UNIT 1 – PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES

Evolution of State: Pre Colonial to Modern state?

Ans - The evolution of the state in India from pre colonial times to the modern era is a complex historical and
political journey that has been shaped by diverse influences.
*Precolonial Era:* In the precolonial period, India was characterized by a diverse array of kingdoms, empires, and
regional entities. The Maurya and Gupta empires, among others, exemplified centralized rule, with a focus on
agrarian economies and intricate social structures. The concept of kingship played a crucial role, with rulers often
seen as upholders of dharma (righteousness) and administrators of justice.
*Medieval Period:* The medieval period witnessed the rise of various dynasties, including the Delhi Sultanate and
later the Mughal Empire. While these centralized powers governed large parts of the subcontinent, local autonomy
and decentralized governance structures persisted. The intricate blend of Persian and indigenous administrative
practices influenced the political landscape.
*Colonial Influence:* The arrival of European powers, particularly the British, marked a transformative phase. The
East India Company's commercial interests gradually translated into political control. The establishment of the British
Raj significantly altered governance structures, introducing a centralized administrative system and undermining
traditional authorities. The princely states retained some autonomy, but the overall political landscape became
increasingly colonial in nature.
*Independence and Modern Statehood:*The mid-20th century witnessed a pivotal shift with India gaining
independence in 1947. The framers of the Indian Constitution, led by figures like B.R. Ambedkar and Jawaharlal
Nehru, laid the foundation for a democratic and secular state. India adopted a federal structure, balancing
centralized power with state autonomy. Democratic principles, rule of law, and fundamental rights became the
cornerstones of the Indian state.
*Post-Independence Challenges and Transformations:* The post-independence period saw challenges such as
linguistic reorganization, regional movements, and economic reforms. The emergence of coalition politics,
decentralization through Panchayati Raj institutions, and advancements in technology further transformed the
political landscape. India evolved into a vibrant democracy with periodic elections, ensuring the participation of
diverse groups in governance.
*Contemporary Era:* In the 21st century, India continues to navigate complex challenges and opportunities.
Economic liberalization, technological advancements, and social changes have influenced political dynamics. The
federal structure remains intact, with states playing a crucial role in shaping policies and development initiatives.
2. Political Culture
Ans- Political culture in India is deeply rooted in its diverse history, traditions, and socio-economic dynamics. The
country's political landscape reflects a unique blend of democratic principles, pluralism, and a rich tapestry of
cultural influences. Several key aspects contribute to India's political culture:
1. *Democratic Values:* - India's political culture is characterized by a commitment to democratic principles. The
country has a robust electoral system, with regular elections at various levels of governance, fostering political
participation and representation.
2. *Pluralism:*- The nation's political culture is enriched by its cultural and religious diversity. India's pluralistic
society accommodates a myriad of perspectives, leading to a political environment that strives to represent the
interests of various ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups.
3. *Secularism:* - Secularism is a foundational principle in India's political culture. The Constitution guarantees
freedom of religion and ensures that the state remains equidistant from all religions, fostering a secular political
ethos.
4. *Federalism:* - India's political structure embraces federalism, with power shared between the central
government and states. This arrangement accommodates regional diversity and promotes local governance.
5. *Political Activism:* Political activism is a vibrant aspect of Indian political culture. Civil society, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), and grassroots movements play crucial roles in shaping public opinion and influencing policy
decisions.
6. *Dynastic Politics:* - A unique feature is the prominence of dynastic politics, where political leadership often
passes through family lines. Certain political families have played influential roles in shaping India's political
landscape.
7. *Political Parties:* - India has a multi-party system, with a range of political parties reflecting diverse ideologies.
Major national parties like the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party coexist with regional parties,
contributing to the country's political mosaic.
8. *Youth Participation:* - With a significant youth population, there is a growing emphasis on youth participation in
politics. Young leaders and activists are increasingly influencing political discourse and advocating for change.
9. *Social Movements:* - Various social movements have shaped India's political culture, addressing issues such as
social justice, gender equality, and environmental concerns. These movements contribute to the evolution of
political values and priorities.
3. Political Economy
Ans - Political Economy in the context of India involves the study of the interplay between political and economic
systems, shaping the country's policies, development, and governance. In India, this dynamic relationship is evident
in various aspects:
1. *Policy Formulation and Implementation:*- The political economy influences the formulation and execution of
economic policies. Government decisions on taxation, subsidies, trade regulations, and social welfare programs are
often shaped by political considerations and power dynamics.
2. *Resource Allocation and Budgetary Policies:* - Political forces play a significant role in determining resource
allocation and budgetary priorities. The distribution of resources, government spending on different sectors, and the
allocation of funds are subject to political negotiations and pressures.
3. *Economic Reforms and Liberalization:* - Economic reforms and liberalization efforts are influenced by political
factors. The push for liberalization in the early 1990s, for example, was driven by both economic considerations and
the changing political landscape.
4. *Corruption and Governance:* - The nexus between politics and the economy can be observed in issues of
corruption and governance. Political institutions impact the efficiency and transparency of economic governance,
influencing the ease of doing business and overall economic development.
5. *Social Welfare Policies:* - Political decisions also shape social welfare policies, including those related to poverty
alleviation, education, and healthcare. The political economy determines the extent and nature of state intervention
in addressing social inequalities.
6. *International Relations and Trade Policies:*- India's trade policies and international economic relations are
influenced by
political considerations. Bilateral and multilateral agreements, trade partnerships, and economic diplomacy are driven by
political strategies and geopolitical dynamics.
7. *Role of Political Parties and Interest Groups:* - The political economy is deeply intertwined with the roles played
by political parties and interest groups. These entities advocate for specific economic ideologies, influencing policy
directions and priorities.
8. *Impact on Economic Development:* - The political economy has a direct impact on India's economic
development trajectory. Political stability, the effectiveness of institutions, and the ability to implement long-term
economic plans are crucial factors that shape the nation's development.
UNIT 2 – CONSTITUTIONALISM ,RIGHTS,AND ACCOUNTABILITY
1. Historical Origins and Constituent Assembly Debates?
Ans - The historical origins of India's political landscape trace back to various periods, notably the struggle for
independence against British colonial rule. The Constituent Assembly, established in 1946, played a pivotal role in
shaping India's political structure. Comprising representatives from diverse backgrounds, the assembly engaged in
extensive debates to draft the Indian Constitution.

