Maxwell's Equations in English

⃗ ⃗ q enc
Gauss's Law: ∮S E ⋅ d A= ϵ 0

⃗ ⋅ d A=0
∮S B ⃗
Gauss's Law for B:

⃗ d ΦB
∮L E ⋅ d ⃗s =−
Faraday's Law: dt

⃗ d ΦE
∮L B ⋅ d ⃗s =μ0 I enc +μ 0 ϵ0
dt
Ampere's Law:
 Maxwell's Equations in English

⃗ ⃗ q enc
∮S E ⋅ d A= ϵ 0

Left side is ∮S B ⃗
⃗ ⋅ d A=0
the field
that is being
produced. d ΦB
⃗
∮L E ⋅ d ⃗s =−
dt

⃗ d ΦE
∮L B ⋅ d ⃗s =μ0 I enc +μ 0 ϵ0
dt
Maxwell's Equations in English

⃗ ⃗ q enc
∮S E ⋅ d A= ϵ 0

Right side
∮S B ⃗
⃗ ⋅ d A=0 is the
source.

⃗ d ΦB
∮L E ⋅ d ⃗s =−
dt

⃗ d ΦE
∮L B ⋅ d ⃗s =μ0 I enc +μ 0 ϵ0
dt
 Maxwell's Equations in English
Left side is q enc Right side
⃗ ⃗
∮S E ⋅ d A= ϵ0
the field is the
that is being source.
produced.

Charges produce electric field.

 Maxwell's Equations in English

Left side is Right side

the field ∮S B ⃗
⃗ ⋅ d A=0 is the
that is being source.
produced.

There is no charge-like source of magnetic field.

 Maxwell's Equations in English

Changing magnetic flux produces electric field.

Left side is Right side

⃗ d ΦB
the field ∮L E ⋅ d ⃗s =− is the
dt
that is being source.
produced.
 Maxwell's Equations in English

currents (moving charges) produce magnetic field

and
changing electric flux produces magnetic field.

Left side is Right side

⃗ d ΦE is the
the field ∮L B ⋅ d ⃗s =μ0 I enc +μ 0 ϵ0
dt source.
that is being
produced.
 Maxwell's Equations in English

⃗ ⃗ q enc
Gauss's Law: ∮S E ⋅ d A= ϵ 0

⃗ ⋅ d A=0
∮S B ⃗
Gauss's Law for B:

⃗ d ΦB
∮L E ⋅ d ⃗s =−
Faraday's Law: dt

⃗ d ΦE
∮L B ⋅ d ⃗s =μ0 I enc +μ 0 ϵ0
dt
Ampere's Law:
Today’s agenda:

Electromagnetic Waves.

Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an Electromagnetic

Wave.
Maxwell’s Equations

Recall:
  q enclosed  
 E  dA  o  B  dA  0
  d B   dΦ E
 E  ds   dt  B  ds=μ 0 Iencl +μ 0ε 0 dt

These four equations provide a complete description of

electromagnetism.
Maxwell’s Equations

  q enclosed  
 E  dA  o  B  dA  0
  d B   dΦ E
 E  ds   dt  B  ds=μ 0 Iencl +μ 0ε 0 dt

• oscillating electric and magnetic fields can “sustain each

other” away from source charges and fields
d d
Faraday’s law BE Ampere’s law EB
dt dt

• result: electromagnetic waves that propagate through

space
• electromagnetic waves always involve both E and B fields

• propagation direction, E field and B field form right-

handed triple of vectors

Example:
wave propagating in x-direction
E field in y-direction
B field in z-direction
values of E and B depend only upon x and t

x direction of
propagation
z
Wave equation

• combine Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law

• for wave traveling in x-direction with E in y-direction and

B in z direction:

Wave equation:

 2E y  2E y (x, t)  2B z  2B z (x, t)
= 0 0 2
=  0 0
x 2
t 2 x t 2

E y B z
• E and B are not independent: =-
x t
Solutions of the wave equation

E y = Emax sin  kx - t  Emax and Bmax are the

electric and magnetic field
B z = B max sin  kx - t  amplitudes

2
Wave number k, wave length  k=


Angular frequency , frequency f  = 2f

 1
Wave speed f = = c c=
k  0 0
 E y B z
=-
x t

 Emax sin  kx - t    Bmax sin  kx - t  

=-
x t

Emax k cos  kx - t  = B max  cos  kx - t 

Emax E  1
= = =c= .
B max B k 0 0

Ratio of electric field magnitude to magnetic field magnitude

in an electromagnetic wave equals the speed of light.
 y

x direction of
propagation
z

This static image doesn’t show how the wave propagates.

