimuths.
INTERIOR ANGLES
The angles between two adjacent lines in a closed
polygon are called interior angles. These angles may be
measured clockwise or counterclockwise. It should be
remembered that for any closed polygon the sum of the
interior angles is, (n is the number of sides of the
polygon)
Σ I.A = (n-2) (180°)
EXTERIOR ANGLES
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the
preceding line is called a deflection angle. It may be
turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) and it’s always necessary to append
the letters R or L to the numerical value to define the
direction in which the angle has been turned.
Σ E.A = (n-2) (180°)
DEFLECTION ANGLES
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the
preceding line is called a deflection angle. It may be
turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) and it’s always necessary to append
the letters R or L to the numerical value to define the
direction in which the angle has been turned.
Σ D.A = 360°
ANGLES TO THE RIGHT
Angles to the right are horizontal angle measured
clockwise from the preceding line to the succeeding line.
ANGLES TO THE LEFT
Angles to the right are horizontal angles measured
counter-clockwise from the preceding line to the
succeeding line.
BEARINGS
The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle
between the reference meridian and the line. A
quadrantal system is used to specify bearings such that a
line may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE,
SE, NW and SW. Bearings do not exceed 90°
BEARINGS
When bearings are employed to define the direction of
lines it is important to identify the meridian used as
reference. Depending, therefore, on the reference
meridian being used, bearings may be true, magnetic,
grid or assumed.
FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS
When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in
which the surveys progresses, it is referred to as a
forward bearing, if the bearing of the same line is
observed in an opposite direction it is called the back
bearing.
DETERMINING ANGLES FROM BEARINGS
Problem 1: Compute the angles AOB, COD, EOF and GOH from the
following set of lines whose magnetic bearings are given:
a. OA N 39°25’ E, OB N 75°50’ E |ans: 36°25’0”
b. OC N 34°14’ E, OD N 53°22’ W |ans: 87°36’0”
c. OE S 15°04’ E, OF S 36°00’ W |ans: 51°04’0”
d. OG N 70°15’ W, OH S 52°05’ W |ans: 57°40’0”
AZIMUTHS
The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle
between the meridian and the line measured in a
clockwise direction from either north or south branch of
the meridian. Azimuths are usually preferred over
bearing because they are more convenient to work with
such as in computing traverse data.
AZIMUTHS
Azimuth may be called true, magnetic, grid or assumed
depending on the reference meridian from which they
have been measured.
FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS
Any line established on the earth’s surface has two
azimuths – a forward azimuth and a back azimuth.
Depending on which end of the line is considered, these
directions differ by 180 degrees from each other since
the back azimuth is the exact reverse of the forward
azimuth.
FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS
To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is
known, the following rules are used:
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180°,
subtract 180° to obtain the back azimuth
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180°,
add 180° to determine the back azimuth.
DETERMINING ANGLES FROM AZIMUTHS
Problem 2: Compute the angles APB, CPD, EPF and GOH from the following set
of lines whose azimuths are given:
a. 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 of Line PA = 39°48’,
𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 of Line PB = 115°29’ ans: 75°41’0”
b. 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line PC = 320°22’,
𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line PD = 62°16’ ans: 75°41’0”
c. 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 of Line PE = 219°02’,
𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line PF = 154°16’ ans: 75°41’0”
CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIMUTH
Problem 3: Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths
a.) AB, N 25°25’ W | 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 334°35’ , 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 154°35’
b.) BC, due East | 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 90°0’ , 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 270°0’
c.) CD, S 50°10’ E | 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 129°50’, 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 309°50’
d.) DE, S 45°50’ W| 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 225°50’, 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 45°50’
e.) EF, N 66°30’ W| 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 293°30’, 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 113°30’
CONVERTING AZIMUTHS TO BEARING
Problem 4: Convert the following azimuth to equivalent bearings
a.) 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line AB = 230°30’ ans: N 39°30’0” E
b.) 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 of Line BC = 112°46’ ans: S 67°14’0” E
c.) 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line CD = 270°00’ ans: Due East
d.) 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑵 of Line DE = 228°15’ ans: S 48°15’0” W
E .) 𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑺 of Line EF = 135°00’ ans: N 45°0’0” W
MAGNETIC NEEDLE
A magnetic needle is a slender, magnetized steel
rod that when freely suspended at its center of
gravity points to magnetic north.
MAGNETIC DIP
In the northern hemisphere, the magnetic needle dips
toward the magnetic pole. In the southern hemisphere, the
needle dips toward south magnetic pole. To counteract the
dip so that the needle will be horizontal, a counterweight is
attached to the south end of the needle in the northern
hemisphere and to the north end in the southern
hemisphere.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
The magnetic compass consists of magnetic needle
mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle
in a metal box covered with a glass plate. It is
constructed so that the angle between a line of sight
and the magnetic meridian can be measured.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
The line of sight, with the horizontal circle, can be
rotated in the horizontal plane while the needle
continues to point to magnetic north. The point of the
needle marks the angle made by the magnetic
meridian and the line of sight
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
The magnetic poles do not coincide with the axis of
the earth. The horizontal angle between the magnetic
meridian and the true (geodetic) meridian is known as
declination. In some areas, the needle points east of
true north, and in some areas it points west of true
north.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
The deflection of the needle at one place may be
considerably different from that at a place just a few
kilometers away. At a particular location the
declination does not remain constant but also varies
with time.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Zero declination is found along a line between the
areas. This line is known as the agonic line. It passes,
generally, through Florida and the Great Lakes, but it is
constantly changing its location. East of this line,
declination is west (-); west of this line, declination is
east (+). In the US, declination varies from 0 to 23
degrees.
