KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL

UNIVERSITY

FOUNDATIONS
DEGREE/DSE

MODULE

EDF2101:CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

By

INSTRUCTOR: GWOKYALYA EDITH

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT ONE: THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM ............................................................................. 1

1.1.1 What is the concept of curriculum? ...................................................................................... 1

1.1.2 Dimensions of a school curriculum....................................................................................... 1

1.1.3 Elements of a school curriculum ........................................................................................... 2

1.2 CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION .............................................................................. 3

1.2.1 Curriculum and Teaching (or Instruction)....................................................................... 3

UNIT TWO: ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM .................................................................................. 4

2.2.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 6

2.2.2 Sources of Educational Objectives ....................................................................................... 7

2.2.3 Characteristics of curriculum objectives ............................................................................... 8

2.2. 4 Functions of curriculum objectives ....................................................................................... 9

2.3 CONTENT .......................................................................................................................... 10

2.3.2 Criteria for selecting content: .............................................................................................. 10

2.5 Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 12

2.5.2 Phases of Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 12

UNIT THREE: DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM .................................................................. 15

UNIT FOUR: CURRICULUM DESIGNS ......................................................................................... 17

1.6.1 Types of Curriculum Designs ............................................................................................. 18

UNIT: 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 22

5.3. Steps in Curriculum Development ...................................................................................... 23

5.4. Factors Hindering Curriculum Development ...................................................................... 28

UNIT:SIX CURRICULUM INNOVATION (CHANGE) AND IMPLEMENTATION ............. 29

6.2. The Planning of Innovation................................................................................................. 30

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6.3. Strategies of Curriculum Innovation ................................................................................... 31

6.4 Why Curriculum Innovations Fail ...................................................................................... 35

6.6. Conditions of Success of Innovations ................................................................................. 37

UNIT: SEVEN- CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................... 38

7.2 Stages of Curriculum Implementation ................................................................................ 39

7.3 Factors Limiting Curriculum Implementation .................................................................... 41

7.4 Roles of Curriculum Implementers ..................................................................................... 42

READING MATERIALS ................................................................................................................... 45

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UNIT ONE: THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM
This unit examines the scope of curriculum, dimensions and elements of a curriculum.

1.1.1 What is the concept of curriculum?

Several scholars have put forward various definitions to bring out the meaning of the term
curriculum. According to Bishops (1985), curriculum is defined as the total effort of the school
to bring about desired outcomes in the school and out of the school situations. This means that
curriculum is subtotal of the school‟s effort to influence learning, whether in the school
compound, classroom or out of school.
Franklin Bobbitt,(1918), defined curriculum as “ those things which children and youths must do
and experience by way of developing ability to do things well that make up the affairs of their
life” In other words curriculum should help students to develop both mentally and socially in
order to be able to produce and live in the modern world.
Generally a school curriculum is all the experiences which are planned and guided by the school
whether they are carried out in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. It is all the
planned experiences that a learner undergoes under the jurisdiction of the school. Hence the role
of the school is to plan and guide every activity that the learner undergoes.
In other words Bobbitt‟s idea was if schools are to become efficient and effective as factories,
then waste in the school needs to eliminated and so should the curriculum. This later on brought
disagreements.
Today curriculum is broad based and it‟s found all over the world. However, curriculum is not
static; it changes with changing times and notably is the fact that each nation forms a curriculum
that is supposed to be relevant to its people‟s needs, interests, desires, ability and resource
available.

1.1.2 Dimensions of a school curriculum

These refer to the aspects or faces of a school curriculum. They are majorly three;

1-formal dimension
These are the planned and organized in-class activities which learners engage in under the
guidance of the school. These activities may be under taken inside or out side the class
compound. The activities involve courses of study – showing the objectives to be aimed at and
how students should be instructed. In the formal dimension the four elements of curriculum are
involved.
It is also in this dimension that assessment in form of exams and tests is done.
2- Non- formal dimension
Are all the organized out of class activities which learners engage under the guidance of the
school. It is also known as the extra- curricular dimension. It involves activities like music,

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drama, sports art work etc. they are not carried out by student in regular classroom groupings or
activities; instead the students involve themselves according to individual interests, abilities,
attitude, and age and probably gender.
Importances of the non-formal dimension are;
 They train the character of the child
 They help identify and develop different talents of the learners
 They provide variety from the usual routine classroom work
 They train the young on how to use leisure time productively
 Some of them promote cognitive development.
3- The in-formal dimension
Also called the hidden curriculum consists of guided aspects of the informal learning that goes
on in a school all the time. According to Kerr 1968, hidden curriculum are those things which
pupils learn at school because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and
organized but they themselves are not directly included in the planning or even in the
consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangement.
In other words it is the assimilation of the desired habits by the students through their interaction
with the planned aspects of the school‟s environment. However, not all interactions form the
desirable informal learning activities that are related to the planned aspects of the school‟s
environment should be included. E.g. (1) the planning of the school environment should include
school rules and regulations which encourage desirable life style among the staff and learners.
I.e. students should be taught how to be clean, keep time, how to be knit, obedient, leadership
roles, putting on uniforms etc.
E.g. 2 a mathematics teacher, during a mathematics lesson may unknowing teach learners to be
smart, if he/she is organized, neat and systematic.
NB. The informal dimension of the school curriculum has not been taken seriously yet its
important both to the learners and those they learn from. It should therefore be given chance to
develop along side the other curriculum.

1.1.3 Elements of a school curriculum

Besides the dimensions described above, a school curriculum has elements. These are:
1. Objectives, which refer to the descriptions of the behavior learners, are expected to
portray after experiencing the curriculum.
2. Content: This is the subject matter which the students are expected to master at the end of
the curriculum.
3. Teaching – Learning experiences: These are the activities which the teachers and the
students get involved in order to realize the stated objectives.

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4. Evaluation: Is the determination of the extent to which the learners‟ behavior is changing
or has changed as a result of experiencing the curriculum.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term curriculum?
2. Discuss the dimensions of a school curriculum
3. What are the elements of a curriculum?

1.2 CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION

The tem education means different things to different people. It has been defined in terms of
training skill acquisition of knowledge and formal school attendance. From this perspective it
can be viewed as encompassing activities, processes and concepts.

Education has also been described as the acquisition of knowledge. Thus if a defined body of
knowledge has not been acquired, then education has not taken place, even if a person may have
been in a learning institution for the required period of time. In an attempt to improve on the
knowledge definition, education has been described as the acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes.

Education can be formal or informal: Formal education refers to where one attends a learning
institution (school, Colleges, Polytechnic, University, etc) with regular courses of study,
teachers, etc for a definite amount of time and finally takes an examination. Informal Education
e.g. African indigenous education, though not formerly recognized as education system is very
useful and resembles formal education in almost all aspects, just like formal education, it is
structured in the sense that knowledge and experience are not offered to all and sundry – but are
determined to some extent, by a careful assessment of the recipient. There are also examinations
and tests and graduation ceremonies by way of passage of rites by people.

It is the notion of curriculum that provides the central dividing line between formal and informal
education. Curriculum was formed within the schooling context and there are major problems
when it introduced in informal forms of pedagogy. Curriculum cannot be taken out of context
and the context in which it was developed was the school. Hence it only makes sense when
considered alongside notions like class, teacher, course, lesson, etc.
Hence, education, whether formal or informal is regarded as the process of changing the learners
behavior to the desired direction. Curriculum on the other hand, is the means of achieving the
purpose of education. Thus whereas education is an end, curriculum is the means to that end.

1.2.1 Curriculum and Teaching (or Instruction)

The relationship between curriculum and instruction has been described by several models.
Curriculum is often depicted as the plan or program of action. It is the production of plans for
further actions, instruction (or teaching) is the interaction between the learning agent and the
people intending to learn. It is the putting the plan into action. The relationship between
curriculum (C) and instruction (I) can be understood from the cyclic model described below:

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 Feedback

C
I/T

Feedback

The cyclic model each is detached but continually related by feedback instructional decisions
after made after curriculum programs the curriculum programs are modified after instructions are
implemented and evaluated.

UNIT TWO: ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

Under here we shall now describe each of the elements in a little more detail using different
curriculum models. Elements of curriculum are also called the parts of a curriculum. These
elements are:
1. The objectives of the curriculum.
2. Learning opportunities for achieving the objectives.
3. The learning content
4. The evaluation process for measuring how far the objectives are being achieved (or have
been) achieved.

2.1. Some Models Describing Elements of a School Curriculum

Curriculum models are conceptual frameworks of how different authors view the curriculum
especially the interaction between its elements and dimensions.
Tyler’s Model
Tyler‟s model of curriculum is based on the following four questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (objectives)
2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
(content)
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? (teaching methods)
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (evaluation)
He presents a simple curriculum model that flows from top to bottom.

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 Objectives

Selection of learning experiences

Organization of learning experiences

Evaluation
This linear sequence of questions is however faulty because it fails to show the necessary
independence or interaction of the elements and dimensions. There are two major weaknesses of
this model.
1. He only asks questions but does not attempt to answer them. However he gives away of
studying them.
2. He does not show the interrelationship between them. As such the model appears too
simple to make sufficient allowance for interrelatedness of the separate elements.