The debates within the Constituent Assembly were multifaceted, addressing key issues such as federalism,
representation, and the fundamental rights of citizens. Visionary leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, Jawaharlal Nehru, and
Sardar Patel actively participated, providing insights that shaped the foundational principles of India's political
system. These deliberations resulted in a comprehensive constitution, adopted on January 26, 1950, marking the
establishment of the Republic of India. The Constituent Assembly debates remain a cornerstone in understanding
the democratic values and principles that underpin India's political framework.

2. Distinctive Features of Indian Constitutionalism?

Ans- Indian Constitutionalism is characterized by several distinctive features that shape the political landscape of
India:
1. *Lengthy and Detailed Constitution:*- India boasts one of the world's lengthiest and most detailed written
constitutions. The document encompasses a comprehensive framework for the governance of the country, covering
a wide array of aspects from fundamental rights to directive principles.
2. *Federal System with Unitary Bias:* - India follows a federal system where powers are divided between the
central government and the states. However, the constitution provides a unitary bias during emergencies, granting
more authority to the central government.
3. *Parliamentary System:*- India's political system is parliamentary in nature, with a President as the ceremonial
head of state and a Prime Minister as the head of government. The Parliament consists of two houses – Lok Sabha
(House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
4. *Secularism and Religious Pluralism:* - Secularism is a fundamental feature of the Indian Constitution. It ensures
the state's impartiality towards all religions, fostering a diverse and pluralistic society where citizens can practice and
profess their faith freely.
5. *Directive Principles of State Policy:*- The Constitution incorporates Directive Principles of State Policy, guiding
the government in creating social and economic conditions necessary for the well-being of citizens. While not
enforceable by the courts, they serve as guidelines for governance.
6. *Fundamental Rights:*- The Constitution guarantees Fundamental Rights to every citizen, ensuring individual
liberties. However, these rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions in the interest of the
sovereignty and integrity of the country.
7. *Independent Judiciary:* - India's judiciary is independent and has the authority of judicial review. The Supreme
Court and High Courts play a crucial role in safeguarding the constitution and protecting citizens' rights.
8. *Reservation Policy:*- To address historical social and economic disparities, the Indian Constitution includes
provisions for reservations in education and employment for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and other backward
classes.
9. *Election Commission:*- The Constitution establishes an independent Election Commission responsible for
conducting free and fair elections at various levels of governance, ensuring democratic principles are upheld.
10. *Amendment Procedure:* - The Constitution provides for a detailed amendment procedure, striking a balance
between flexibility and rigidity. Amendments require a special majority in Parliament, ensuring the stability of the
Constitution while allowing for necessary changes.

