Computer Architecture Notes

Computer Architecture refers to the structure and organization of a computer system's hardware

components and how they interact with one another.

Here are key concepts and components that form the foundation of computer architecture:

1. **Basic Components of a Computer System**:

- **Central Processing Unit (CPU)**: The "brain" of the computer that executes instructions. It

consists of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and registers.

- **Memory**: A storage area where data and instructions are stored. Memory is divided into

primary (RAM) and secondary (hard drives, SSDs).

- **Input/Output Devices (I/O)**: Hardware interfaces through which the computer interacts with

the external world (keyboard, mouse, display, etc.).

2. **CPU Components**:

- **Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)**: Performs arithmetic and logical operations (addition, subtraction,

AND, OR, etc.).

- **Control Unit (CU)**: Directs the flow of data and operations within the CPU.

- **Registers**: Small, fast storage locations in the CPU that hold intermediate data during

processing.

- **Clock**: Synchronizes the operations of the CPU and other components.

3. **Memory Hierarchy**:

- **Registers**: Smallest and fastest, located in the CPU. They hold data and instructions for

immediate use.

- **Cache Memory**: Fast memory located close to the CPU to store frequently accessed data.
 - **Main Memory (RAM)**: Stores data that is actively used by the CPU.

- **Secondary Storage**: Larger, slower storage (hard drives, SSDs) used to store data long-term.

- **Tertiary Storage**: Used for backup and archival data (e.g., optical drives, tape storage).

4. **Von Neumann Architecture**:

- **Program Storage**: Both data and instructions are stored in memory, and the CPU fetches

and executes them sequentially.

- **Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle**: The basic cycle through which the CPU processes

instructions: fetch an instruction from memory, decode it, and execute the operation.

5. **Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)**:

- Defines the set of instructions the CPU can execute and how data is represented in memory.

- Includes instructions for arithmetic, logic, data movement, and control flow.

- Examples: x86, ARM, MIPS.

6. **Pipelining**:

- A technique where multiple instruction stages are overlapped, allowing for faster processing by

performing multiple operations simultaneously.

- Stages of pipelining: Instruction Fetch (IF), Instruction Decode (ID), Execute (EX), Memory

Access (MEM), Write Back (WB).

7. **Cache Memory**:

- A small, fast memory that stores frequently accessed data to reduce access time from slower

main memory.

- **Levels of Cache**:

- **L1 Cache**: Smallest and fastest, located closest to the CPU core.

- **L2 Cache**: Larger but slower, located between the CPU and main memory.
 - **L3 Cache**: Even larger and slower, shared between cores in multi-core processors.

8. **Parallel Processing**:

- The use of multiple processors or cores to execute tasks simultaneously, increasing

performance for compute-intensive operations.

- **Multicore Processors**: Processors with multiple cores that can handle several tasks in

parallel.

9. **Virtual Memory**:

- A memory management technique that allows the operating system to use disk storage as an

extension of RAM.

- **Paging**: Divides memory into fixed-size pages and swaps them between RAM and disk as

needed.

- **Segmentation**: Divides memory into segments (e.g., code, data, stack) and manages them

independently.

10. **Input/Output Systems**:

- Handles communication between the CPU and external devices like keyboards, displays, and

storage.

- **Direct Memory Access (DMA)**: A system where peripherals can access memory directly

without involving the CPU, improving data transfer efficiency.

- **Interrupts**: A mechanism where the CPU is alerted to handle I/O events or exceptional

conditions.

11. **Bus Systems**:

- A collection of pathways used to transfer data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

- **Data Bus**: Carries data between components.

- **Control Bus**: Carries control signals for coordinating operations.

12. **RISC vs CISC Architectures**:

- **RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)**: Focuses on a small set of simple instructions

that can execute in one clock cycle.

- **CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing)**: Uses a large set of instructions, some of which

can take multiple cycles to execute.

13. **Performance Metrics**:

- **Clock Speed**: The rate at which the CPU executes instructions (measured in GHz).

- **MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second)**: A measure of how many millions of instructions the

CPU can process in one second.

- **Throughput**: The number of instructions processed over a period of time.

- **Latency**: The time it takes to process a single instruction.

14. **Energy Efficiency**:

- As processors become more powerful, energy consumption becomes a crucial factor, especially

in mobile devices and large data centers.

- **Power Consumption**: Affects the performance-to-power ratio, with techniques like dynamic

voltage scaling (DVS) used to manage energy use.

Understanding these concepts is essential for understanding how computers work at a fundamental

level, and is the basis for more advanced studies in topics like computer systems design, operating

systems, and embedded systems.