mitigate violent episodes, while positive peace interventions are aimed at the reduction of

structural violence. To elaborate: Negative peace interventions can be tailored to various

phases of a violent episode: (a) conflict phase that precedes the violent episode, (b) violent

episode phase, or (c) post violence phase. In contrast, structural and cultural violence cannot

be prevented because all societies have some degree of ongoing structural and cultural

violence. Positive peace interventions involve social and cultural transformations that reduce

structural and cultural violence and promote a more equitable social order that meets the

basic needs and rights of all people. Peace psychology therefore deals with the patterns of

thoughts, feelings, and actions of individuals and groups that are involved in violent episodes

as well as the prevention and mitigation of violent episodes. Peace psychology also deals

with thoughts, feelings, and actions that (re)produce social injustices as well as socially just

arrangements between individuals and groups. Sustainable peace requires continuing efforts

to craft facilitative synergies between nonviolent means and social just ends, that is, the

pursuit of negative and positive peace.

Nature of Aggression

 Any harmful behavior that is intended to hurt someone.

 Aggression is behavior that is intended to harm another individual who does not wish

to be harmed.

 It is the set of behaviors that are likely to or have the potential to cause harm to other

or intended to cause harm and are goal directed.

We need first to define aggression. Bushman and Anderson defined aggression in the Annual

Review of Psychology 2002 as “any behaviour directed towards another individual that is

carried out with the proximate intent to cause harm.” Anderson et al argue that people are

more likely to react aggressively to aggressively stimulating situations. The level, severity
and intensity of the aggressive response vary with his personal factors that determine the

individual’s readiness to aggress. “Person factors include all the characteristics a person

brings to the situation, such as personality traits, attitudes, and genetic predispositions.’

(Anderson et al, 2010).

 Forms of Aggression

Aggression can take a variety of forms, including:

 Physical

 Verbal

 Mental

 Emotional

While we often think of aggression as purely in physical forms such as hitting or pushing,

psychological aggression can also be very damaging. Intimidating or verbally berating

another person, for example, are examples of verbal, mental, and emotional aggression.

 Purposes of Aggression

Aggression can serve a number of different purposes, including:

 To express anger or hostility

 To assert dominance

 To intimidate or threaten

 To achieve a goal

 To express possession

 A response to fear

 A reaction to pain
  To compete with others

 Types of Aggression

Psychologists distinguish between two different types of aggression:

There are two forms of aggression, hostile and instrumental. Hostile is where the

aggressive behaviour is driven by anger and is a thoughtless and unplanned action and is as

an end in itself, whilst instrumental is a premeditated and proactive action, resulting in a

desired goal.

To take this further, examples of hostile aggression include verbal (defiance, threats,

swearing and bossing), physical aggression (kicking, spitting and fighting) and vandalism

(destruction, damage to property and theft). An infamous example of this type of aggression

was demonstrated by French footballer, Zinedine Zidane’s at the 2006 world cup final match.

Zidane head butted Italian player, Marco Materazzi in the chest, and claimed that he had

reacted to insults directed at his sister and mother. As a consequence, this was his last ever

professional match. (Telegraph Sport, 2012)

 Impulsive Aggression: Also known as affective aggression, impulsive aggression is

characterized by strong emotions, usually anger. This form of aggression is not

planned and often takes place in the heat of the moment. When another car cuts you

off in traffic and you begin yelling and berating the other driver, you're experiencing

impulsive aggression. Research suggests that impulsive aggression, especially when

it's caused by anger, triggers the acute threat response system in the brain, involving

the amygdala, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG).

 Instrumental Aggression: Also known as predatory aggression, instrumental

aggression is marked by behaviors that are intended to achieve a larger goal.

Instrumental aggression is often carefully planned and usually exists as a means to an

aggression. The aggressor's goal is to obtain money or a vehicle, and harming another

individual is the means to achieve that aim.

 On the other hand, instrumental aggression is an aggression that is not performed with

the intention to cause harm but rather, it is used to achieve a “good” result Baron

(1977). Berkowitz, (1993), sees aggression as a set of goal-directed behaviours. An

aggressive team is more likely to be a winner and an aggressive player is more likely

to win the trophy”. In fact, Russel, (1993) concluded that we not only tolerate

aggression in sports events, but all people from the spectators, to media and sports

associations even encourage it and give it their blessings (Tenenbaum et al, 1997).

Newbery, BBC Sport Reporter, January 24 2012: “Federer is the more naturally

aggressive and Murray a counter-puncher. I think it will be a very aggressive match.