3. Rule of Law and Debate on Extraordinary Laws?

Ans - In the context of politics in India, the rule of law is a foundational principle that emphasizes the supremacy of
law over arbitrary power. It ensures that all individuals, regardless of their status, are subject to the same laws and
guarantees fairness in legal proceedings. However, the debate on extraordinary laws in India has been a prominent
and often contentious issue.
Extraordinary laws, such as special powers given to security forces in certain regions, have been implemented to
address specific challenges, particularly in areas affected by insurgency or internal conflicts. While proponents argue
that these laws are necessary for maintaining order and national security, critics often express concerns about
potential human rights abuses and the erosion of civil liberties.
The debate revolves around finding a balance between national security imperatives and safeguarding individual
rights. Discussions often center on the need for transparency, accountability, and oversight mechanisms to prevent
potential misuse of extraordinary powers. Striking the right balance between maintaining law and order and
upholding fundamental rights remains an ongoing challenge in the political landscape of India

4. Civil Liberties and National Human Rights Commission

Ans- In India, civil liberties play a crucial role in upholding individual freedoms and human rights. The National
Human Rights Commission (NHRC) serves as a key institution dedicated to safeguarding and promoting these rights.
Civil Liberties in India:* - Civil liberties encompass a range of individual freedoms and rights, including freedom of
speech, expression, assembly, and the right to life and personal liberty. These liberties are enshrined in the Indian
Constitution and are essential for maintaining a democratic and inclusive society.
*National Human Rights Commission (NHRC):*- The NHRC is an independent statutory body in India, established
under the Protection of Human Rights Act in 1993. Its primary mandate is to protect and promote human rights,
investigate violations, and contribute to the overall well-being of individuals
*Roles and Functions:*
1. *Investigation and Intervention:* The NHRC investigates complaints of human rights violations, taking suo-motu
cognizance or responding to petitions filed by individuals or groups. It has the authority to inquire into incidents
involving the violation of civil liberties.
2. *Promotion of Human Rights Education:* The NHRC works towards promoting awareness and understanding of
human rights. This includes organizing campaigns, workshops, and programs to educate people about their rights
and liberties.
3. *Policy Recommendations:* It actively engages with the government and recommends policies to prevent human
rights violations. The NHRC plays a crucial role in shaping legal frameworks that protect civil liberties and human
rights.
4. *Monitoring Detention Facilities:* The commission monitors prisons and other detention facilities to ensure that
the rights of individuals are upheld, preventing instances of custodial violence or abuse.
5. *Public Interest Litigation (PIL):* The NHRC has the authority to intervene in legal proceedings, filing PILs to
address systemic issues related to human rights violations and civil liberties.
6*Challenges and Impact:* - While the NHRC has been instrumental in addressing human rights concerns, challenges
persist. Issues such as delays in justice, limited enforcement powers, and the need for broader societal awareness
are areas where continued efforts are crucial.
In summary, civil liberties in India are safeguarded by a combination of constitutional provisions and the work of
institutions like the NHRC. The commission, through its investigative and advocacy roles, plays a vital part in
addressing human rights violations and promoting a culture of respect for civil liberties in the country.