VARIATION IN DECLINATION
Declination in any one point varies daily, annually,
secularly (over a long period of time such as century).
Declination for particular location for a particular year
can be obtained from the US Geological Survey.
IMPORTANCE OF COMPASS SURVEYING
Compass Surveying is as obsolete as the Gunter’s chain, but is
important for the modern surveyor to understand it when retracing
old lines. The modern surveyor needs to be able to convert magnetic
bearings and true bearings. In order to do so the surveyor must know
whether the declination is east or west and what the declination is or
was on a certain day.
MAGNETIC BEARING TO TRUE BEARINGS
Problem 5: Convert the following magnetic bearings to true bearings:
a. N 68°30’ E, decl 7°45’ W ans: N 60°45’0” E
b. S 12°40’ W, decl 3°00’ W ans: S 9°40’0” W
c. S 20°35’ E, decl 6°15’ E ans: S 14°20’0” E
d. N 3°65’ W, decl 4°20’ E ans: N 0°15’0” E
MAGNETIC BEARING TO TRUE BEARINGS
Problem 6
The magnetic bearing of a line was S 85°55’ W at a
location where the declination was 9°30’ E. Find the
true bearing.
ans: N 84°35’0” W
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Problem 8
A field is in the form of a regular pentagon. If the
true bearing of side AB is N 30°30’ E, determine the
true azimuth from south of the following sides of the
field. AB, BC, & CD. Assume that the corners of the field
are labeled in a clockwise direction.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Problem 9
In a compass survey made fifty years ago the observed
magnetic bearing of a reference line XY was S 50°18 E when the
magnetic declination 8° 15’ east. Lately in 1986, a new survey was
made and the declination in the same survey site changed to 12°10’
west. Determine the following: true bearing, true azimuth from
south, new magnetic bearing and the new magnetic azimuth from
south.
COMPASS SURVEYS
The method of compass surveying is one of the most basic
and widely practiced methods of determining the relative
location of points where a high degree of precision is not
required. Such surveys, which employ a magnetic compass
are performed by traversing.
TRAVERSE
A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive points
whose lengths and directions have been determined from
field measurements.
TRAVERSING
The process of measuring the lengths and directions of the
lines of a traverse for the purpose of locating the positions
of certain points.
TRAVERSE STATION
Any temporary or permanent point of reference over which
the instrument is set up. It is usually marked by a peg or a hub
driven flush with the ground and identified by consecutive
letters or numbers as the surveys progresses. Traverse stations
are sometimes called angle points because of an angle is
usually measured at such stations.
TRAVERSE LINES
Traverse lines are lines connecting traverse stations and
whose lengths and directions are determined.
TWO TYPES OF TRAVERSES

1. OPEN TRAVERSE
2. CLOSED TRAVERSE
OPEN TRAVERSE
An open compass traverse consists of a series of
lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings
which are continuous but do not return to the
starting point or close upon a point of known
position.
CLOSED TRAVERSE
A closed compass traverse consists of a series of
lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings
which forms a closed loop, or begin and end at
points whose positions have been fixed by other
surveys of higher precision.
ADJUSTMENT OF TRAVERSE
In a compass traverse there are likely to be discrepancies
between the observed forward and back bearings of lines.
These may be due to errors of observations or local attraction.
Angular observations made for a particular traverse must be
thoroughly examined to determine the best method of
eliminating discrepancies without having to make very large
adjustments or alterations
ADJUSTMENT OF OPEN TRAVERSE
When adjusting open compass traverse there are two important steps
to perform:
1.) Determine which among the traverse lines is free from local
attraction, which will consider as the best line.
2.) Perform the adjustment of successive lines by starting from either
end of the considered as ‘best line’
Take note: The forward and back bearings taken at either end of the
line are accepted as correct.
ADJUSTMENT OF OPEN TRAVERSE
In cases wherein two or more non-adjoining lines appear to be free from
local attractions, only one of these lines is arbitrarily chosen as the best
line and adjustment of succeeding lines originates from it. When adjoining
lines are similarly unaffected by local attraction, adjustment may be started
at any line. However, if none of the lines in the traverse appears to be
unaffected by local attraction, the line with the least discrepancy between
the forward and back bearings is chosen and the forward bearing is
assumed to be correct.