Taba’s Model
Taba‟s model is an improvement on Tyler‟s model. It is also presented in a linear form but has
more elements than Tyler‟s model.
Diagnosis of needs Objectives
Formulation of objectives
Selection of content Content
Organization of content
Selection of learning experiences Experiences
Organization of learning experiences
Determination of what and how to evaluate Evaluation
One advantage of this model is that it is systematic and has a considerable organizing power.
Central to this approach is the formulation of behavioral objectives, providing clear notion of the
outcomes so that content and methods may be organized and the results evaluated. However, the
model suffers from three major weaknesses.
1. With this approach educational programmes tend to exist prior to and outside the learning
experiences. It takes much away from the learners who end up with little or no voice.
They are told what they must learn and how they should learn it.
2. It puts a lot of emphasis on the measurability of the objectives. It assumes that behavior
can be objectively and mechanistically measured. This is not true, as there are always
some uncertainties about what is being measured.

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3. It also has the problem of anticipated results. The focus on pre-specified goals may lead
both educators and learners to overlook learning which may occur as a result of
interaction but which is not listed as objectives.

Dewey’s Model
This model takes care of the interrelatedness between the problem areas and philosophy of
education.

Objectives

Content Philosophy Teaching/Learning Experiences

Evaluation
However, it does not say anything about the psychology of education (or psychological screens).
One major weakness of the models described so far is that they have a strong western bias. The
West has a rather decentralized education system as opposed to most African states which have
centralized education system. They may not therefore be fully applicable to the Ugandan context

2.2.1 Objectives
Objectives (or aims, goals) may be broken into three levels: National, School and Teacher level
objectives. The National objectives, from which other objectives stem, are derived from the
social, political, spiritual and economic needs of a society.
An educational Objective is a statement that describes the intended change in behavior, or a
description of the behavior a learner is expected to portray after undergoing instruction or (a
series of instructions) or after completing a task or ( a series of tasks).They are specific
statements of what learner is expected to be after having experienced a curriculum.
Aims on the other hand, are board statements which can only be acquired after a long period of
time. They are policy statements usually contained in decrees, commission reports, manifestos,
political pronouncements, etc. They are pointers of the general direction education is expected to
take but they cannot be used for classroom teaching.
Note: Since the real purpose of education is not to have an instructor perform certain activities
but to bring about changes in the students‟ patterns of behavior, it becomes important to
recognize that any statement of objectives should be statements of changes to take place in the
learners.

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2.2.2 Sources of Educational Objectives
Educational objectives can be obtained from three main sources:
1. The Learner: His needs, wants and interests – as perceived by the individual learner. The
concept of need suggests a lack of something which is useful or desirable. The needs of
the learners can be grouped into four major areas:
- Basic needs e.g. Shelter, clothing, etc.
- Biological (physiological) needs e.g. food, etc.
- Psychological needs e.g. friendship.
- Fundamental needs. These refer to the tools needed to perform a task successfully.
E.g. a reference text for a teacher. It is necessary to look into the issue of needs as
they act as motivators.
Needs and interests include educational, social, occupational, psychological and recreational
factors. These can be studied through:
- Observation by the teacher
- Questionnaires to students

- Interviews
- Tests
The interest of the learner can be viewed from two perspectives: in valuative sense – the teacher
is concerned with providing what is good for the child (or is in the interest of the child). It is the
teacher who decides what the child should be interested in. In the psychological sense, the
teacher is concerned with what the child is interested in. The objectives listed are only those that
the child has shown interested in. Wants on the other hand are expression of desires. The
relationship between needs, wants, interests and educational objectives can be represented as
shown below:

1. Interests/
Wants
4 3 Educational Objectives
2. Needs

2. The contemporary society: It is necessary to study what is the talk of town to avoid being
irrelevant. Since the products of the curriculum will end up in the society. It is necessary
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 for a curriculum to produce products that are compatible with the society. Hence the
objectives must take into account the issues in the larger society in terms of its purpose,
pressures, family, religions, vocational needs, culture, etc.
3. Subject specialists who are experts in the area of interest. It is necessary to seek the
knowledge or opinion of the subject specialist when designing curriculum objectives.
However one major setback of the subject specialist is that they tend to be too technical.
All the objectives generated through this process are then sieved and refined through the
philosophical and psychological screens. This explains the relevance of philosophy of Education
and Psychology of Education for teachers in the marking. Philosophy of education in this case
will help to eliminate those objectives that are not in line with the contemporary philosophy of
education and psychology of education will help to eliminate the objectives that are not
achievable by the usual principles of learning

2.2.3 Characteristics of curriculum objectives

Below are some of the major characteristics of curriculum objectives:
• They relate to the educational aims and philosophy
• They refer to the achievement of group and not individual students
• They are practical in nature
• They are stated in specific and measurable terms; and
• They are refined statements from curriculum goals
You can turn goal into a curriculum objective by adding the following elements
• Expressing performance in behavior terms and stating the skills and knowledge students
are expected to demonstrate;
• Indicating the degree under mastery desired by the curriculum planners; and
• Showing condition under the performance will take place
Let us use a curriculum goal to develop curriculum objectives. For example, “students should be
able to develop an appreciation of the fine Arts and develop understanding of values of various
cultures”.
Indicators of learner performance which reveal appreciation of the Fine Arts and create
understanding of the values of various cultures such as:
• Identification of the different types of wards
• Recognition of various cultures expressed in Fine Art;

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• Participation in real artistic work like modeling, sculpture, painting and drawing
depicting the various cultures; and
• Acquisition of knowledge, skills and values of creative nature.
From the indicators above, we can develop curriculum objectives as follows
Objectives
By the end of the first course in Fine Art, students should be able to;
• Identify three types of artwork;
• Depict Ugandan cultures through sculpture, painting, drawing and modeling
• Set up their own workshop of artistic works to generate income.

2.2. 4 Functions of curriculum objectives

According to Taba (1962) the chief functions of curriculum objectives are:
• Guiding the making of curriculum decision on what to cover, what to emphasize, what
content to select, and which learning experiences to stress;
• Setting the scope and the limits for what is to be taught and learned;
• Helping select from vast areas of knowledge in various disciplines objectives which are
realistically necessary for some valid outcomes,
• Clarifying the types of powers (mental or otherwise) which need to be developed. The
definition of these powers determines how subject matter is selected and how it is handled in the
classroom.
• Providing a common consistent focus for the many activities that go into curriculum. The
programme of the school is managed by many people unity should be emphasized to make their
efforts attain certain goals;
• Serving as a guide for the evaluation of achievements. With clearly stated objectives and
adequate evaluation data, most outcomes of the school programme would easily identified.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define an Educational Objective.
2. What are the roles of Philosophy and Psychology of Education in generating Educational
Objectives?
3. Describe the ways in which the needs and interests of the learner can studied.

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2.3 CONTENT
Tyler (1949) refers to content as the subject matter component of a curriculum. It is also the
basic way by which learning activities are linked to each other, to goals and to the theoretical
rationale. It is made up of facts, skills, strategies, concepts and principles. It also covers attitudes,
knowledge as well as psychomotor skills. The main issue here is to select the most worthwhile
content and organize it in the most effective way.
A good content should:
- Relate to the syllabus and the level of the learners. It should also relate to the day to day
experiences of the learners.
- Be learnable and easily understood.
- Have correct statements and scientific facts i.e. it should be valid authentic and true.

- Lead to learner‟s self-sufficiency.

- Carter for individual differences.
- Include both known and unknown facts.
- Be relevant and significant. It should have or convey a meaning. That meaning must be
important, notable and consequential. It should be suitable to meet certain needs and
abilities.

2.3.2 Criteria for selecting content:

- Validity: this implies that there should be a close connection between content and the
objectives for which it is intended to serve. In selecting curriculum content, one should
consider the authenticity and validity of content both in present and future and whether it
promotes the outcomes for which it is intended.
- Comprehensiveness: when selecting content, you should ask yourself the following
question; does the content and learning experiences provide for a wide range of
educational objectives?
- Significance: this refers to the suitability of the content chosen to meet certain needs and
ability levels of the learners. The content should be logically central enough to apply to a
wide range of problems.
- Relevance: this refers to the extent to which content meets the requirements of the
prevailing conditions. I.e. is it up to date? Is it applicable to the prevailing situation?
Therefore content should be selected for its relevance and fitness to the emerging needs
of students and to the society it intends it serve.
- Utility: the subject matter of the curriculum should be selected for its relevance and fitness
to the emerging needs of the students and society.

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 - Learnability: curriculum content must be learnable and adaptable to the students‟ learning
experience. Abilities and stages of intellectual development must be taken into account
when selecting content because children learn when they are ready. Hence by learnability
we mean the adjustment of the content and learning experiences to the abilities of the
learner.
- Consistency with social realities. The content must help develop mind which can cope
with change and stand the test of time.
2.3.3. There eight ways of arranging the content offered by Oliva are:
• From simple to complex as in programmed instruction where material is broken down into
small parts, logically re-arranged in relation to the learner.
• In chorological order a History is most often taught.
• In revenge chronological order, whereby, a history teacher may start with the most recent
events and then work backward to the most ancient. This may be a way of grasping pupils‟
interest as they try to understand the unfamiliar using the familiar events.
• From the geographical near to geographical far. It is more reasonable according to those
who sequence this way to study or conditions near their home or environment and then gradually
expand the learners‟ knowledge to the outside world, country or even the universe.
• From far to near, this focuses first on distant lands and draws to home environment last.
• From concrete to abstract. According to Piagets stages of development, pupils from seven
to eleven years age learn to solve problems in a more ordered and quantitative way. They first
manipulate items physically by counting sticks or blocks, classifying them according to color or
shape. Later, they can manipulate them mentally. This stage of formal operation or abstract
thinking is from eleven to fifteen years according to Piaget‟s stages of intellectual development
• From general to specific. This approach starts with principles and proceeds to examples.
• From the particular to the general. This approach start with examples and proceeds to the
principles.