5. Institutions of Internal Accountability

Ans - In the context of politics in India, institutions of internal accountability include:
1. *Election Commission of India (ECI):* The ECI is an independent constitutional authority responsible for
administering election processes in the country. It ensures free and fair elections, holding political parties and
candidates accountable for adherence to electoral laws.
2. *Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG):* CAG is the supreme audit institution in India, responsible for auditing
the government's expenditures and financial transactions. It plays a crucial role in holding the government
accountable for the efficient and effective use of public resources.
3. *Central Vigilance Commission (CVC):* CVC is an apex governmental body that addresses corruption cases within
the government. It acts as an internal watchdog, ensuring accountability and transparency in public administration.
4. *Parliamentary Committees:* Various parliamentary committees, such as the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)
and the Estimates Committee, serve as internal accountability mechanisms. These committees scrutinize government
policies, expenditures, and actions, holding the executive accountable through discussions and recommendations.
5. *Central Information Commission (CIC):* The CIC is an independent body that ensures transparency and
accountability in the functioning of public authorities. It facilitates access to information, empowering citizens to
hold the government accountable for its actions.

UNIT 3 – SOCIAL BASE OF POLITICS IN INDIA : CASTE ,CLASS,GENDER AND RELIGION

1. Social Base of Politics in India: Caste, Class, Gender and Religion
Ans - The social base of politics in India is intricately woven with factors such as caste, class, gender,
and religion, shaping the dynamics and narratives within the political landscape.
1. *Caste:*- Caste plays a pivotal role in Indian politics, with political parties often aligning their
strategies to cater to specific caste groups. Caste-based mobilization, both at the local and national
levels, influences electoral outcomes and political alliances. The reservation system, designed to
address historical inequalities, further underscores the significance of caste in political
representation.
2. *Class:* - Socio-economic class is another crucial determinant in Indian politics. Issues related to
poverty, economic disparities, and social justice resonate with different classes of society. Political
parties formulate policies and agendas that appeal to specific economic classes, contributing to the
shaping of electoral choices and policy priorities.
3. *Gender:*- Gender dynamics in Indian politics are evolving, albeit with challenges. While there
has been an increased representation of women in politics, gender disparities persist. Issues related
to women's rights, empowerment, and safety influence political discourse. Efforts to enhance
women's participation and address gender-based concerns contribute to the multifaceted nature of
Indian politics.
4. *Religion:* - Religion holds significant influence in India's political landscape. Communal politics,
characterized by the mobilization of religious communities, has been observed. Identity politics
based on religion can shape electoral outcomes, and political parties often align with religious
sentiments to garner support. The delicate balance between secularism and religious identity
remains an ongoing theme in Indian politics.
The interplay of these factors creates a complex and diverse socio-political fabric in India. Political
strategies, electoral alliances, and policy formulations are deeply influenced by the intricate
relationships among caste, class, gender, and religion. Understanding and navigating this
multifaceted social base is essential for a comprehensive analysis of politics in India.

UNIT 4- APPOINTMENTS,ACCOUNTABILITY AND INDEPENDENCE,JUDICIAL REVIEW AND ACTIVISM

1.Judiciary: Appointments, Accountability and Independence, Judicial Review and Judicial Activism
Ans - In the context of politics in India, the judiciary plays a crucial role in upholding the principles of justice, and key
aspects include appointments, accountability, independence, judicial review, and judicial activism.
1. *Appointments:* - The appointment of judges in India involves a complex process. The Chief Justice of India and a
collegium of senior judges play a significant role in recommending candidates for judicial positions. However,
debates persist regarding the transparency and effectiveness of the current appointment mechanism.
2. *Accountability and Independence:* - Judicial accountability is a topic of ongoing discussion. While the judiciary is
independent of the executive and legislative branches, ensuring accountability remains a challenge. Mechanisms for
addressing allegations of misconduct or corruption within the judiciary are subjects of scrutiny, with calls for an
accountable and transparent system.
3. *Judicial Review:* - Judicial review in India empowers the judiciary to examine the constitutionality of laws and
government actions. This authority acts as a crucial check on the powers of the executive and legislative branches,
ensuring adherence to constitutional principles. Landmark judgments have shaped the landscape of judicial review in
India.
4. *Judicial Activism:* - Judicial activism, characterized by courts taking an active role in addressing social and
political issues, has been a notable feature of the Indian judiciary. Instances such as Public Interest Litigations (PILs)
have allowed the judiciary to intervene in matters concerning public welfare, environmental protection, and human
rights, often filling gaps where legislative or executive action is perceived as inadequate.
In summary, the dynamics of judiciary in Indian politics involve intricate discussions around judicial appointments,
efforts to balance independence with accountability, the extensive power of judicial review, and the phenomenon of
judicial activism. These aspects collectively shape the role of the judiciary in India's political and legal landscape.