Roger is going to attack him a lot, Andy is a great defender, but he cannot defend all

the time. He also needs to step in and go for it.”

Factors That Can Influence Aggression

A number of different factors can influence the expression of aggression, including:

 Biological Factors: Men are more likely than women to engage in physical

aggression. While researchers have found that women are less likely to engage in

physical aggression, they also suggest that women do use non-physical forms, such as

verbal aggression, relational aggression, and social rejection.

 Environmental Factors: How you were raised may play a role. People who grow up

witnessing more forms of aggression are more likely to believe that such violence and

hostility are socially acceptable. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment

demonstrated that observation can also play a role in how aggression is learned.
 Children who watched a video clip where an adult model behaved aggressively

toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate those actions when given the

opportunity.

 Physical Factors: Epilepsy, dementia, psychosis, alcohol abuse, drug use, and brain

injuries or abnormalities can also influence aggression.

Theories related to aggression

 Biological Approach of the Nature Theory

The Nature theory states that behaviors, such as aggression, are due to innate dispositions

such as physiological, hormonal, neurochemicals and genetic make-up. The people who

support this argument are known as nativists. The nativists accept that all characteristics of

the human species as a whole are products of evolution, and that individual differences are

due to a person’s genetic code. Nativist theorists such as, Bowlby (1958) and Dollard et al

(1939) have conducted studies that provided evidence t hat human behaviour is innate.

 Genetic basis of Aggression

Clearly, much behaviour is innate, such as a mother’s attachment to her children, the

bond of partnership and love. John Bowlby (1958), a psychoanalyst, developed the

evolutionary theory of attachment which suggests that children from birth are “biologically

pre-programmed to form attachment with others as it is a basic survival instinct” (Saul

McLeod, 2007). Bowlby believed that attachment behaviors will be automatically activated

by any conditions that seem a threat, such as fear, anxiety and separation. According to this

theory, babies who stay close to their mothers are more likely to survive to adulthood and

have children. We can presume that both attachment and aggression are inherited.

 Dollard (1939) assumed that behaviour is created by an innate human need. He

was an American Psychologist and social scientist, who formulated the

is inhibited from reaching their goal, an aggressive drive is provoked which

motivates behaviour that causes the individual to injure another or the object that

is causing the frustration. This basic drive is like behavioural units of ability that

are switched on or off as an appropriate challenge or task presents itself. In other

words, we act on instinct. The “Fight or Flight” mechanism is an example of a

behaviour that can be switched on or off as a self-defence mechanism. These

responses are hormone-mediated, and are therefore controlled by specific genetic

expressions.

 In further support that aggressive behaviour is inherited (Nature theory) there have

been several animal experiments have been conducted by scientists that provide

evidence that aggression is innate. In 1995, researchers at Hopkins University

discovered a gene that was responsible for excessively violent and overly

aggressive sexual behaviour in male mice. The researchers observed that once

they removed a gene, the mice became more aggressive (Nelson, 1995). Nelson

and his team believed that the removed gene helped the mice moderate their levels

of aggression and once it was removed the behaviour was difficult to control. This

indicates that genes have a significant role to play in the level of aggression.

Numerous other experiments have been carried out on animals and especially

mice to prove this trait. They all show a direct correlation between testosterone

and aggression. (Svare 1983; Monaghan and Glickman 1992). However, it is

important to note that whilst research carried out on animals clearly provides a

better understanding of the effect of genes in aggression, caution must obviously

be taken in extrapolating the results when trying to relate it to human behaviour.

complex for one gene to fully explain all aggressive behaviour.

 However, genes need the right environment to express their phenotype

characteristics. For example, an individual will grow to the height that is coded in

the genes, given that the individual is well nourished and healthy. Malnourishment

causes stunt growth and will stop the individual reaching the ‘coded’ height. The

children of Guatemala have the highest rate of malnutrition in the Western

Hemisphere. Their diet lacks of vital nutrients during the critical period of

development from two years old, and as a result, all the children are at least six or

eight inches shorter that they should be. (Gowen et al, 2010)

 Role of Dopamine in Aggression

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for movement, formation of

memory, mood, motivation and behaviour. Ingo Vernaleken et al (Society of Nuclear

Medicine, 2012) investigated the effects of varying levels of dopamine on aggressive

competitive behaviour in participants playing a video game. The results showed that

participants who had a lower capacity to synthesize dopamine in the brain were more likely

to act with aggression, which is the opposite of what the researchers initially hypothesised.