ADJUSTMENT OF OPEN TRAVERSE
ADJUSTMENT OF OPEN TRAVERSE
Problem 10
Given in the tabulation below are the observed forward and
back bearings of an open compass traverse. Plot the traverse and
adjust the forward and back bearing.
OBSERVED BEARINGS
LINE LENGTH (m)
FORWARD BACK
AB 400.63 N 25°45’ E S 25°40’ W
BC 450.62 S 20°30’ E N 20°25’ W
CD 500.89 S 35°30’ W N 35°30’ E
DE 640.46 S 75°30’ E N 75°25’ W
EF 545.41 N 58°50’ E S 58°15’ W
FG 700.05 N 22°05’ E S 21°55’ W
ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSED TRAVERSE
The adjustment of a closed compass traverse is similar to the
adjustment of an open compass traverse except that in a closed
traverse the effects of observational errors are considered. The
following are the three important steps
(a) Computing and adjusting the interior angles
(b) Selecting the best line
(c) Adjusting the observed bearings of successive lines.
ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSED TRAVERSE
Each interior angle is computed from the observed bearings
of the back line and the forward line at each traverse station.
However, there will always be some amount of inconsistency
due to errors of observation or the effects of local attraction.
Any discrepancy between these two quantities is the error of
closure.
ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSED TRAVERSE
Problem 11
The following are observed bearings of a closed compass
traverse. Compute the interior angles and correct them for
observational errors.
OBSERVED BEARINGS
LINE LENGTH (m)
FORWARD BACK
AB 46.50 S 30°40’ W S 30°40’ E
BC 75.15 S 83°50’ E N 84°30’ W
CD 117.35 N 02°00’ W N 02°15’ E
DE 74.92 S 89°30’ W DUE EAST
EA 60.25 S 28°50’ E S 28°00’ W
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
For any closed traverse the first step taken by the
surveyor should always be to check if the observed
angles fulfill the geometric conditions of the figure. All
linear distances should be corrected since errors in
measured lengths will alter the shape of the traverse.
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
There are various other computations and adjustments
required for a closed traverse. Some of these include:
determining the latitudes and departures and their
respective algebraic sum, calculating the total error of
closure, balancing the survey, determining the adjusted
position of each traverse station, computing the area and
subdivision of land.
LATITUDES & DEPARTURES
The latitude of a line is its projection onto the reference
meridian or a north-south line. Latitudes are sometimes
referred to as northings or southings. Latitudes of lines
with northerly bearing are considered positive; those in
the southerly direction are considered negative
LATITUDES & DEPARTURES
The departure of a line is its projection onto the
reference parallel or a east-west line. Departure of a line
with easterly bearing are considered positive; those in
the westerly direction are considered negative
ERROR OF CLOSURE
The linear error of closure (LEC) is usually a short line of unknown
length and direction connecting the initial and final stations of the
traverse. It is more exactly determined by computing the
hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are the closure in
latitudes and the closure in departures, respectively. This quantity
reflects the algebraic sum of all accumulated errors of
measurement when running the traverse.
ERROR OF CLOSURE
The linear error of closure (LEC) and the angle that this line makes
with the meridian is determined by the following equations:
2 2
𝑳𝑬𝑪 = 𝐶𝐿 + 𝐶𝐷
−𝐶𝐷
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
−𝐶𝐿
ERROR OF CLOSURE
Where; LEC – Linear Error of Closure
𝐶𝐿 - closure in latitude or the sum of north and
south latitudes
𝐶𝐷 - closure in departure or the sum of east
and west departures
θ – bearing angle of the side of error
ERROR OF CLOSURE
The linear error of closure does not indicate the precision of the
measurement until it is compared with the total length of the
traverse. To determine the relative precision:
where; D is the total length or perimeter of the traverse.
𝐿𝐸𝐶
𝑹𝑷 =
𝐷
LATITUDE AND DEPARTURES
Problem 12
Given in the tabulation below are notes for an open traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure of each course and tabulate
observed and computed values accordingly.

COURSE DISTANCE BEARING COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 550.30 m N 28° 10’ E DE 631.22 m N 50° 00’ E
BC 395.48 m S 69° 35’ E EF 340.05 m S 25° 05’ E
CD 462.70 m S 27° 50’ E FG 275.86 m due East
ERROR OF CLOSURE
Problem 13
In a given closed traverse the sum of the north latitudes
exceeds the sum of the south latitudes by 2.74m and the sum of the
west departures exceeds the sum of the east departures by 3.66m.
Determine the linear error of closure and the bearing of the side of
error.
ERROR OF CLOSURE
Problem 14
Given in the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for
a closed traverse obtained from a transit-tape survey. Determine the
following quantities: Latitude and departure of each course, linear
error of closure, bearing of the side of error and the precision of the
measurement. Tabulate observed and computed values.
ERROR OF CLOSURE
Problem 14

LINE LENGTH (m) AZIMUTH FROM NORTH

AB 233.10 122° 30’
BC 242.05 85° 15’
CD 191.50 20° 00’
DE 234.46 333° 35’
EF 270.65 254° 08’
FA 252.38 213° 00’