2. Executive: Relationship between President, Prime Minister and the Cabinet

Ans- In India, the executive branch consists of the President, the Prime Minister, and the Cabinet, each playing
distinct yet interrelated roles.
1. *President:* The President is the ceremonial head of state and occupies a position that represents the unity of the
nation.
- Although the President's powers are mostly constitutional and symbolic, they play a crucial role in certain matters
such as the appointment of the Prime Minister, dissolving the Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament), and issuing
ordinances.
2. *Prime Minister:* The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds significant executive powers.
- Typically, the leader of the political party with a majority in the Lok Sabha becomes the Prime Minister.
- The Prime Minister forms the Council of Ministers, which is responsible for the administration of various
ministries.
3. *Cabinet:* - The Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, consists of senior ministers chosen from the Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha (upper house of Parliament).
- Cabinet members are responsible for policy making, administration, and decision-making on critical issues.
- The Cabinet collectively takes decisions on matters of national importance, and individual ministers oversee
specific portfolios.
*Relationship Dynamics:*
- The President's role is more ceremonial, and they act on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet in most
matters.
- The Prime Minister, being the head of the government, leads the executive branch and is pivotal in policy
formulation and decision-making.
- The Cabinet, composed of senior ministers, reflects the diversity of political representation and contributes to the
governance process.
In summary, the President, Prime Minister, and Cabinet collectively form the executive branch in India. While the
President holds a more symbolic role, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet wield substantial executive powers,
working in tandem to govern the country. The relationship is one of collaboration, with the Prime Minister and the
Cabinet driving the day-to-day functioning of the government, and the President serving as a constitutional
figurehead.

3.Legislature: Issues of Representation and Diversity, Functioning

Ans- In the context of Indian politics, the legislature grapples with significant challenges related to representation
and diversity, affecting its functioning. Issues such as under-representation of certain social groups, gender
disparities, and regional imbalances persist within the Indian Parliament.
*Representation Challenges:*
1. *Caste and Social Representation:* Despite efforts to ensure social inclusivity, there are still gaps in representing
marginalized communities adequately. Many argue that certain castes and tribes remain under-represented in
legislative bodies.
2. *Gender Disparities:* Women continue to be under-represented in Indian politics. While there have been
initiatives to enhance female participation, the gender gap remains a notable concern.
*Diversity Concerns:*
1. *Regional Disparities:* The vast diversity of regions in India raises challenges in providing equal representation.
Some regions might feel inadequately represented, impacting the legislative decisions that affect them.
2. *Linguistic Diversity:* India's linguistic diversity poses challenges in ensuring effective communication and
representation for speakers of various languages.
*Functioning Issues:*1. *Parliamentary Disruptions:* The Indian Parliament often faces disruptions, hindering its
smooth functioning. Political disagreements, protests, and frequent adjournments impact the legislative process and
hinder constructive debates.
2. *Delayed Legislative Processes:* The legislative process in India is at times criticized for being slow and
bureaucratic, leading to delays in passing crucial bills and reforms.
Efforts are ongoing to address these challenges. Initiatives promoting affirmative action, reservation policies, and
awareness campaigns aim to enhance representation and diversity. Additionally, calls for parliamentary reforms and
improved decorum seek to enhance the functioning of the legislature for more effective governance.