Despite the surprising result, the study does support the Nature approach regarding the effect

of the role that dopamine plays in aggression but it yet to be understood why it act as it does.

 Role of hormones in Aggression

Testosterone in men, affects their sexual features and development. There have been

other studies conducted on humans that focus on hormones and their affect on behaviour.

Increased levels of testosterone in men are associated with aggressive and antisocial

behaviour. This was demonstrated by Olweus (1988) who has shown that adolescent boys
who have higher levels of testosterone were more likely to behave aggressively when

provoked. In men there is a high correlation between the level of testosterone and dominance

rather than aggression (Mazur et al, 1997, Seltzer, 2009) whereas in women, high levels of

testosterone and aggression are strongly correlated.

 According to Dalton (1961), testosterone in some women leads to antisocial

behaviour, especially during the premenstrual period. The ratio of oestrogen and

progesterone during the menstrual period has been proven to cause physical and

psychological problems such as aggression, irritability and changes in mood.

However, the assumption is too vague to generalise that all women are capable of

violent crimes during menstruation and it discards external factors such as,

environmental causes (e.g. family problems) that may have resulted in the aggressive

behaviour. His research found a significant difference in the number of women who

have committed crimes and jailed during the premenstrual phase. The offenders were

more aggressive and irritable during this time. In support of Dalton’s research,

Reinisch (1981) found that daughters of mothers, who were treated with a similar

hormone to testosterone while pregnant, grew up to be more aggressive.

 A sudden drop of progesterone level is known to be a primary trigger for post-natal

depression (PND). Other factors that contribute to the onset of PND are anxiety in

pregnancy and lack of support after the delivery. PND causes severe anxiety,

irritability, negative thoughts and low moods among other depression symptoms.

(Royal College of Psychiatrist). This combination of personal factors could lead to

aggressive behaviours. An example of this is where Felicia Boots, mother of two,

killed her young children. (BBC News, 30 October 2012)

hormones, testosterone in particular, and aggressive behaviour. However, the extent to

which those hormones influence aggressive behaviour remains controversial.

 The studies discussed so far have demonstrated that aggression has a chemical,

hormonal, or genetic basis. Moyer (1976) further supported this speculation when he

observed that a cat hissed and stroked at any object in its cage, when electrical

impulses were given to specific parts of the hypothalamus ( De Souza, 2007). It has

been observed that a Laboratory rat bred in isolation that has never seen the

aggressive behaviour of a wild rat can live in harmony with a mouse. However, when

the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated, the rat attacked and killed the mouse,

using a similar technique that its untamed kin uses. When the rat was injected with a

neurochemical blocker in the same area of the hypothalamus that was previously

stimulated, the rat then became temporarily peaceful. These responses provide

evidence that animals have an innate aggressive drive that can become active or

inactive, provided with the right stimulus (De Souza, 2001). Therefore, this may

suggest that we react in the same way towards a stimulus when provoked.

Even though studies have shown that genetics can influence aggression, there are limiting

factors. Aggression is more second nature to people than an uncontrollable outburst and is

likely to be used as a self-defense mechanism. Situational factors are also significant, in

attempting to explain how much discomfort was caused that resulted in the aggressive

behaviour.

 At the other end of the spectrum is Nurture. Those who adopt nurture as an idea,

empiricists or environmentalists, presume that at birth, the human mind is a blank

behaviourism). In other words, the behaviour is learned and not innate.

 Behavioural Approach of the Nurture Theory

The theory of nurture suggests that human behaviour is not innate but is learned. It

involves aspects of human life that surround societal reasons for why aggression is

demonstrated. The National Centre of Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) estimated that

approximately 23 per 1,000 children are victims of maltreatment, including physical abuse,

sexual abuse, and neglect (Sedlack &Broadhurst, 1996), as described by Margolin and Gordis

(2004). Margolin and Gordis studied the psychological development of children exposed to

violence in the family and community. They concluded that children who are in a damaged

and abusive environment are more likely to become aggressive and become low achievers in

their schools and communities. Therefore, family factors, peer influences and cognitive

factors seem to contribute to the control and development of aggression (Sarah McCawley

2001). Bandura (1961), Rayner et al and Heusmann et al (1986) are theorists that have

gathered supporting evidence to suggest aggressive behaviour is learned by observing others.

The following sections will describe the behavioural approach of the Nurture theory, by

looking at the Social Learning Theory and The Script Theory.

 Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Albert Bandura was a psychologist who developed the Social Learning Theory (SLT). He

believed that “most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from

observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later

occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (1977).” (Law et al,

Psychology, IB Diploma)
The theory assumes that individuals do not inherit behavioural tendencies, but learn by

observing models, such as their peers and parents, and imitating their behaviour. In other

words, individuals learn behaviour vicariously. In order to verify his Social Learning Theory,

Bandura et al (1961) conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate if social behaviours,

for example, aggression, can be acquired by imitation.

To support his theory, Bandura and his team showed young children, aged 3 to 6

years, a video of an adult model behaving aggressively towards an inflatable Bobo doll. He

wanted to see if the children would imitate this behaviour. The children showed directly

imitative behaviour, especially when the adult was rewarded (Law et al, Psychology, IB

Diploma). This empirical study supported Bandura’s theory as it showed that behaviour is the

result of learning. However, it is difficult to conclude whether the child has learned the

behaviour because of demand characteristics, as the child may have only imitated the

behaviour in order to be acknowledged as they were being observed. However, it can be

argued by those supporters of the nature theory, nativists, that without inherited

characteristics, the act of learning would not be possible.

Nevertheless, Bandura’s study has intrigued and inspired much research, such as

Heusmann et al (1986) and Anderson et al (2001). These researchers investigated if exposure

to media violence caused long-term effects and a longitudinal Meta analysis of the exposure

to media violence respectively.

 Media influence and aggression

Huesmann et al (1986) investigated if exposure to media violence caused long-term

effects in children. Forty-eight boys and girls in grades 1 and 3 in the Chicago metropolitan

area participated. Also, participants of similar ages in Finland, Israel and Poland were

included in this research. The study reinforced Huesman et al (1986) findings and concluded
that children exposed to violence at an early age are very likely to demonstrate aggressive

behaviour later on in life, regardless of initial levels of aggression, gender, social class, and

IQ. In addition, children who “identify more with characters and perceive TV violence as

more realistic are influenced more (Heusmann et al 1986, Socio-cultural level of Analysis,

pg. 28).” This suggests that the more the individual observes violence, while growing up, the

more he is likely to become violent. This could lead to a higher chance of them committing

crimes as an adult. However, the conclusion fails to address the possible effects of the

environment on the individual’s behaviour. It would not necessarily have an impact on

someone who has been raised in a secure and safe environment, and in this case, media

violence may have little psychological or emotional impact, enough to create aggressive

behaviour. The sample size was also inadequate and that would mean that the results cannot

be generalized to an overall population.

 In a second study, Anderson et al (2002) conducted a longitudinal meta- analysis on

the effects of exposure to media violence for around 5,000 participants. Although this

analysis collated data from several other experiments based on several types of media

violence such as online games and films, the television violence was by far the most

researched. The results of forty-two independent tests show a significant positive

correlation of 0.17. Given these results, Anderson concluded that “high levels of

exposure to violent TV programs in childhood can promote aggression in later

childhood, adolescence, and even young adulthood”. (Influence of Media Violence on

Youth, 2003). The study supports the Nurture theory as it confirms that children learn,

model and imitate aggressive behaviour. However, further studies across cultures

need to be conducted in order to compare and contrast results obtained in Western

cultures.
A recent major study by Anderson et al, addressed this cross cultural concern. They

specifically looked at the effects of violence in video games on aggression and prosocial

behaviour. The results concluded that there is short term and long term effect of violence in

video games and aggression. These findings were consistent across all cultures studied and

gender.

All these studies show that Nurture influences and impacts aggressive behaviour but without

the influence of genes, hormones or neurochemicals, the behaviour cannot be demonstrated.

Conclusion

In conclusion, aggression is the result of inborn and learned traits. It is convenient for some

people to believe that individuals

Studies such as Bandura (1961) have shown that aggression is a behaviour that can be learned

and modified. By the time a typical child finishes elementary school, he or she will have seen

approximately 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other acts of violence on TV (Huston et

al., 1992), as demonstrated in the media studies that showed strong correlation between

violence in media and the behaviour.

This is not to say that without the gene, emotions such as anger would not occur in the first

place. Therefore, despite the above research showing only the nature or nurture aspects of

aggression, there is still ongoing research that addresses the question of how much each

aspect actually contributes to the behaviour. A classic example of this would be the measure

of intelligence via IQ. . Aggression is not universal and further studies across cultures need to

be considered.