2.4. Selection of Learning Experiences

According to Okello, V etal, (1996), “a learning experience is the interaction between the learner
and the external conditions in the environment to which he reacts”.
A curriculum can only be implemented by putting in place the correct teaching and learning
experiences. Such must be wisely selected and implemented. While selecting experiences, it is
important to ensure that the experience is:
- Valid in the light of the ways in which knowledge and skills will be applied in and out of
school experiences.

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- Feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, facilities available within and outside the school,
community expectations.
- Optimal in terms of student learning the content.
- Capable of allowing students to develop their thinking skills and rational powers.
- Capable of stimulating students into greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as members of a group.
- Capable of fostering in students openness to new experiences and a tolerance to diversity.
- Capable of facilitating learning and motivating students to continue learning.
- Capable of allowing students to address their needs.
- Capable of fostering the total development of the learners in cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social and spiritual domains.

2.5 Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation whether formative or summative is the process of determining how far the
stated educational objectives have been, or are being met and providing information on which
rational decisions for improvement could be made. I.e. it is the determination of the extent to
which learner’s behavior is changing as a result of experiencing the curriculum.
McDonald (1971) defines evaluation as a process of conceiving, obtaining and communication
informing for the guidance of educational decision –making with regard to a specified
programme. This means evaluation involves collection of data on pupils‟ behavioral changes in
order to make decisions about an educational programme.
Evaluation may also refer to different process of rendering value judgment based on the
information gathered through measurement and testing. These value judgments represent a fairly
systematic description of the various aspects of a program such as objectives. Bloom (1971)
explains evaluation as a means of securing evidence on the attainment of specific objectives of
instruction.
The two key issues in evaluation are:
1. The operationalization of fuzzy objective so that they are measurable and
2. Development of valid, reliable and fair measuring instruments.

2.5.2 Phases of Evaluation

There are three phases of evaluation which every teacher should know. These are:

• Pre-assessment (diagnostic)

• Formative evaluation; and

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• Summative evaluation

Pre-assessment Phase

This is a type of assessment carried out before instruction. Every year, teachers are posted to new schools
and assign new schools and assigned new classes. The teacher may not know the academic background
and performance of the pupils in class. The teacher may want to know whether the pupils in his new class
possess knowledge of the new subject matter to be covered. He may also want to find out the entry
standards of the class at the beginning of the term or year. Two types of pre-assessment tests are
recommended for this case.

These are:

• Entry behavior Test

This is a pre-assessment test conducted to determine whether the learners possess the necessary
knowledge and skills to enable them to proceed with new material.

• Pre-test

This is intended to test the objectives which a teacher intends to achieve after teaching a topic or whole
unit.

These two pre-assessment tests may not give accurate information whether pupils lack or possess the
knowledge and skills required to proceed with new material. So other approaches should be used.

Formative evaluation

Formative evaluation is conducted during the research and development stage to provide data that is to be
used at the end. In education, formative evaluation takes place during instruction. It also takes place at a
number of intermediate stages during the development of a curriculum, program or project. Its purpose is
to modify things as they develop. Its greatest service is to identify aspects of a course project or program
where things have gone wrong and take remedial action.

Summative evaluation
This is an evaluation conducted at the end of the curriculum development process and provides a
terminal assessment on the completed product. Summative evaluation deals primarily with
intents, observations, and judgment on the intended outcomes. For example, a final examination
like the Primary Leaving Examination (PLE), the Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE) and
the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE) are means used for the summative
evaluation of instruction.
The purpose of a summative evaluation is to find out whether the students mastered the
instruction. Good teachers utilize the results of summative evaluation to revive their programme
and methodology for the subsequent groups

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2.5.3 Purpose of evaluation
Evaluation has many purposes and is carried out at various levels and by different people.

At National Level

• The central administration may be concerned about the general effectiveness of the
total curriculum or the extent to which the central goals and objectives are being achieved.

• Evaluation determines whether the curriculum is functioning, and suing the best
material and the best methods.

• It determines whether the product of our schools are successful in higher education an
din jobs; whether they can meet challenges in daily life and contribute to our society.

•Curriculum evaluation can also determine whether the educational programme is cost-effective,
that is whether the people are getting the most out of it.

At instructional level

Evaluation is used in the following ways:

•As basis for school marks or grades by teachers

In schools, teachers are required to submit marks and grades for their pupils. These marks or
grades are obtained through formal examination, regular tests, assignments, laboratory reports,
observational information or combination of these.

•As a means of informing parents

Pupils evaluation is the best of informing parents how their children a re performing and
evaluating the outcomes of curriculum.

•For promotion to a higher class

Pupil‟s evaluation is sometimes used to determine whether a student has made enough progress
to be promoted to a higher class in the school.

2.5.4 Characteristics of evaluation

An evaluation programme should have the following characteristics.
• Consistency with objectives: evaluation must be consistent with objectives of the
curriculum. It should be integrated with the purpose of the programme and should be animated
by the same philosophy that underlies the curriculum and teaching. If one of the objectives of a
course or programme is the understanding of a principle, then evaluation should assess or
measure such understanding and not merely memorizing or facts. Or, if the development of a
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particular attitude is desired, the evaluation procedure should look for evidence that such
attitudes have been developed.
• Comprehensiveness: evaluation should be comprehensive in scope as the objectives of
the school. The instruments for measuring should also be comprehensive. The quality of learning
is affected by what we consider important learning outcomes.
The lack of adequate instruments is naturally a great handicap to comprehensive evaluation. The
concentration of the formal instruments on formation achievement leaving the development of
evaluation devices for more complex objectives entirely to classroom teachers is hazardous to
the educational system. Unless a greater amount of classroom resources is harnessed in the area
of evaluation many important curriculum decisions will be made on sufficient evidence. In
addition, curriculum innovations are bound to address themselves to a less than adequate range
of outcomes.
• Validity: validity implies that there should be an agreement between what the evaluation
instrument measures and the function it is intended to measure. If the instrument achieves the
intended purpose, then it is said to be reliable and valid
• Reliability: reliability refers to the degree of consistency or stability of the evaluation
instruments. When administered twice or at different times it should yield the same results.
• Continuity: Evaluation should be a continuous process and an integral part of curriculum
development and classroom instruction. Evaluation provides a basis for indentifying weakness in
a curriculum so that corrective measures are taken. Monitoring is necessary for continuous
modification of teaching strategies.
• Usability: if the evaluation instrument is usable it should be easy to administer and score.
It must be cheap to use.

UNIT THREE: DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM

There are several factors that influence the kind of curriculum used in schools. These factors are
referred to as determinants of curriculum. They can be grouped as historical, psychological,
philosophical, social and economic.

Historical/Philosophical Determinants
In designing or developing a curriculum, it is necessary to consider the views of different
philosophers and historians and what they have said about education. These would help to
establish a balance between the different philosophies. Curriculum must be related to the
philosophy of education. It is philosophy of education that sets the values to be considered
regarding what should be taught in schools. The content, learning experiences and methods of
evaluation that are irrelevant to the philosophy of education are either modified or discarded. A
good philosophy of education should provide for:
 Recognition of the importance of every individual regardless of race, etc.
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 Wide participation in all phases of social groups in the society.
 Encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of individual.
 Furthering intelligence as a method of dealing with problems rather than upon authority.
Historically, curriculum is influenced by developments of the past: how these developments may
have affected the growth of teaching, learning and education in general. The major historical
determinants include:
 The contribution of the western world e.g. Plato, Socrates, etc.
 Roman legacy in education
 African indigenous education
 Early Christian education
 Scientific movement, progressive education movement, etc.

Psychological Determinants
Information and knowledge about the learner are also useful curriculum determinants.
Psychology of education helps to distinguish those objectives, contents and experiences which
may take too long to schedule or which are impossible to attain at the contemplated level.
Generally psychological determinants help to:
 Clarify the principles of learning that are sound
 Identify changes that can be expected to result from the learning process and those that
cannot (feasible changes)
 Distinguish goals that are feasible and those that are not.
 Determine the length of time required to achieve an objective.

Socio-cultural Determinants
A curriculum must be in line with the culture and societal demands since its products will serve
in the society. A good curriculum should take into account the kind of competencies needed by
the societies of the day. The youth develop and grow within a certain frame work set up by the
society. This framework determines, in part, what the youth will take with them to school. The
social structure also dictates what knowledge, skills and competencies that the child will need to
cope with the standards (or demands) of the society. Hence the society will dictate the kind of a
curriculum needed. On the other hand, the curriculum should help and enable its products to deal
effectively with the problems of the society. Hence a curriculum cannot be designed or
developed out of the context of the society. The society can be studied using the tree below:

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 Purpose

Social structures
affect their experiences
differently

Pressures

Society Students‟ characteristics Aspirations: what

they want to

learn

Family The environment:

Affects the
development of
children

Religion

Economical/political Determinants
Curriculum must have the support of politicians otherwise it might not be funded. It is not
worthwhile to design a course that you cannot fund.

Revision Questions:
Elaborate on the determinants of a school curriculum.

UNIT FOUR: CURRICULUM DESIGNS

A curriculum design refers to the patterning, structuring and organizing the curriculum. It is also
the process of organizing and determining a framework out of which a workable curriculum
structure can be formulated. It refers to the process of organizing the various elements of
curriculum into a structure that will facilitate instruction and the realization of the aims and
objectives.
Effective curriculum design should have all the four elements and dimensions represented in a
school curriculum. These include:
1. Aims/Goals/Objectives for the whole course, specific objectives for different major
topics and specific objectives for specific exercises, etc.