4. Issues of institutional supremacy and the debate on basic structure doctrine

Ans- In the context of Indian politics, the issues of institutional supremacy and the debate on the basic structure
doctrine revolve around the constitutional framework and the powers vested in various institutions.
*Institutional Supremacy:*
- Constitutional Balance: The Indian Constitution establishes a delicate balance of power among the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches. The question of institutional supremacy arises when there is a perceived overreach
or imbalance in the exercise of powers by any one of these branches.
- Role of Judiciary: The judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, plays a pivotal role in upholding the constitutional
framework and ensuring a check on the actions of the executive and legislative branches. Issues arise when the
judiciary's interventions are viewed as either exceeding its jurisdiction or insufficiently addressing constitutional
matters.
*Debate on Basic Structure Doctrine:*
- Evolution of Doctrine: The basic structure doctrine, established by the Supreme Court in landmark cases like
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, asserts that there are certain core principles and features of the Constitution
that cannot be amended by the Parliament. This doctrine acts as a safeguard against arbitrary changes that could
alter the fundamental nature of the Constitution.
- Limiting Constitutional Amendments: The ongoing debate surrounds the scope and extent of the basic structure
doctrine. While it serves as a crucial tool to prevent undue alterations to the Constitution, questions arise regarding
which elements specifically constitute the "basic structure" and whether the judiciary should have the final authority
in determining this.
*Political Implications:*
- Executive-Legislative Relations: Issues of institutional supremacy often manifest in conflicts between the
executive and legislative branches, with each vying for a dominant role in governance.
- Constitutional Amendments: The debate on the basic structure doctrine is central to discussions on constitutional
amendments, as it determines the extent to which the Parliament can modify the Constitution without infringing on
its foundational principles.
*Recent Developments:*
- Landmark Judgments: Recent judgments by the Supreme Court on issues like the abrogation of Article 370 in
Jammu and Kashmir or the interpretation of anti-defection laws have brought institutional supremacy and the basic
structure doctrine into sharp focus, demonstrating the ongoing relevance and complexity of these constitutional
principles.

UNIT 5 – DECENTRALISATION AND DEVOLUTION

a) Federalism
i. Centre State Relations
Ans- In India, Centre-State relations are a crucial aspect of the federal system outlined in the Constitution. The
distribution of powers between the central government and individual states is demarcated in the Seventh Schedule,
specifying subjects under Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. While the Union List includes matters solely
within the domain of the central government, the State List comprises areas under state jurisdiction. The Concurrent
List addresses subjects on which both levels can legislate. Additionally, financial arrangements, such as tax-sharing
and grants, play a role in shaping the collaborative federal structure. The Inter-State Council and Finance Commission
are mechanisms designed to foster cooperation and maintain equilibrium in Centre-State relations. This federal
framework seeks to balance national unity with regional autonomy.

ii. Federal Asymmetries and Accommodation of Diversities

Ans - In the context of Indian politics, federalism refers to the distribution of powers and responsibilities between
the central government and the states. Federal asymmetries in India acknowledge and accommodate the diverse
needs and identities of different states within the country. This is evident in the constitutional provisions that
recognize special status for certain states, allowing for tailored governance solutions to address their unique
historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts.
One notable example is the special autonomy granted to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian
Constitution, which granted the state considerable autonomy in internal matters. However, it's important to note
that as of my last knowledge update in January 2022, there have been constitutional changes, and Article 370 has
been abrogated, leading to the reorganization of the state into two separate Union Territories.
Additionally, the formation of autonomous councils and special provisions for tribal areas exemplifies the
accommodation of diversities in India's federal structure. These mechanisms recognize the distinctive needs of tribal
communities and provide them with a degree of self-governance.
In essence, federal asymmetries in India aim to balance the unity of the nation with the diversity of its regions,
ensuring that governance structures can effectively address the specific challenges and aspirations of different states
and communities.

iii. Intergovernmental Mechanisms

Ans - In the context of politics in India, federalism refers to the distribution of powers and responsibilities between
the central government and the states. Intergovernmental mechanisms play a crucial role in facilitating cooperation
and coordination between these levels of government. In India, this involves various institutions and processes, such
as the Inter-State Council, which serves as a platform for dialogue between the Centre and the states to address
issues of common interest. Additionally, Finance Commissions are instrumental in determining the sharing of
financial resources between the central and state governments, contributing to the functioning of a cooperative
federal structure in the country.

b) Local Self Government

i. Panchayats
Ans - Local self-government in India involves Panchayats, which are local governing bodies at the village,
intermediate, and district levels. Panchayats play a crucial role in decentralizing governance, fostering grassroots
democracy, and addressing local issues. These institutions are responsible for local development, planning, and
implementing various welfare programs. Panchayats serve as a vital component of India's political structure,
promoting citizen participation and empowering communities in decision-making processes.

ii. Municipalities
Ans- In the context of Indian politics, local self-government refers to the system of municipalities. Municipalities are
local governing bodies responsible for the administration of urban areas. They play a crucial role in decentralized
governance, addressing the specific needs and development requirements of cities and towns. Municipalities in India
are established under the constitutional framework, guided by the provisions of the 74th Amendment Act of 1992.
This amendment aimed to strengthen local self-governance by granting constitutional status to municipalities and
empowering them with functions, responsibilities, and funds for local development.
The structure of municipalities varies based on the population and revenue of the area. They are instrumental in
areas such as urban planning, infrastructure development, public health, and environmental management.
Municipalities also play a pivotal role in promoting citizen participation and ensuring a bottom-up approach to
governance.

UNIT 6- POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS

1. Ideology and Social Basis of National and State Parties, Changing Trends in Party System
Ans - In the context of Indian politics, the ideology and social basis of national and state parties play a pivotal role in
shaping the political landscape. The changing trends in the party system reflect the dynamic nature of Indian
democracy.
*Ideology and Social Basis of National Parties:*
1. *Indian National Congress (INC):* Historically, the INC has been a centrist party with a broad-based ideology,
emphasizing secularism and social justice. Its social basis includes a diverse coalition of religious, linguistic, and
regional groups, making it a truly national party.
2. *Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):* The BJP, a right-wing party, has evolved as a major force. It espouses the ideology
of Hindutva, emphasizing cultural nationalism. Its social base comprises a coalition of Hindu nationalists,
conservative groups, and segments of the middle class.
3. *Communist Parties:* Communist parties like CPI (M) and CPI traditionally follow Marxist ideologies. Their social
base includes the working class, peasants, and marginalized sections. They have a significant presence in states like
Kerala and West Bengal.
*Ideology and Social Basis of State Parties:*
1. *Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) in Tamil Nadu:*
These parties primarily focus on Tamil regional identity. The Dravidian ideology, emphasizing social justice and
regional autonomy, forms the core of their agenda.
2. *Shiv Sena in Maharashtra:* Initially formed as a regional party advocating for the rights of Maharashtrians, Shiv
Sena has grown into a state party. Its social basis includes support from the Marathi-speaking population,
particularly in Mumbai and surrounding areas.

*Changing Trends in Party System:*

1. *Emergence of Regional Parties:* Over time, regional parties have gained prominence, reflecting specific linguistic
and cultural identities. Parties like Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) in Telangana and Biju Janata Dal (BJD) in Odisha
exemplify this trend.
2. *Coalition Politics:* The era of coalition politics has become a defining feature of the Indian party system. National
and regional parties often form alliances to secure a stable government at both the central and state levels.
3. *Shifts in Voter Preferences:* Changing voter preferences are evident, with voters becoming more issue-centric
and less tied to traditional party loyalties. This has led to increased volatility and competitiveness in elections.
4. *Rise of Identity Politics:* Parties increasingly leverage identity-based issues, including caste and religious
considerations, to mobilize support. This has influenced the ideological landscape and party strategies.

2. Electoral and Party Reforms

Ans- Electoral and party reforms are critical aspects of political evolution in India, aimed at enhancing the democratic
process and fostering transparency. In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the need for reforms in
both electoral and party structures to address challenges and strengthen the democratic foundation of the country.
*Electoral Reforms:*
1. *Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs):* There has been an ongoing debate about the reliability and security of
EVMs. Calls for enhancing the transparency and accountability of the voting process have led to discussions on
introducing Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) to provide a physical record of votes cast.
2. *Campaign Financing:* Electoral reforms also target campaign financing to curb the influence of money in politics.
3. *Candidate Selection Process:* Calls for greater internal democracy within political parties have prompted
discussions on improving the candidate selection process.
*Party Reforms:*
1. *Internal Democracy:* Many political parties in India are criticized for lacking internal democracy. Reforms are
proposed to ensure that decision-making processes within parties are more democratic, reducing the concentration
of power in the hands of a few.
2. *Financial Transparency:* Parties are increasingly being pressured to disclose their sources of funding and
expenditure. Stricter regulations aim to promote financial transparency, enabling citizens to make informed choices
and reducing the influence of undisclosed funding.
3. *Intra-Party Elections:* Advocates for party reforms emphasize the need for regular intra-party elections. This
ensures that party leaders are accountable to their members, fostering a more responsive and representative
political landscape.
4. *Representation of Marginalized Groups:* There is a growing recognition of the need to improve the
representation of marginalized groups, including women and minorities, within political parties. Reforms focus on
implementing measures to enhance diversity and inclusivity.
5. *Decriminalization of Politics:* Another area of concern is the criminalization of politics. Reforms aim to disqualify
candidates facing serious criminal charges from contesting elections, contributing to cleaner and more accountable
political processes.

3. Election Commission of India?

Ans - The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body responsible for administering elections in the
country and ensuring the democratic process. Established in 1950, it operates independently and plays a crucial role
in overseeing the conduct of elections at various levels, from local bodies to the national parliament.
Key functions of the Election Commission of India include:
1. *Conducting Free and Fair Elections:* The ECI is dedicated to organizing elections that are free, fair, and
transparent, upholding the principles of democracy.
2. *Electoral Planning and Management:* It formulates policies and procedures for the conduct of elections,
including the preparation of electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies, and managing election logistics.
3. *Implementing the Model Code of Conduct:* The ECI enforces the Model Code of Conduct during election periods
to ensure fair play and prevent any misuse of government machinery for electoral gains.
4. *Voter Education and Awareness:* The commission undertakes initiatives to educate voters, enhance awareness
about the electoral process, and encourage voter participation.
5. *Overseeing Political Parties:* The ECI registers political parties and monitors their adherence to guidelines,
particularly regarding financial transparency and compliance with election laws.
6. *Addressing Electoral Malpractices:* It investigates complaints related to electoral malpractices, bribery, and
violations of the election code, taking appropriate actions to maintain the integrity of the electoral process.
7. *Conducting Bye-Elections:* The ECI is responsible for conducting bye-elections to fill vacant seats in legislatures
or local bodies.
Overall, the Election Commission of India plays a pivotal role in upholding the democratic principles of the country by
ensuring the smooth and impartial conduct of elections at all levels of governance.

UNIT 7 – SOCIAL MOVEMENTS VOLUNTARY GROUPS AND DEBATE OVER CIVIL AND POLITICAL SOCIETY
1. Social Movements, Voluntary Groups and Debate over Civil and Political Society
Ans- In the context of politics in India, social movements, voluntary groups, and the debate over civil and political
society play pivotal roles in shaping the democratic landscape. Social movements often emerge as catalysts for
change, advocating for various social, economic, and political issues. Voluntary groups, comprising individuals driven
by common goals, contribute to community development and social welfare.
The debate over civil and political society in India reflects the ongoing discourse on citizens' rights, governmental
accountability, and the overall democratic ethos. Social movements, such as those advocating for environmental
protection, women's rights, or anti-corruption measures, showcase the active engagement of citizens in the political
process.
Voluntary groups, ranging from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to grassroots movements, actively
participate in civic life, addressing societal challenges and acting as intermediaries between citizens and
policymakers. These groups often bridge the gap between civil and political society by translating grassroots
concerns into political action.
However, the relationship between social movements, voluntary groups, and the broader civil and political society is
not without debate. Questions arise regarding the extent of their influence, the balance between citizen activism and
government authority, and the dynamics of participatory democracy. This discourse is intrinsic to India's democratic
fabric, reflecting the diverse and vibrant nature of its political landscape.

1. Nature of State in Contemporary India: Welfare, Regulatory, Security and Surveillance

Ans - In contemporary India, the nature of the state is characterized by its multifaceted roles in welfare, regulation,
security, and surveillance.
1. *Welfare:* - The Indian state plays a significant role in welfare initiatives, aiming to uplift marginalized and
vulnerable sections of society. Schemes such as the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and various
poverty alleviation programs underscore the commitment to social welfare.
2. *Regulatory:* - India's state functions as a regulatory authority across diverse sectors, overseeing economic
activities, public services, and social institutions. Regulatory bodies ensure compliance with laws and standards,
fostering a structured and fair environment for businesses and citizens alike.
3. *Security:* - Ensuring national security is a paramount concern for the Indian state. With geopolitical challenges
and internal security threats, the state invests in defense capabilities, intelligence agencies, and diplomatic efforts to
safeguard the nation's interests and citizens.
4. *Surveillance:*- In addressing security concerns, there is a growing emphasis on surveillance mechanisms.
Technologies are employed for monitoring and intelligence gathering to counteract potential threats. However, the
balance between security measures and individual privacy is a subject of ongoing debate.