V2V EDTECH LLP

UNIT-II
Network Models (12 Marks)
_______________________________________________________

2.1.TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Q. Explain four level addressing used in TCP/IP reference model.

Q. State the functions performed by the Network layer and application

layer in a TCP/I protocol.

1. Physical and Data Link Layers: 2. Network Layer: 3. Transport Layer: 4. Application
Layer:

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE:

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI
 V2V EDTECH LLP
model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a
single layer called the application layer (see Figure 1.23).

1. Physical and Data Link Layers:

At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports
all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-
area network or a wide-area network.

2. Network Layer:

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.

a. Internetworking Protocol (IP)

The Internet working Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The
term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.

b. Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a
physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used
to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.

c. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a
network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.

d. Internet Control Message Protocol

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error
reporting messages.

e. Internet Group Message Protocol

The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

3. Transport Layer:

Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to
another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from
a process (running program) to another process. A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has
been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
a. User Datagram Protocol

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport

protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

b. Transmission Control Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to
applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context,
means connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a
transmission before either can transmit data.

c. Stream Control Transmission Protocol

The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer applications
such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features
of UDP and TCP.

4. Application Layer:
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and
application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.

OR

The TCP/IP Protocol Suite (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet and similar
networks. It forms the basis for the internet's operation and consists of four layers, each
 V2V EDTECH LLP
responsible for specific tasks in data communication. Here's an overview of the TCP/IP
protocol suite:

Layers of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

Layer Function Protocols & Technologies

Defines how data is physically
Layer 1:
transmitted over a network and the
Network Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address
hardware technologies involved (similar
Interface Resolution Protocol)
to the OSI Model’s Physical and Data
Layer
Link layers).
Responsible for addressing, routing, and
IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP
delivering data packets across networks.
Layer 2: (Internet Control Message
It ensures that packets reach the correct
Internet Layer Protocol), ARP, IGMP (Internet
destination device across multiple
Group Management Protocol)
networks.
Provides end-to-end communication
Layer 3: TCP (Transmission Control
between devices, ensuring reliable data
Transport Protocol), UDP (User Datagram
transfer with flow control, error detection,
Layer Protocol)
and retransmission if necessary.
Defines the protocols and services that
Layer 4: applications use to communicate over the
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS,
Application network. It ensures that data is formatted
POP3, IMAP, Telnet, SNMP
Layer correctly and delivered to the correct
application.

Explanation of Each Layer:

1. Network Interface Layer (Layer 1)

 This layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data over the network. It
corresponds to both the Physical Layer and Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
 Responsibilities:
o Handles how data is framed and transmitted over physical media (cables,
wireless, etc.).
o Ensures proper hardware addressing (MAC addresses) to identify devices on
the local network.
o Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and ARP.

2. Internet Layer (Layer 2)

 The Internet Layer manages the routing of data packets across networks and ensures
they reach the correct destination device.
 Responsibilities:
o IP (Internet Protocol) is the primary protocol used for addressing and routing
packets between devices across different networks.
o ICMP helps with error reporting and diagnostics (e.g., ping).
 V2V EDTECH LLP
o ARP resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses to enable correct packet
delivery within a local network.
 Examples: IP, ICMP, ARP, IGMP.

3. Transport Layer (Layer 3)

 This layer ensures reliable communication between devices over the network by
providing mechanisms for error detection, flow control, and retransmission.
 Responsibilities:
o TCP: Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication (guarantees
packet delivery).
o UDP: Provides connectionless communication, used where reliability is not
critical (e.g., streaming).
 Examples: TCP, UDP.

4. Application Layer (Layer 4)

 This layer interacts directly with the application software, providing protocols that
facilitate communication between programs on different devices.
 Responsibilities:
o Defines the protocols that applications use to communicate over the network,
including web browsing, file transfer, email, etc.
o Ensures that data is correctly formatted and delivered to the appropriate
application.
 Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, POP3, IMAP, Telnet, SNMP.

Key Protocols in TCP/IP Suite:

1. IP (Internet Protocol):
o IPv4 and IPv6 versions are responsible for addressing and routing data
packets between devices across networks.
2. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
o Ensures reliable, connection-oriented communication with features like error
detection, retransmission, and flow control.
3. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
o A connectionless protocol that offers low-latency communication without
guaranteed delivery (used for applications like streaming).
4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
o Used by web browsers and servers for the transfer of web pages over the
internet.
5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used for transferring files between devices over a network.
6. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
o Used for sending emails between mail servers.
7. DNS (Domain Name System):
o Resolves human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
8. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
o Used for network diagnostics and error reporting (e.g., "ping").
9. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
o Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses in a local network.