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 2. Content which refers to the skills, facts and strategies of solving problems, concepts and
principles, etc. The content covers attitudes, knowledge as well as psychomotor skills.
3. Experiences: which are the learners interactions (or encounters) with the subject matter
e.g. playing with dice, field excursions, and lab experiments. These are teaching methods.
4. Evaluation: The use of objective tests, mock examination which form a part of formative
instructional evaluation. UNEB conducts summative evaluation.

Factors to consider when organizing Curriculum Content

1. Scope: This is the depth and breathes of the subject matter. It describes how much
content is to be included in a given topic, theme or scheme of work in a given time. It also
describes the details to be included in a given topic or course.
2. Sequence is the ordering of the subject matter and the learning experiences to optimize
learning. A logical behavioral sequence should be portrayed in the curriculum. There
should be sequence with conceptual cooperative demands as sell as mental development.
There should be progressive hardening of the subject matter through the curriculum.
3. Continuity refers to the vertical reiteration/repetition of curriculum elements at different
levels in which certain experiences are repeated at different levels of difficulty. It is the
repetition of the same concepts at different levels demanding different cognitive strategies.
4. Integration refers to linking of subject matter of one subject with the subject matter of
other subjects e.g. Biology/Chemistry, History/Geography.
5. Balance of curriculum. Is optimizing the results of curriculum by balancing scope,
content, objectives and time.

1.6.1 Types of Curriculum Designs

In developing specific learning activities for a given set of objectives, curriculum designers need
to decide whether they want to place the subject matter, the learners or problems at the centre.
These different foci result in different curricular designs.
Subject Centred (Traditional) design
Subject Centred (Traditional) Curriculum Design is the organization of a school curriculum into
separate subjects or academic disciplines. It is often referred to as „the traditional‟ curriculum
design. Different subjects are included in the school curriculum depending on their uniqueness or
contribution to knowledge. Designers who use this approach look for facts, concepts and skills
related to, or encompassed by, those subject areas and plan activities that will lead learners from
these experiences into mastery of the elements of the subject area. The subject matter becomes
the material to be learnt by the pupils and the role of the teacher is to drill the pupil in learning it.
Subject centred designs operate on the theory of mental discipline. It believes that the mind is
made of various faculties which like muscles can be trained through exercise, and that the more
vigorous the exercise the better the learning. Its basic units are facts, which have been grouped
into various subject fields. It is based mainly on the philosophy that is also feasible and
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necessary to determine in advance what all children should learn, but it is also feasible and
necessary to determine in advance the minimum standards of achievement in those learning
areas. In this case, good education is only that which brings about mastery of skills and
knowledge. The basic duality is between the mind (represented by the child) and the curriculum
or the subject (represents the society). Subject Centred (Traditional) Design regards the society
as paramount and any conflict between the child and the curriculum is resolved in favor of the
curriculum. Instead of fitting the curriculum to the needs of the child, education fits the child into
the needs of the curriculum.

Strengths of Subject Centred Designs

1. It constitutes a logical and effective method of organizing and interpreting learning.
2. It is backed by centuries of tradition. Since it has existed for a long time, it had been
tested and proved through time.
3. Teachers better understand it because it is the one they went through.
4. Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in the subject centred design since each subject
is taught without due regard to another.

Weaknesses of Subject Centred Designs

1. It does not respect the learner. It is very authoritative and autocratic in conception.
Somebody else other than the learner prescribes the best learning programme for him.
2. It is competitive and individualistic since it mainly emphases the learning of facts and
skills and awards honors in proportion to facts and skills learnt. It encourages pupils to
outdo one another even if it means using unethical means.
3. It emphasizes intellectual growth at the expense of other forms of growth yet learning has
its emotional psychological and physical dimensions.
4. There is compartmentalization of learning which naturally results in artificial learning
and prevents meaningful integration of knowledge. As a result, students usually fail to
see the integration between many school subjects. It ignores the knowledge and skills that
lie between and among the various disciplines but which may be central in the lives or
futures of the students.
5. It puts too much emphasis on the future at the expense of the present. It concentrates
mainly on preparing children for adult living by giving them facts and skills which they
may need for the future but pays little attention to meeting the needs he is facing daily at
his particular stage of growth.
6. It does not cater for individual differences. All children are required to study the same
subject matter at the same time and in the same way and there are minimum standards
that all must attain. To expect children with different abilities, problems, interests and
backgrounds to fit into such a uniform programme is not fair.

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Broad Fields Curriculum Designs
This design unifies different subjects into one broad course of study. For example, different
subjects may be grouped under languages, arts, social studies or general sciences. It is the fusing
together of related subjects into one e.g. Reading, Spelling, Composition, Literature and
Grammar as English, Geography, History, Civics as Social Sciences, Geometry, Algebra,
Arithmetic as Mathematics, etc.
Broad fields can be regarded as a modification of the subject centred curriculum design since the
units of study are still organized within subjects and are all determined in advance.

Strengths of Broad fields Design

1. It integrates subjects into a single course of study and provides orderly and systematic
knowledge. It enables the use of few resources as one teacher may teach English instead of each
teacher for reading, writing, spelling and one textbook can be used for mathematics instead of
different texts for algebra, arithmetic, geometry, etc.
2. Learners are exposed to concepts as related to different subjects encountered in their lives.
They are able to see the interrelatedness between different subjects and their relation to life.
3. Broad fields allow for more correlation, integration and holism than strict disciplinary
studies.

Weaknesses of Broad fields Design

1. Teachers do not like being broad based but prefer to concentrate on their areas of
specialization.
2. It is hard to find textbooks for a broad-based curriculum. It is easy to find books on
Physics, Biology and Chemistry than on sciences as a whole.
3. There is too much generalization and this is most likely to result in passive learning and
ignore the useful details. To include all information on all science topics in one textbook
(lesson) would necessitate a lot of summary. This may leave out a lot of information i.e.
its content is too shallow.
4. It has fragmented content which does not tally with the contemporary world.

Child Centred Curriculum

Child Centred curriculum design is a curriculum conceived purely in terms of the nature of the
learners. The needs, interests and problems of the learners are considered paramount in designing
the curriculum. Because of this, it is assumed that the learning is relevant to the child. The
proponents of this design argue that the child already has some experiences and that this is where
the learning should start. Instead of looking at curriculum as a collection of subjects to be
20
studied, it is regarded as a series of experiences designed to achieve the desired objectives. The
child centred curriculum is based on two main principles:
i. That the curriculum experiences should be made more life-like and real experiencing. That
education should be life itself and not a preparation for life.
ii. That the selecting agents of curriculum experiences must be those in the learning situation
– the teacher and the pupils. The teacher is more of a guide and an advisor than a figure of
authority.
The child centred curriculum design is concerned with the improvement of the present living of
the child. It believes that the best preparation for the future is the successful solutions of the
problems of today. It is through such solutions that pupils develop controlling principles,
generalizations, abilities, skills and values useful for the future. The individualization of learning
is more qualitative than quantitative. The emphasis is on making each child extend and improve
his personal uniqueness. Instead of all engaging in the same kind of experiences, all have unique
experiences while tackling a common problem together. A child centred curriculum design in its
pure form has the following characteristics:
i. The immediate needs of the child are be respected regardless of what the adult (teacher)
feels. The role of the teacher is limited to identifying the needs, interests and problems of
the child, helping the child to select genuine needs. But he does not dictate what, how and
when the child should learn.
ii. Since children‟s interests have to be taken into account, curriculum planning cannot be
done in advance. The teacher and the child plan together for the goals, resources to be used,
experiences to be undertaken and the procedures for evaluation to be followed.
iii. Focus is on problem solving approach by the learner. In following their interests, they
come across specific problems that they must overcome.

Strengths of the Child Centred Curriculum Design

1. Since it is based on student needs, interests and problems, motivation is intrinsic and does
not have to be developed.
2. It provides for the individual differences of the students since each child learns what he
wants, when he wants and at his own pace.
3. Because needs, interests and problems of the child are considered before designing the
curriculum, such a curriculum is definitely relevant to the child.

Weaknesses of the Child Centred Curriculum Design

1. Children interests, needs and problems are not long lasting. They are short lived and are
easily influenced by the prevailing conditions. They easily develop other needs based on
external influence of the society. It therefore becomes difficult to base future plans on
these rather unstable needs.

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2. Children interests may not reflect any specific area of knowledge that could be essential for
the functioning of the society. On the other hand, they may not have any educational
value.
3. It may not provide effective preparation for life since many areas considered relevant may
be ignored. These narrow interests cannot adequately train for life.
4. It may also ignore the critical goals of education which the students need to acquire as the
interests of the child may not be in line with the national goals of education.
5. It may lack coherence, structure, continuity and sequence. Different children may prefer to
learn different things at the same time. This will certainly create disorder and lack of
structure and continuity.
6. It is expensive to produce materials that will satisfy the needs of every child.
7. The scope of the curriculum is most likely to be shallow.
8. There is no defined end to education in focus. If education is valuable as is claimed, then
all activities engaged in the name of education should lead to some definite objectives.
There must be some fixed ends to be attained. If each child is allowed to pursue his own
interests, a definite education may not be achieved.

UNIT: 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development refers to the process of creating curriculum materials for use by
students and teachers. It is the process of planning curriculum on the basis of the goals and
objectives of the country or of a system. It encompasses all the dimensions and elements of a
curriculum. It may also involve only a few of them.
Generally curriculum development is the process of creating a new curriculum, implementing it
and maintaining its performance. It is an all-embracing activity that may be regarded as
embodying four main processes.

5.2. Qualities of a Good Programme Developer

He should have:
i. A good educational philosophy
ii. A good knowledge of child development and growth.
iii. A good ability and skill to develop special abilities, skills and interests.
iv. A good knowledge of organization of learning opportunities.
v. A good skill in locating child interests and needs.

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Effective curriculum development follows distinct and specific steps. However, there is no
agreed pattern among various scholars or curriculum developers. Some authors have provided up
to eleven steps, some much fewer. The format given below is guide rather than a hard rule.
The main steps include:
1. Needs assessment
2. Designing an improved curriculum
3. Piloting/Testing
4. Improvement
5. Implementation
6. Evaluation and Maintenance
Each of these steps has several details within them. Let us look at each in some detail.

5.3. Steps in Curriculum Development

5.3.1 Needs Assessment
This is also called information gathering or situational analysis. It is the process of identifying
needs and locating priorities among them.
 It reveals the needs of the child which the curriculum is expected to meet.
 It also reveals whether the needs can be met with the available resources and materials in
the given time.
 It shows exactly what needs should be improved.
The type of information to be collected during needs assessment includes society and
nationally based information e.g. on philosophy of education, employment status, etc. and
school and education system based information. This helps to gauge the extent to which the
society will be receptive to the curriculum.
The most commonly used sources of information during needs assessment are:
i. Parents and taxpayers, political individuals and pressure groups. They influence
curriculum implementation.
ii. Learners who are the beneficiaries of the proposed curriculum. These should reveal their
needs, interests and problems.
iii. Teachers: They are expected to have deep knowledge of the needs of the learners and they
are the implementers of curriculum.
iv. Academic specialists to give value judgment on the curriculum.
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v. Social experts such as sociologists, psychologists, etc. They can provide professional
information on human needs.
vi. Recent graduates of the system are useful because they are trying to find out how their
learning applies to the life they are leading.
vii. Non-graduates: i.e. dropouts. They can give a detailed critic of the program for which they
are refugees. They should be able to state exactly why they did not finish the programme.
The common methods of gathering information during needs assessment are:
i. Questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, etc.
ii. Observations: by observing people‟s behavior and making inferences about their needs.
iii. Literature review.
It is important to note that information gathering is not a simple process. Curriculum developers
often encounter a lot of problems during this exercise. Some of the major problems with needs
assessment are:
i. Information overload: Curriculum developers usually end up with a lot of data which is
not relevant. This ends up complicating data analysis procedures.
ii. Shifting public attitudes: Needs change from time to time and from place to place. It can
also change within the same person or groups of people at different times or in different
situations. It is therefore difficult to settle on real needs.
iii. Future orientations: The sources of information tend to reach to present on their past
experiences and ignore the culture. All data should be interpreted in the light of the
impending changes and not on the past record alone.
iv. Setting priorities: The process of need assessment will identify a large number of needs,
but an effective curriculum should not try to meet all these needs. Setting priorities among
the various needs is usually a problem.
Note: After situational analysis (information gathering it is usually necessary to consider the
curriculum parameters before we progress to the next stage Curriculum parameters include
institutional context, target population, time and cost.

 Institutional Context: It is necessary to determine whether the new curriculum will fit into
the general programme of the school. It is necessary to determine the place of the new
curriculum in the overall programme of the school.

 Target Population: This is the characteristic of the group that are expected to benefit from
the curriculum. They should be adequately described.

 Time: The anticipated length of time for the new curriculum including the contact hours
per week.

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 Cost: The minimum and the maximum expected cost of offering the curriculum for the
first time and thereafter.

Feasibility Study
Once the constrains, resources and parameters have been reviewed, it is necessary to carry out a
feasibility study. This will reveal whether the curriculum meets the training needs within the
specified parameters. If not it has to be adjusted.

Impact Analysis
This is predicting the effect that the new curriculum will have throughout the school or the
education system. This includes the estimation of the direct and indirect effect of the curriculum.

Curriculum Aim
The purpose of situational analysis is to describe the purpose (or the aim) of the curriculum.
Such an aim should:
i. State the intentions of the programme i.e. the output of the programme.
ii. State the significance of the expected change.
iii. Be concise and brief
iv. Be exact
v. Be complete and comprehensive

Curriculum Rationale
This is an argument that seeks to justify the pursuit of the curriculum. It describes whom the
curriculum is for, why it is needed and what the learners will be after experiencing the
curriculum. It is an attempt to persuade the potential users to adopt the new curriculum or
programme.

5.3.2. Curriculum Planning

This is also known as curriculum or programme building.
 Stating the programme aims & objectives
 Selection of content (that is worthwhile and relevant) and organizing it into proper
sequence at all levels of the school system.

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  Design teaching-learning activities and methods (learning experiences) and their
organization. It takes into account all the dimensions of the curriculum and in re-
examining them, the objectives are re-stated and the methods of evaluation modified.
 Allocating time for the programmes and provide guideline for curriculum implementation
 Design facilities required such as laboratories, field work etc
 Identifying resources and producing materials needed for implementing the programmes
 Identifying the personnel needed and defining their roles in implementing the curriculum
e.g. teachers, administrators etc. This stage ends with the development of the curriculum
draft. The draft should be of high quality (both in content & physical structure), have
variety and be cost-effective.

5.3.3. Piloting /testing

This is the trying out of the new curriculum in a few selected schools to see if it meets the
intended needs within the available parameters. Piloting is necessary because it:
i. Detects and identifies major problems to be corrected before the curriculum is
implemented.
ii. Detects the major problems that are likely to arise in the implementation and prepare in
advance ways of dealing with them. This is referred to as fail-safe mechanism.
iii. Helps to find out whether the curriculum can be easily interpreted and used within the
limits of the defined conditions & resources.
iv. Find out how the new curriculum programmes will be received by the teachers, learners &
the community.
v. The extent to which the curriculum meets the needs and interests of the school &
community
vi. Areas where the curriculum requires modification
vii. How well the programmes focus on the curriculum aims, objectives, the national goals &
education policy.
Despite its significance piloting also presents unique problems to curriculum developers. It is
very expensive and most developers consider it a waste of time. It becomes even more expensive
if the draft is found to be unworkable. It also gives unfair advantage to those institutions
(schools) used in piloting. By the time curriculum is implemented, the pilot schools are already
way a head of their counterparts who are supposed to experience the same curriculum. This
further complicates the implementation process.
Curriculum piloting is not a haphazard activity. It follows a logical and systematic procedure as
indicated below:

26
i. Selection of institutions such as schools, teacher centers, teacher colleges, etc to be used in
piloting. A reasonable number of schools should be sampled professionally to give a
reliable feedback for implementation. Institutions selected should display a fair percentage
of the characteristics of all the schools that fall within the jurisdiction of the new
curriculum.
ii. Informing the public: It is important to inform the public in the early stages of the tryout to
avoid controversy. The public must own the project for it to succeed. Others who may
need to be informed include:
- Schools or Colleges that would be involved in the tryout. If the schools and Colleges
do not fully understand and appreciate what the project is trying to achieve and how to
achieve it, then they will not give the project the attention it needs to succeed because
they are the ones who will supervise the implementation.

- Teacher educators, Administrators and Inspectors.

iii. Teacher preparation: All teachers who would be involved in the tryout should be trained in
advance. They need to understand the curriculum, the curriculum materials and equipment
and be fully aware of the implication of the tryout to their pupils who are going to
participate.
iv. Supply of materials and equipment: The schools to be used in pilot should be supplied
with materials and equipment. These must be adequate and should be delivered on time.
v. Presenting the new curriculum and materials: This is where the actual curriculum is
introduced into the schools. This should be done in phases starting from the lowest unit
and processing upwards.
vi. Gathering and analyzing feedback: The aim of piloting is to gather information that would
be used to improve the new curriculum and lead to implementation. The information
gathered should cover information on the actual curriculum, information on curriculum
materials and equipment and information on the process of implementation.
vii. Modification of the materials and equipment: The curriculum plan, materials and
equipment should be modified in the light of the feedback information obtained from the
tryout schools. After this, the curriculum plan and materials are now ready for introduction
into all schools and institutions that are ready to do so. However it is important to
remember that not all schools can be ready at the same.

5.3.4. Improvement
Results of piloting allow for a major revision and consolidation of the programme in
order to address more specifically the needs of the learners and other requirements of the
programme. Suggestions from the piloting staff are used to modify the programme to
make it more appropriate to the real school situation.

27
 Depending on the nature of the objectives and the scope of the programme, one or more
piloting programmes may be conducted. This is also necessary if the feedback for the
first tryout suggests many problems. It is more professional and economical to subject a
programme to several tryouts before implementation than to implement what is not fully
understood.

5.3.5. Implementation
Once the curriculum project has been piloted and improved accordingly, it is
implemented. This is the stage at which the planned curriculum is introduced into all the
schools which are within the jurisdiction of the curriculum project. It is the making real
of what has been planned: a systematic process of ensuring that the new curriculum
reaches the immediate beneficiaries. It involves three main activities: (i) altering attitudes
of the people, policy makers, administrators, teacher trainers, parents and the learners
themselves, (ii) altering materials and the administrative means to make them possible
and (iii) altering methods. If any of these is not done haphazardly, them the
implementation will not be effective and efficient.
Note: Because all institutions cannot get ready at the same time, implementation can
hardly be uniform across the country or geographical area. Schools should be allowed to
start if and when they have attained the minimum preparations necessary for effective
implementation.

5.3.6. Evaluation and Maintenance

This is the process of finding out how far the instructional plans are producing the desired
results. It identifies the strengths and the weaknesses of the curriculum plan. The
evaluation is both summative and formative.
Curriculum maintenance refers to the activities and procedures that allow the operations
of the programme to continue. It involves several factors whose principle focus is to
monitor all curriculum elements and the roles of persons supporting those elements.
Curriculum development is a continuous process, which does not end with evaluation.
What evaluation reveals today about the curriculum may be different from another year.
This is so because conditions change, new teachers are hired, new students are enrolled
and new instructional materials acquired. New administrators also come in. Due to these
changes, there is need to monitor curriculum plan throughout the years in order to
maintain its effectiveness and worth before any drastic change can be made.
Note: Curriculum development is not a linear process as presented here. Several
components can be tackled at the same time.

5.4. Factors Hindering Curriculum Development

1. Crust of Custom
This refers to peoples‟ resistance to change. Individuals and groups tend to protect,
preserve and promote their own views of the world, their own values and morals. Any
28
 new curriculum, to the extent that it is new, would be strange to the existing system and
will be resisted. Effective development involves a change of attitude and since attitudes
are more difficult to change, curriculum development often suffers.
2. Insufficient understanding of the Concept of Curriculum
Most people regard curriculum simply as the syllabus or the formal course of study, and
forget that a school curriculum has four dimensions and four elements. Effective
curriculum development should take into account all the elements and dimensions of a
school curriculum. If one dimension or element is altered it will affect all the others. It is
necessary that these effects are anticipated and taken into account. This under-description
of school curriculum prevents its effective and comprehensive development.
3. Insufficient understanding of the Concept of Curriculum Development
Most systems do not recognize that curriculum development is a professional exercise
that needs a technical approach. Very often it is conducted haphazardly out of mere
political rhetoric.
4. Budgetary Constraints
There is usually lack of sufficient funds for comprehensive developments, particularly in
African countries.
5. In the centralized education system like is the case in Uganda, governments dictate the
curriculum and leave very little room for effective development. This hinders curriculum
development.

UNIT:SIX CURRICULUM INNOVATION (CHANGE) AND IMPLEMENTATION

There is no perfect curriculum for all ages. As the environment changes and societies portray
new ideas, the curriculum must keep changing to address new needs. A change in the society
would provoke changes in the curriculum since curriculum is a tool serving the society. A
curriculum changes because the society has changed. On the other hand, a curriculum may
change so as to change the society. Curriculum change can take place at three levels:
1. Minor change which involves re-arrangement of the subject content such as addition of
one topic, etc.
2. Medium change: which may involve integration of subjects, introduction of new subjects
or introducing a new approach to teaching an existing subject?
3. Major change: which affects many aspects of the curriculum such as content, methods,
materials and assessments?

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Why Change Curriculum?
There are several reasons why a curriculum may change, but these may be grouped under the
four areas below:
1. Economic factors: such as widespread unemployment due to increase in population can
cause a change in emphasis on the content. For example, the 8-4-4 system of education in
Kenya was intended to promote self – employment.
2. Political factors: Education is considered the most effective place to create and
disseminate ideologies. Curriculum may change to reinforce or to neutralize a particular
political ideology.
3. Technological factors: either because the society has changed or in order to advance the
society technologically.
4. Epistemological factors: Knowledge, which is the content of any curriculum, is in a state
of flux. New information needs to be accommodated in the curriculum. Otherwise, it will
remain irrelevant. Accommodation of new information necessitates a change in the
curriculum.

6.2. The Planning of Innovation

Innovation involves a lot of resources, people and interaction between innovation and users. It is
therefore important that careful planning is done. Planning involves forecasting and taking
measure in advance of how to avoid some problems. For effective planning of innovation, the
following elements should be considered:
 The personnel to be employed (who?) and these should have expertise and capacity to do
their allocated tasks.
 There should be specification of what the actual task is (what).the planning should show
what should be done. The innovation in action should be seen in advance e.g. its size,
scope, role of teachers, researchers etc.
 The method, the strategy produced to undertake the task (how0. Is then change to be
effected by a formal, legislative approach or is it by a more natural approach relying on
new ideas diffusing? Many innovations have spread from one district or school to another
without formal government backing. Community advisors, developers and mass media
would of great significance.
 The equipment needed (with what?)
 The building or environment (where) equipment should not be too much or too little.
Continued supply should be ensured in advance.
 The cost entailed. Planning should be based more on realistic analyses than on
aspirations. The cost should not only involve initial trials but also the full implementation
costs of any innovation. Innovator/ governments should plan innovations that suit their
30
 income, time and manpower. An innovation should not be too elegant or sophiscated to
be managed.
 Time (when and for how long?). Innovations take time. People and social systems are
generally slow to welcome changes. The innovation should not be too hasty.
 The scheduling of sequence or co-coordinating of activities ( i.e. In what manner). Time
spent on planning the sequence and co-ordination of events is time well spent.
 The rationale for undertaking the innovation (why?). That is, what are the justifications
for the particular approaches used in the operational phase? The reasons for the
innovation and methods of carrying out must be established.
 The evaluation of the consequences or effects resulting.

6.3. Strategies of Curriculum Innovation

Curriculum innovation refers to any creative educational change introduced by a voluntary action
in order to realize some desired objectives. An innovation is made up of:
1. The change agent: The innovator who is the author and the Director of the change.
2. The change itself: which is the actual innovation?
3. The user: which is the group that the innovation is intended to benefit?
4. Time: All innovations need time.
A strategy refers to all the available techniques used by individuals and groups at different levels
of educational system to attain the desired objectives. There are several strategies of curriculum
innovation. The major ones are summarized below.
1. Research Development and Diffusion Model (RDD)
This is a highly organized rational approach to curriculum innovation founded on the following
sequence of activities.
1. Basic research by a central project team, which develops the new curriculum, devices and
designs prototype materials, etc.
2. Field trials: The development and testing of prototype materials in a number of trials
schools, followed by redesign and revision in the light of these trials.
3. Mass production of the modified materials.
4. The planned mass dissemination or diffusion of the innovation by course, conferences,
workshops, etc.

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 5. Implementation of the innovation by the users (the schoolteachers, learners, etc)

Research Development of Mass Mass diffusion User

prototypes/samp production of
les samples
A characteristic of the R.D.D model is a development agency at the centre, which produces
packaged solutions for the users at the periphery (school, teacher, learners, etc).Hence it can also
referred to as “centre-periphery” approach. It is effective where curriculum development has to
be on a large scale, where ideas have to reach geographically dispersed and isolated users and
where those who will be implementing the changes (e.g. teachers) are often lacking in
knowledge or expertise.

Strengths of R.D.D model

1. It can harness the expertise and experience of talented few for the benefit of the whole
system.
2. It ensures that national priorities are given adequate attention.
3. It ensures that the innovation developed is not some chance or ad-hoc change but based
on research and relevant data and on sound principles of curriculum development.
4. Since the materials are produced by experts they are expected to be of high quality.

Weaknesses of R.D.D. Model

1. There is high initial development cost – especially for conducting research. However it is
expected that the high cost are compensated through high quality.
2. Teachers are rarely involved in the development process. They are only passive recipient
of some materials developed for them by some distant experts. Hence it is usually
resisted at implementation.
3. Because of its high degree of centralization, it may not fully consider local needs and
variations.
4. It may be effective in the case material production, but it is very ineffective in other
innovations such as new teaching methods or learning techniques. It is not possible to
change attitudes by this top-down approach.
Note: This strategy is also referred to as the restricted approach because the curriculum making
process is only limited to a few people at the top. The rest that are described below are referred
to as the democratic or open approach.

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 2. Social Interaction Model (SI)
This is the process of diffusing ideas and practices by formal contacts between interested
individuals and groups. It usually takes the form of convincing the people of the value and
usefulness of an innovation and then enabling them to see for themselves the innovation in
action. This is how “extension agents” particularly in agriculture carry technical knowledge to
consumers. Its operational model can be represented as:

Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption

It stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of information, of opinion, leadership,

personal contacts and social interaction. The strategy usually takes the form of convincing a
respected administrator or teacher of the usefulness of a new device or practice and then enabling
colleagues to come and see for themselves the new practitioner using the innovation. It has also
referred to as “periphery” model. One obvious advantage of the SI model is that it is a natural
process. However, it suffers from three major weaknesses.
1. It is unsystematic and unplanned. There is really no programme of how and when it can
be accomplished.
2. Being an informal method – the process can be so slow.
3. It involves individual rather than groups, yet it is that will finally implement an
innovation. Because of this, it cannot be relied upon to reach large geographical areas.

3. Problem Solving (PS) Model

This is a user centred strategy model based on the assumption that innovation is part of a
problem-solving process which takes place inside the user (school, teachers, students, etc). It
believes that people have within themselves most, if not all, the ideas, resources and energy to
bring about change. People (innovators) at the periphery set about solving their own problems
which are carried out within the user or client system be it at school, a community or an
individual. The innovations are not specified in advance but arise from the needs of the
clients/schools, etc. The user identifies a need. The need is translated into a problem statement
which is then diagnosed.
This diagnosis leads to a search for a satisfactory solution. Several possible solutions
(innovations) are considered and the best alternative selected. The optimum solution (innovation)
is tried and evaluated for its effectiveness and if found satisfactory, it is adopted and
implemented.

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 Need
Diagnosis (problem)
Search for solutions (tentative)
Select the best alternative
Tryout and evaluate the innovation
Implement the innovation
This is a “bottom up” approach development as a result of local initiatives. The role of an
outsider is essentially consultative, providing ideas, guidance and sometimes- temporary inputs
inform of aids. But he doe not impose his ideas on the users.

Strengths of PS Model
1. The innovations are generated and based on their needs. They therefore have strong user
commitment and the best chance for implementation.
2. It is flexible enough and applicable to all types of innovations – materials, methods, etc.
3. It takes care of individual and local needs: the chosen solution (innovation) is geared to a
particular circumstance.

Weaknesses of PS Model
1. Being local and limited in size the quality of innovation may not be very high.
2. Though appropriate to the particular user (school, teacher, etc) it may not be used on
sound or proven educational theory or practice. It may not therefore be long lasting.
3. They also take up a good part of teachers‟ time.

4. Power Coercion Strategy

This is the strategy used by people and organizations such as Governments, national or local
education authorities, inspectors, headmasters, teachers, etc. who have the legal, political,
administrative or economic power to enforce innovations. Coercion can take various forms such
as brainwashing to manipulation, to hidden persuasion and payola. Such powers are sometimes
useful to overcome the traditions and red tapes that can hinder implementation – to co-ordinate
effort or just for greater efficiency. However, it is usually not very effective as the relationship
between the change agent and the user ought to be characterized by respect and trust and not
coercion and compliance. This strategy generally has a tendency to stir up discontent.

Strengths of Power Coercion Model

1. They are effective when there is a time constraint. Quick and dramatic results can be
achieved more quickly by this strategy.

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 2. They are cheapest, faster and easy to apply though they are not necessarily the best in the
long run.

Weaknesses of Power Coercion Model

1. They are less cost effective because coercion generates resistance and hostility.
2. They are not long lasting. They tend to last as long as the power is still there.
Note: If innovations are to be generally institutionalized at school and class levels, then much
more attention has been given to the needs and problems of the users. It is better to have „power
equalization‟ where the user is allowed to participate in decision-making relating to the
innovation. With the participative approach, change may be slow but resistance will be much
less.

6.4 Why Curriculum Innovations Fail

1. Resistance to change
It is not the nature of human beings to welcome change with open arms. All reforms
inevitably clash with certain entrenched attitudes and values. Individuals and groups tend to
protect, preserve and promote their own view of the world, their own values and morals.
And any innovation to the extent that it is new, will be alien to an existing system. This
resistance to change is greatly related to the extent to which the people are required to
change or have not been involved in deciding what the change should be. Education is a
realm of traditions and resistance to change springs from such quotas as teachers,
administrators, parents, learners themselves, politicians, professionals, etc. This resistance is
the greatest impediment to change: in fact more explosive than even financial.
2. The sheer inertia of Innovation
This refers to the first push required to get a change started. Educational practices are
generally very deeply entrenched and because they have prevailed for decades, or even
centuries, they are harder to change. It requires a lot of energy to get it rolling. In most case,
the required initial energy is not always present in the right quantity.
3. Trying to achieve too much so fast can have the opposite result. Very little time is given to
each phase of effective implementation.
4. The change may be too ambitious at that point in the country‟s or institution‟s development.
5. Time: sometimes there is a tendency to change too quickly.
6. Resources: These includes human (personnel e.g. teachers, administrators), physical
(materials e.g. equipment, facilities, premises, etc) and finance. Very little innovation can
take place if there are no sufficient funds allocated to it. Due to lack of sufficient resources,
necessary and significant stages such as feasibility studies, piloting, etc are often overlooked
or ignored. As a result is implementations are carried out without any knowledge of the
possible problems that might be encountered in future.
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6.5. The User System
Any educational endeavor targets a specific group of people who are meant to benefit. In
curriculum innovation this targeted group of people is the user system. It is here where the
innovation is being trialed, adopted and implemented. There is therefore need to pay specific
attention to the user system. This is because if the user system resists the innovation, then the
innovation will stagger or fail. The innovator therefore needs to pay specific attention to:
(a) The teachers:
These are the implementers of innovations in schools and need to:
i. Have clear understanding of what was expected of them in their new role. They need the
conceptual basis underlying the innovation. In this respect, their sensitization, orientation and
training is necessary.
ii. Have the necessary capacities that include: skills, attitudes, values and perspectives to
carry out their role as implementers. Innovations come with specific considerations of the nature
of the learner, the 1earning process, pupil discipline, etc. which give new roles to the teacher.
There is therefore need to re-orient the teachers to enable them to develop the right perspectives
and methods of work.
b) Communication mechanisms
During the whole process of innovation, there is need to:
i. Develop lines of communication that keep everyone in the innovation project informed
about what is going on.
ii. Have a feedback mechanism that keeps the innovator and the implementers aware of the
effectiveness or success of what they are doing. This serves as both a corrective and motivating
factor. In this way the gaps and any other deficiencies can be rectified. The innovator can also be
informed about the necessary trade-offs. All these will make- the innovator understand the
challenges he/she is faced with to initiate and sustain smooth implementation. -
(c) Facilities, Equipment and Instructional Materials:
Innovations come with need for specific facilities. The user system needs to be aware of these in
terms of what new materials will be provided and how can they be used and what materials can
be sourced from the community or user system. Properly oriented the user system can provide
the locally available materials.
(d) Organizational Arrangements in the School:
Innovations come with need for specific arrangements in school administrative structures,
timetabling (innovations may affect duration of certain periods), learner organization in
classrooms, teacher deployment in classrooms (for example when there is need for team
teaching),‟ use of specific instructional materials, equipment and facilities, etc. for example in

36
primary schools in Uganda, the Introduction of Co-operative learning caused changes in sitting
arrangements in the classrooms.
(e) Community Involvement: the learners we have in school belong to the community and
parents. Their consent and support of what is being introduced in their schools is necessary. This
will enhance continuity and sustainability of the programme.

6.6. Conditions of Success of Innovations

There are conditions that can make an innovation to easily succeed. These conditions include
among others, the following:
Comparative Advantage: This refers to the innovation being better than the existing practices.
Normally, the user system (people receiving the innovation) will readily accept the innovation
when they see it better than their existing practices. For example, power point presentation will
be easily accepted by teachers as compared to the exclusive use of the piece of chalk and
chalkboard.
Relevance: This usually depends on all the conditions that will be explained in this Section but
specifically, relevance refers to the innovation being able to smoothly fit in the user system and
favourably support the existing practices and yield tangible beneficial results.
Compatibility: The innovations, as said above, have to fit in the user system. Any user system
has its own practices, values and characteristics. The users, e.g. teachers, need security and less
risk -of losing the jobs. The innovation should therefore ensure greater security of workers. This
will make the workers accept the innovation. If for example, the robot has come to reduce on the
number of workers in the factory, then acceptance of a robot system by the workers in the factory
will be non-existent.
Flexibility and Adaptability: If the innovation is a round peg introduced to fit in the user
system which is a square hole, then acceptance will be very difficult or impossible to experience.
Successful innovations need to adopt the give and take model. They need to be creatively
adapted by the user system. A plant that needs to survive in the desert has to reduce on the
transpiration rate and therefore has to have fewer stomata. Likewise, a plant in the tropics that
needs to survive in the hot dry season has to shed off its leaves. This is a natural process that can
be related to any innovation that has to succeed. It is flexibility and adaptability that emanate into
the consensus explained below.
No threat: As said above, the innovation should not cause any job insecurity However, on top of
his, the innovation should have no threat to the user system‟s identity, integrity, or territory.
There is therefore need for providing adequate information to rest the minds of the implementers
and have sufficient and ap5ropriate dialogue and negotiations with the user system.
Consensus: Many innovations fail because of lack of mutual agreement with the user system.
Consensus simply means that the user or implementers of the innovation agree with its objectives
and the way it is implemented. This is crucial at both initiation and implementation level.

37
Smooth and easy attainment of consensus depends on the strengths of the merits and benefits of
the innovation. This supersedes using political or administrative authority- to gain co-operation.
Benefits: Normally people attach monetary, material and non-material gains to anything that
comes their way. An innovation which‟ fulfils this condition generates a sense of intrinsic
satisfaction by the user system in the innovation. This intrinsic satisfaction depends on-
sometimes gain in status and social worth, career opportunities, comfortable working conditions,
etc. These generate commitment and diligence.
Feasibility: Every user system has the economic, political and social conditions. A feasible
innovation is one that can be successfully implemented in the prevailing conditions of the user.
For example, if you want to introduce use of power point in teaching in Secondary Schools, there
are a number of questions to be asked and these include: (How many for each School and do you
have the ability to acquire them).

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is curriculum innovation needed?

2. What are the characteristics of an effective innovation?

3. Explain the strategies and models of curriculum change and innovation

UNIT: SEVEN- CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

7.0: Introduction

Implementation can be viewed as changing an existing practice to some new (or revised) practice
to achieve more effectively certain desired results. Implementation is involved when a person or
a group of people attempts to use a new program for the first time. For any implementation to be
successful.
1. It must have a goal. This is usually not possible at the school level because teachers are
not always the brains behind most innovations.
2. The following must be altered:
i. Materials: Materials such as guidelines, textbooks, local curriculum documents,
audiovisuals, etc which if used represent one indicator that the implementation is
taking place.
ii. Methods: Methods refer to what teachers and others should do differently: those
skills and actions which would engage a teacher if he/she were putting the new
curriculum into practice.
iii. Beliefs of all the people who will interact with the new curriculum. A curriculum
must be based on certain philosophies or beliefs about education. These beliefs
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 are often critical to effective implementation because they shape the teachers‟
thinking and subsequent actions. If any of these areas are not affected, the
implementation will fail.
The logic of implementation can be depicted as:
Goal The change Implementation Outcomes

Curriculum Alter materials, Improved

Desired
Attitudes & achievement
education
Methods attitude
changes
changes, etc.

Note: Two issues are clearly brought out by this description about the logic of implementation.
The first is that implementation is the hypothesized means to accomplishing improved student
achievement. If it does not occur, or only occurs partially, then the desired outcomes cannot be
realized. The second is that implementation is not a linear process but involves definition and
redefinition of programmes. It solely depends on what the people “do and do not do”.