[Search for “em wave propagation illustration” online to find videos.]

Types of electromagnetic waves

• enormous range of wave lengths and frequencies

• spans more than 15 orders of magnitude
Applications of electromagnetic waves
Today’s agenda:
Electromagnetic Waves.
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an Electromagnetic

Wave.
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves

rate of energy flow:

• Poynting vector* S *J. H. Poynting, 1884.

 1  
S = E B This is derived from
0 Maxwell’s equations.

• S represents energy current density, i.e., energy per time

per area or power per area (units J/(s·m2) =W/m2)

• direction of S is along the direction of wave propagation

  
for EM wave: E  B = EB
y  1   EB
S = E B so S = .
0 0

E
S
x because B = E/c
B c
E2 cB 2
z S= = .
0 c 0

These equations for S apply at any instant of time and

represent the instantaneous rate at which energy is passing
through a unit area.
 EB E2 cB 2
S= = =
0 0 c 0

EM waves are sinusoidal. E y = Emax sin  kx - t  EM wave propagating

B z = Bmax sin  kx - t 
along x-direction

The average of S over one or more cycles is called the

wave intensity I.

The time average of sin2(kx - t) is ½, so

2 2
EmaxB max Emax cB max
I = S average = S = = = Notice the 2’s in
this equation.
20 20 c 20

This equation is the same as 32-29 in your text, using c = 1/(00)½.

Energy Density
• so far: energy transported by EM wave
• now: energy stored in the field in some volume of space

energy densities (energy per volume)

1 2 1 B2
uE = 0E uB =
2 2 0
Using B = E/c and c = 1/(00)½:

 
2
E
1 B2 1 c 1 0 0E2 1
uB = = = = 0E2
2 0 2 0 2 0 2

2
1 1 B
uB = uE = 0E2 = remember: E and B are
sinusoidal functions of time
2 2 0
total energy density:
2
B instantaneous energy densities
u = uB +uE = 0E2 = (E and B vary with time)
0

• average over one or more cycles of electromagnetic wave

gives factor ½ from average of sin2(kx - t).

2
1 1 Bmax 1 1 B 2
2
uE = 0Emax , uB = , and 2
u = 0Emax = max
4 4 0 2 2 0

Recall: intensity of an EM wave

2 2
1 Emax 1 cBmax
S average = S = = c u
2 0 c 2 0
Help!

E or B individually:
1 2 1 B 2 (t)
At time t: uB (t) = uE (t) = 0E (t) =
2 2 0
2
1 2 1 Bmax
Average: uE = 0Emax uB = ,
4 4 0

Total:
2
2 B (t)
At time t: u(t) = 0E (t) =
0
2
1 2 1 Bmax
Average: u = 0Emax =
2 2 0
Example: a radio station on the surface of the earth radiates a
sinusoidal wave with an average total power of 50 kW.*
Assuming the wave is radiated equally in all directions above
the ground, find the amplitude of the electric and magnetic
fields detected by a satellite 100 km from the antenna.

Strategy: we want Emax, Bmax. We Satellite

are given average power. From
average power we can calculate
intensity,
From the and frompower
average intensity
we we
cancan
calculate Emax and Band
calculate intensity, max.from Station
intensity we can calculate Emax
and Bmax.