2.2. ADDRESSING:
Q. Explain port addressing and application specific addressing in TCP/IP reference
model.
Q. On which layer of OSI reference model following protocol works – i) UDP ii) IP iii)
FTP iv) SCTP
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical (link)
addresses, logical (IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific addresses.

Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture.

a. Physical Addresses:
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level
address.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size and format
of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-
bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple),
however, has a I-byte dynamic address that changes each time the station comes up.

b. Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks. Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different address formats. A universal
addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the
underlying physical network.

The logical addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is currently
a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.

c. Port Addresses:
The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a
source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective
of data communications on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data from one
computer to another is not complete. Today, computers are devices that can run multiple
processes at the same time. The end objective of Internet communication is a process
communicating with another process. For example, computer A can communicate with
computer C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with computer
B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data simultaneously,
we need a method to label the different processes. In other words, they need addresses. In the
TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port address in
TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

d. Specific Addresses:
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.

Examples include the e-mail address and the Universal Resource Locator (URL). The first
defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find a document on the World Wide
Web. These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses
by the sending computer.
OR

Addressing in Networking

In networking, addressing refers to the method of identifying devices (such as computers,

routers, and other networked devices) on a network using unique identifiers. Addressing
ensures that data packets are routed to the correct destination, enabling effective
communication between devices.

There are different types of addressing schemes used in various layers of the OSI and TCP/IP
models. Here are the main types of addressing:
 V2V EDTECH LLP
Types of Addressing in Networking:

1. Physical Addressing (MAC Address)

 Layer: Data Link Layer (OSI Layer 2)

 Purpose: Identifies devices on a local network.
 Description: The MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique hardware
address assigned to network interfaces for communication within a local network. It's
used by switches and other network devices to forward data frames within the same
network.
 Format: A MAC address is typically represented as a 48-bit address (6 bytes),
displayed as 6 pairs of hexadecimal digits, e.g., 00:14:22:01:23:45.
 Example: Ethernet devices, Wi-Fi interfaces.

2. Logical Addressing (IP Address)

 Layer: Network Layer (OSI Layer 3)

 Purpose: Identifies devices across different networks and enables routing of packets.
 Description: An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device on a
network, allowing devices to communicate across different networks. The Internet
Protocol (IP) uses this address for routing packets from the source device to the
destination device across the internet.
 Version: There are two versions of IP addressing:
o IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): 32-bit address, written as four decimal
numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): 128-bit address, written as eight groups
of hexadecimal numbers separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 Purpose of Subnetting: IP addresses are divided into network and host portions.
Subnetting allows the creation of smaller networks (subnets) within a larger network,
improving management and security.

3. Port Addressing

 Layer: Transport Layer (OSI Layer 4)

 Purpose: Identifies specific applications or services on a device.
 Description: A port number is used to identify specific processes or services
running on a device. The combination of the IP address and the port number helps
direct the data to the correct application on a device.
 Port Ranges:
o Well-known ports: 0-1023 (used by standard services like HTTP, FTP, etc.)
o Registered ports: 1024-49151 (used by various applications)
o Dynamic or private ports: 49152-65535 (used for ephemeral or temporary
connections).
 Example:
o HTTP typically uses port 80.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
o HTTPS uses port 443.
o FTP uses port 21.
o SSH uses port 22.

4. Application Addressing (Domain Name Addressing)

 Layer: Application Layer (OSI Layer 7)

 Purpose: Maps human-readable domain names to IP addresses.
 Description: Domain Name System (DNS) is responsible for translating human-
friendly domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1)
that computers can use to identify devices.
 Process:
o When a user types a domain name into their browser, DNS servers translate
the domain name into an IP address to enable the device to connect to the
correct server.
 Example: Resolving www.google.com to 172.217.10.46.

Summary:

Category Description Example

A unique identifier assigned to network
Physical
interfaces for communication on the MAC Address:
Addressing (MAC 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
physical network. Used to direct data
Address)
within the same network.
Ensures that data is sent to the correct
Function of MAC device within a local network. It operates Directs frames within local
Address at the Data Link layer (Layer 2) of the network or subnet.
OSI model.
Identifies devices on a network for
Logical Addressing IPv4: 192.168.1.1, IPv6:
routing purposes. IP addresses are
(IP Address) 2001:0db8::1
assigned either statically or dynamically.
Provides logical identification for devices,
Function of IP Routed through routers to
allowing data to be routed across different
Address different networks.
networks and the internet.
Identifies specific applications or services
Port 80 (HTTP), Port 443
Port Addressing on a device. Each service/application has
(HTTPS), Port 25 (SMTP)
a unique port number.
Enables communication between
Function of Port applications on devices by using port Directs data to a web
Addressing numbers to direct traffic to the correct server, email service, etc.
process.
Application Uses human-readable names (domain
Addressing names) to map to IP addresses. DNS www.example.com
(Domain Name (Domain Name System) resolves domain resolves to 192.168.1.1
Addressing) names to IP addresses.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
Category Description Example
Function of Simplifies accessing websites and Used in browsers and
Domain Name services by translating domain names into email clients to find
Addressing IP addresses through the DNS system. services.

Summary:

 Physical Addressing (MAC): Identifies devices on the same local network (Layer 2),
used for data transmission in the local network.
 Logical Addressing (IP): Assigns unique identifiers to devices across different
networks, allowing for data routing between them (Layer 3).
 Port Addressing: Used to route data to the correct service/application on a device by
using specific port numbers (Layer 4).
 Application Addressing (Domain Name): Translates user-friendly domain names
into IP addresses, allowing users to access websites or services using DNS (Layer 7).

2.3.OSI Model:
Q. Describe the functions of i) Transport layer ii) Network layer of OSI model.
Q. Draw layered architecture of the OSI model. State functions of various layers.
Q. Draw layered architecture of the OSI model. State the functions of various layers.
Q. Explain different functions of datalink layer of OSI reference model.

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of
the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network (see
Figure 1.13).
 V2V EDTECH LLP

1. Layered architecture:

Figure shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the
message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate
nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI Model.

Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and
localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both
comprehensive and flexible.

2. Peer-to-Peer Processes:

At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure, device A sends a stream of bits to
device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication must
move down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the
layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
 V2V EDTECH LLP

At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving
device. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process
receiving and removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for
it, and then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the
rest to layer 4, and so on.

3. Interface between layers:

The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device
and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layers.

4. Organization of the layers:

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers I, 2, and 3-physical,
data link, and network-are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device to another. Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and
application-can be thought of as the user support layers; they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems. Layer 4, the transport layer ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers are almost always
implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except for
the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

In Figure, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6
means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (the application layer),
then moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential order. At each layer, a header, or
possibly a trailer, can be added to the data unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer
2. When the formatted data unit passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into
an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.
 V2V EDTECH LLP

5. Encapsulation:

A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet
at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on. In other words, the data portion of a
packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level
N. The concept is called encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the
encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer. For level N - 1, the whole
packet coming from level N is treated as one integral un

Layers in the OSI Model:

The functions of each layer in the OSI model are

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next.
 V2V EDTECH LLP

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.

b. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os
or 1s) with no interpretation.

c. Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer.

d. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level.

e. Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media; it may be point-to-point configuration or multi-point.

f. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Ex. Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus, or a hybrid topology.

g. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layerinto
manageable data units called frames.

2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,the

data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
 V2V EDTECH LLP

3. Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than therate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism
to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

4. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
addingmechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.

5. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data linklayer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

3. Network Layer:

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links). Figure 1.18 shows the relationship of the network layer to the
data link and transport layers.

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

1. Logical addressing. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
2. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks or a
large network, the connecting devices route or switch the packets to their final destination.

4. Transport layer:

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A
process is an application program running on a host. The transport layer ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-
to-destination level. Figure 1.19 shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network
and session layers.

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

a. Service-point addressing. Source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore
include a type of address called a service-point address (or port address).
b. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
c. Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it
to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes
a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
d. Flow control. The transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow control at
this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
e. Error control. The transport layer is responsible for error control. However, error control at
this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link.

5. Session Layer:

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes
the interaction among communicating systems.

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

 V2V EDTECH LLP

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

a. Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex or full-duplex.

b. Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization

points, to a stream of data.

6. Presentation Layer:

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

a. Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted.

c. Encryption. A system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that the sender
transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out over
the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its
original form.
d. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
It is very important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
7. Application Layer:

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

a. Network virtual terminal. It is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a

user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a
terminal at the remote host.

b. File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host, to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to
manage or control files in a remote computer locally.

c. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

d. Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

OR

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
understand network interactions in seven layers. It defines the functionalities of each layer
and how they interact with each other. Here is an overview of the functions of each layer in
the OSI model:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 Function: Deals with the physical connection between devices and the transmission
of raw binary data (bits) over a communication medium.
 Responsibilities:
 V2V EDTECH LLP
o Defines the hardware aspects of the network, such as cables, switches, and the
electrical or optical signals used for communication.
o Specifies the voltage levels, pin layout, cable specifications, data rates, etc.
o Provides the means for sending and receiving data through the transmission
medium.
o Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, wireless transmission.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 Function: Responsible for the reliable transmission of data frames between two
directly connected devices over the physical layer.
 Responsibilities:
o Defines the frame structure and manages error detection and correction.
o Handles MAC (Media Access Control) addressing to ensure data reaches the
correct device on a local network.
o Provides flow control to manage the rate of data transfer.
o Error correction (via checksums or CRC) ensures that data errors due to
noise or interference are detected and corrected.
o Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

 Function: Responsible for routing data packets across different networks and
ensuring they reach the correct destination device.
 Responsibilities:
o Handles IP addressing and the routing of packets based on IP addresses.
o Decides the best path to send data across interconnected networks.
o Manages logical addressing, packet forwarding, and addressing for inter-
network communication.
o Provides fragmentation and reassembly of data to suit the MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit) of different networks.
o Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), Routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 Function: Ensures end-to-end communication between devices on different

networks, providing reliable data transfer and error recovery.
 Responsibilities:
o Manages data segmentation and reassembly.
o Provides error detection and correction, ensuring the integrity of the data
during transmission.
o Ensures flow control to prevent data congestion.
o Provides reliable data delivery using protocols like TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol), or unreliable delivery using UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
o Examples: TCP, UDP.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

 V2V EDTECH LLP
 Function: Manages and controls the dialogue between two communicating devices,
ensuring proper session establishment, maintenance, and termination.
 Responsibilities:
o Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.
o Provides synchronization by adding checkpoints to data streams, allowing the
data to resume from a specific point if a connection is interrupted.
o Manages dialogue control, ensuring data is sent in the correct order.
o Examples: RPC (Remote Procedure Call), NetBIOS, SQL.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 Function: Responsible for data translation, encryption, and compression to ensure

data is in a readable format for the application layer.
 Responsibilities:
o Translates the data between the application layer and lower layers, converting
data into a format that the receiving system can understand.
o Manages data encryption and decryption for secure transmission.
o Handles data compression to reduce the amount of data being transmitted.
o Converts different data formats, such as converting EBCDIC to ASCII.
o Examples: SSL/TLS for encryption, JPEG, MPEG (compression standards).

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

 Function: Provides network services directly to the end-users or applications,

enabling users to interact with the network.
 Responsibilities:
o Provides various network services such as file transfer, email, and network
management.
o Interacts with the application software on the user's device to facilitate
communication over the network.
o Enables protocols for web browsing, email, file sharing, etc.
o Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, POP3.

Summary of OSI Model Layers and Their Functions:

Layer Function Examples

Transmits raw bitstream over physical medium;
Layer 1: Ethernet cables,
defines hardware specifications like cables, voltages,
Physical Fiber optics, Wi-Fi
etc.
Ensures reliable data transfer over a physical link;
Layer 2: Data Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
deals with error detection, MAC addressing, and frame
Link PPP
transmission.
Layer 3: Routes packets across different networks; handles IP
IP, Routers, ICMP
Network addressing and packet forwarding.
 V2V EDTECH LLP
Layer Function Examples
Manages end-to-end data transfer and ensures
Layer 4:
reliability or unreliability with error checking and flow TCP, UDP
Transport
control.
Layer 5: Manages sessions and controls dialogue between
RPC, NetBIOS
Session applications, ensuring communication continuity.
Layer 6: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for the SSL/TLS, JPEG,
Presentation application layer to interpret and use. MPEG
Layer 7: Provides network services to end-users and HTTP, FTP,
Application applications for communication over the network. SMTP, DNS

Compare between OSI model and TCP/IP protocol model-

Q. Compare between OSI model and TCP/IP protocol model.
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Total Layers 7 Layers 4 Layers
Origin Developed by ISO Developed by DARPA
(International Standards (Department of Defense)
Organization)
Layers Structure More detailed with distinct Fewer layers, with some
layers. layers combined.
Use Conceptual framework for Practical model for the
standardization. internet and networking.
Protocol Focus More flexible in defining Fixed protocols with
network protocols. emphasis on IP and TCP.
Session & Presentation Separate layers (Layer 5 and Merged into the Application
Layers Layer 6). Layer.
Layer Independence More independent layers. More interdependent,
combining certain functions.
Real-World Use Primarily educational. Dominant in real-world
networking (the Internet).
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

__________***_________