7.2 Stages of Curriculum Implementation

At implementation, the new curriculum and curriculum materials are made available to the
schools which are within the jurisdiction of the curriculum development in question.
Implementation can never be uniform because schools get ready at different times. The best that
can be done is to group the schools together in order of their readiness and the implementation
conducted accordingly. Effective curriculum implementation should follow the following steps:
1. Persuading the People
People are always resistant change. This is because change can be destabilizing and
uncomfortable as people are jolted out of their traditional ways of doing things and have
to adopt to new ways. It is easy to adjust if they are convinced of the usefulness of the
new curriculum through persuasion.
2. Keeping the Public Informed
The people affected by the change would want to be informed and also allowed to ask
questions. People can be kept informed through such avenues as Newsletters, Magazines,
Newspapers, radios, television, etc.
The information to be disseminated includes:-

- What the new curriculum wants to achieve in terms of instrumental goals.

- Explaining how the new curriculum wants to achieve in terms of instrumental
goals.
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 - Explaining how the new curriculum provides greater benefit to the individual than
the other.
- Describing and explaining changes in the organization of the new educational
system.
- Gaining the co-operation of the parents and public.
3. Educating the Teachers
Teachers must understand and accept the ideas being advocated in the new curriculum.
They need to understand and internalize the philosophy or reasoning behind the new
ideas, materials, including the methodology advocated in the new curriculum. Teacher
education should include both serving and would be teachers. Teachers need to be
educated on:
- New books available

- New content
- New teaching materials
- Changes introduced in the curriculum
- New teaching methods
- Support staff such as Lab Assistants, Technicians, field officers, etc. should also
be educated. Parents also need to be educated.
4. Educating the Teacher Educators
These include education administrators, head teachers, inspectors, college tutors, etc.
5. Providing the necessary Facilities and Equipment
This may include purchasing new equipment and facilities if they are not available or
improving the already existing ones. It also includes increasing the number if they are not
adequate. The schools would be required put in place the necessary facilities before the
curriculum can be implemented.
6. Supply of Curriculum Materials
This entails production, purchase, delivery and storage of the curriculum materials.
Implementation should not start until all the required materials have reached the schools.
These materials include:-

- Students‟ individual learning materials, pens, textbooks, etc.

- Teachers‟ materials such as teachers‟ guide, personnel training, etc.
- Instructional materials e.g. demonstration materials.
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 7. Presentation of the New Curriculum
This is the actual implementation. All the other stages are actually a preparation for this
stage. The actual presentation should be done in stages moving progressively from the
bottom to top year by year.
8. Instituting Appropriate Assessment Methods
The curriculum should effectively be evaluated while in process and at the end. The
information obtained should be fed back and used to improve the curriculum.
9. Continuous Support
Continuous support (or maintenance) refers to the activities and procedures that allow the
operation of the curriculum to continue. Curriculum implementation is a continuous
process and does not end with presentation of the new curriculum. What evaluation
reveals today about the curriculum may be different from another year because conditions
change, new teachers are hired, new students, new instructional materials and new
administrators come up. It is therefore necessary to monitor the curriculum throughout in
order to maintain its effectiveness or worth before a drastic change becomes necessary.
For effective support programme to succeed there should be a training programme for the
key personnel such as educational administrators. There should also be local centres
where curriculum personnel can converge for meetings.

7.3 Factors Limiting Curriculum Implementation

1. Characteristic of the Innovation
This refers to a clear description of the nature of the anticipated change. The following
questions need to be genuinely answered before implementation is attempted:
i. Is the change needed?
ii. Is it clear and explicit? It should be as possible even to the ordinary people.
iii. Are the materials available? Frequently, curriculum innovators rush to implement
a curriculum before they have adequately addressed these issues. This reduces the
chances of effective implementation.
2. Characteristics of the School System
This refers to such document as the Education Act, the school code of regulation, the
school mission, etc. Does it allow such an innovation to be implemented? Will it be
contained within what is already in place?
3. Characteristics of the School
Does the school have the necessary materials and equipment? Are there sufficient and
qualified staff?

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4. Tendency to ignore the people (their beliefs, skills, behavior) and concentrate on things
(materials, equipment, etc). People are much more necessary for success of an
implementation than things. But quite often they are ignored and innovation introduced
without their input. This causes resistance during implementation.
5. Dogmatic resistance to change (see failures of innovations).

7.4 Roles of Curriculum Implementers

The supportive personnel, teachers, parents and local communities all play an important role in
curriculum implementation. Let us discuss each in turn.

Field Supervisors or inspectors

The role of supervisors is to ensure that the curriculum is implemented and that instruction is
improved. They support teachers in demonstrating particular approaches to teaching. They are
also supposed to evaluate teacher‟s performance.

It is believed that if operational goals of instructional supervision are to be achieved, it is

necessary to think of at least two categories of the structural supervisory roles. These can be
classified into direct and indirect tasks under the “helping role”, and administrator and evaluation
tasks under the “administrative role”.

Supervisors Working a “Helpers”

• They help establish communities between persons who have similar problems and
resource people who can help

• They stimulate staff members to examine the extent to which ideas and resources are
being shared and the degree to which persons are encouraged and supported as they try out new
ideas.

• They facilitate implementation of new ideas that emerge from evaluation sessions.

• They listen to individuals, discuss their problems, and recommend other resources that
may help in the search for solutions.

• They identify problem areas in the materials and suggest necessary modifications.

• They observe and analyze teaching and provide helpful feedback.

• They do demonstration teaching when appropriate.

• They help teachers design and implement innovations in their teaching.

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• They provide expertise in group operation and organization

In this way, supervisors address themselves to preparation of workshops, seminars and courses
and provide suggestions of production of local teaching materials.

The “Administrative role” of instructional Supervisors

• Managing, controlling and co-ordinating programmes.

• Ensuring quality control in the instructional programmes and evaluating teacher

performance.

• Allocating personnel, equipment and materials.

• Co-ordinating policy development and implementation and performing administrative

duties related to the instructional programmes.

Educational Planners and Policy makers

These are the professional staff of the Inspectorate Division, ministry of Education and Sports.
They are the final decision makers on matters relating to education. They are involved in
curriculum implementation and are consequently the custodians of all funds allocated to
education. For example, funds for the purchasing and distribution of curriculum materials,
payment of teachers and other school personnel, the repair and maintenance of school structure.

They are also in charge of teacher education programmes, postage of trained, and, consequently,
supply of teacher throughout the country.

A teacher is the most important in curriculum implementation. Teachers implement the ideas
and aspirations of the designers. Success of the curriculum therefore depends on teachers. If they
are dedicated and imaginative they can enliven what in the education system would otherwise be
dull and lifeless. It is what the teacher does in the classroom, his adoption of the syllabus to
meaningful learning experiences that really counts. The teacher must therefore use methods and
techniques that make it easy for pupils to understand.

The teacher is also the source of feedback to the school authorities and the Ministry of Education
and Sports. If during implementation, certain practices or elements of the syllabus are not
satisfactory, the teacher should try to see to it that they are changed or eradicated. Educational
administrators need to have this information for further changes or adjustments.

One of the supportive services which should be rendered to teachers so as to ensure continuity
and comprehensiveness is by providing in-service training.

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The Role of Parents

Parents are the first educators of the child and maintain an educative function throughout the
child‟s upbringing. Being the natural and immediate “reference group” for their children, they
influence cultural values such a personal relationship, hospitality, selflessness, composition,
personal hygiene, etiquette, and love.

The Role of the Local Community

The community will support curriculum implementation and provide supportive personal assist
teachers when they are made to understand the rationale behind such a change and the
educational problems and procedures involved. Their attitudes towards the programme are easily
transmitted to the child. When parents or guardians live close to their children‟s schools they
take active interest in the day-to-day affairs of the school. For example, fund raising activities
can be organized to help buy needed equipment or put up extra classrooms. Parents or the
community around the school can also help the school by supplying materials knowing that their
children are the beneficiaries.

Familiarizing the community with the new curriculum should involve:

• Explaining how the new curriculum sets out to achieve its objectives in relation to nation
development goals,

• Explaining how the new curriculum provides greater individual benefits than the former
one,

• Describing changes in organization and structure of the educational system (secondary,

tertiary and universities) and the rationale behind this new system,

• Explaining to the community why pupils at offered different courses, and

• Aiming at winning the co-operation of parents and the public

The Role of Laboratory Technicians / Assistants

This type of supportive personnel is very vital in curriculum implementation. Due to the great
amount of work involved in the physical sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology) schools require
the service of laboratory assistants whose duties include

• Setting up of experiments and assisting in their demonstration

• Collecting specimens of animals, insect, plants, etc.

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READING MATERIALS
Collins J Marsh & George William. (2003). Alternative approaches, ongoing issues 3rd edition
NJ: Merrill prentice hall, upper saddle river.

Griffic.C. (1987). Curriculum Theory in Adult and Life long.

James.A.J etal, (1999). Introduction to the Foundations of American Education. Avaicom

company, USA.

Lynda.F. etal (2001). Introduction to teaching. Graphic world publishing services,USA.

Myra P.S.etal (2003). Teachers, schools& society. 6th edition.Mc Graw Companies – Hill,
New york

Odiope, curriculum development

Ornstein Llevine, (1999). Foundations of Education, 4th edition

Robert F. Mc Nergney Joanne M Herbert. Foundations of Education 3rd Edition

Tyler, R. (1949), Basic principles of curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago
Pres.

Okello, V. & Ocheng, K. M.(1996), Curriculum studies, Kampala: Bezalel Design studios.

Bishops, G. (1985). Curriculum Development: A text Book for students; London: Macmillan.

Taba, H.B. (ed.) (1962), Curriculum Development Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt-
Brace and World.

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