*In problems like this you need to ask whether the power is radiated into all space or into just part of space.
Example: a radio station on the surface of the earth radiates a
sinusoidal wave with an average total power of 50 kW.*
Assuming the wave is radiated equally in all directions above
the ground, find the amplitude of the electric and magnetic
fields detected by a satellite 100 km from the antenna.
Area=4R2/2
All the radiated power passes Satellite
through the hemispherical
R
surface* so the average power
per unit area (the intensity) is
Station

 power 
I= =
P
=
 5.00 10 W  4

= 7.96 10-7 W m2

2 1.00 10 m 
2 2
 area average 2R 5
Today’s lecture is brought
to you by the letter P.

*In problems like this you need to ask whether the power is radiated into all space or into just part of space.
 2
1 Emax Satellite
I= S =
2 0 c R

Emax = 20 cI Station

= 2  4 10-7  3 108  7.96 10-7  V

m

= 2.45 10-2 V
m

Bmax =
Emax
=
 2.45 10-2 V 
m = 8.17 10-11 T
c  3  10 8
m s
You could get Bmax from I = c Bmax2/20, but that’s a lot more work
Example: for the radio station in the previous example,
calculate the average energy densities associated with the
electric and magnetic field at the location of the satelite.
2
1 1 Bmax
2
uE = 0Emax uB =
4 4 0

1  8.17 10  J
-11 2
1 -2 2 J
uE =  8.85 10  2.45  10  3
-12
uB =
4 m 4  4 10-7  m3

-15 J J
uE =1.33 10 uB =1.33 10 -15
m3 m3

If you are smart, you will write <uB> = <uE> = 1.33x10-15 J/m3 and be done with it.
Today’s agenda:
Electromagnetic Waves.
Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves.
Momentum and Radiation Pressure of an
Electromagnetic Wave.
Momentum of electromagnetic wave

• EM waves carry linear momentum as well as energy

momentum stored in wave in some volume of space
• momentum density (momentum per volume):
d p S I
= 2  2 dp is momentum carried in volume dV
dV c c

momentum transported by EM wave:

• momentum current density (momentum per area and time)
d p S I
c = 
dV c c
Radiation Pressure

• if EM radiation is incident on an object for a time dt and if

radiation is entirely absorbed:

object gains momentum incident

S
d p = A dt
c
S
• Newton’s 2nd Law (F = dp/dt): force F = A
c
F S I
• Radiation exerts pressure Prad = = 
A c c
(for total absorption)
• if radiation is totally reflected by object, then magnitude of
momentum change of the object is twice that for total
absorption.
S incident
d p =2 A dt
c
reflected

S
• Newton’s 2nd Law (F = dp/dt): force F =2 A
c
F S I
• Radiation exerts pressure Prad = =2 2
A c c
(for total reflection)
 I incident
Prad = (total absorption)
c
absorbed

Using the arguments above it can also be shown that:

2I incident
Prad = (total reflection)
c
reflected

If an electromagnetic wave does not strike a surface, it still

carries momentum away from its emitter, and exerts Prad=I/c
on the emitter.
Example: a satellite orbiting the earth has solar energy
collection panels with a total area of 4.0 m2. If the sun’s
radiation is incident perpendicular to the panels and is
completely absorbed, find the average solar power absorbed
and the average force associated with the radiation pressure.
The intensity (I or Saverage) of sunlight prior to passing through
the earth’s atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m2.


Power = IA = 1.4 103 W
m2   4.0 m2
 = 5.6  10 3
W = 5.6 kW

Assuming total absorption of the radiation:

I  m  = 4.7 10 Pa
S average 1.4 103 W 2
Caution! The letter P
-6 (or p) has been used
Prad = = =
c c  3 108 m
s  in this lecture for
power, pressure, and
momentum!


F = Prad A = 4.7 10-6 N
m2   4.0 m2
 =1.9  10 -5
N
Light Mill (Crookes radiometer)

• airtight glass bulb, containing a

partial vacuum
• vanes mounted on a spindle
(one side black, one silver)
• vanes rotate when exposed to
light

This is NOT caused by radiation

pressure!!
(if vacuum is too good, mill does not turn)

Mill is heat engine: black surface heats up,

detailed mechanism leading to motion is
complicated, research papers are written
about this!
New starting equations from this lecture: