Sensors and Transducers

in Control
Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. The concept of sensors and transducers
3. Basic Characteristics
4. Velocity and Position Transducers
5. Force and Torque Transducers
6. Acceleration Transducers
7. Pressure and Level Transducers
8. Flow Transducers
9. Temperature Transducers
10. Humidity Transducers
11. Optical Transducers
12. Sound Transducers
Books
• Measurement System Application and Design, Ernest O. Doebelin, McGrawHill
5th Ed. 2004
• Handbook of Transducers for Electronic Measuring Systems, Harry N. Norton,
Prentice Hall, 1969
• Sensors and Transducers, Ian R. Sinclair, Newnes, 2001

Grading
• Midterm %30 (Take Home)
• HW %10 (Analytical and Simulation)
• Project %10 (Group Work)
• Final %50 (Take Home)
Introduction

Feedback-control system
 Introduction

Functional elements of an instrument or a measurement system

• The primary sensing element is that which first receives energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending in some way on the measured quantity
("measurand").
• It is important to note that an instrument always extracts some energy from the measured
medium.
• Thus the measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of measurement, which makes
a perfect measurement theoretically impossible.
Pressure Gage
Pressure
Thermometer

Transducer
 Measurand
The measurand is the quantity, property, or condition that is measured (then sensed and
converted into a usable electrical output) by a transducer.
• Thus, if the measurand is temperature, it is measured by a temperature transducer; if
it is pressure, it is measured by a pressure transducer.
measurand Signal Display, Data interpretation
Transducer
Conditioner readout

Power
Supply

• The transducer, which converts the measurand into a usable electrical output.
• The signal conditioner, which converts the transducer output into the type of electrical
signal that the display device will accept.
• The display device (or readout device), which displays the required information about the
measurand.
• The power supply, which feeds the required voltages to the signal conditioner, to all
except "self-generating" types of transducers, and, at times, to certain kinds of display
devices.
Telemetry Systems
Remote-display electronic measuring systems could be termed telemetry systems, this
term is usually reserved for multiple-data systems using a modulated high-frequency
carrier to transmit the information about the measurements from one point to another
GSM, WiFi,
LoraWan, Zigbee,
Zwave, Bluetooth,
UWB, NB…

The signal is applied to the high-frequency transmitter, where it modulates the output of an oscillator. The
modulated carrier is amplified and then fed to an antenna. The transmitting antenna, which can be highly
directional, radiates the modulated carrier toward a receiving antenna. The received signal is amplified and applied
to a demodulator, which separates the modulating information from the high-frequency carrier. This process
reconstitutes the composite signal at the receiving end of the system. A decommutator is then employed to extract
signals corresponding to the respective sensing-device outputs, so that each measurement can be displayed and
evaluated individually. A data processor mayor may not be required for the desired form of display.
Carrier Modulation
The manner in which the transmitter's carrier signal is modulated-the type of
modulation- determines the nomenclature of the telemetry system.
The frequency of an amplitude-modulated (AM) carrier remains constant while its
amplitude changes with the modulating signal.
The frequency and amplitude of a phase-modulated (PM) carrier remain constant while
its phase changes with the modulating signal.
The amplitude of a frequency-modulated (FM) carrier remains constant while its
frequency changes with the modulating signal.
Digital modulation methods
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is
modulated by a discrete signal. Digital modulation
methods can be considered as digital-to-analog
conversion and the corresponding demodulation or
detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in
the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M
alternative symbols (the modulation alphabet).
A simple example: A telephone line is designed for transferring audible sounds, for example, tones, and not
digital bits (zeros and ones). Computers may, however, communicate over a telephone line by means of
modems, which are representing the digital bits by tones, called symbols. If there are four alternative symbols
(corresponding to a musical instrument that can generate four different tones, one at a time), the first symbol
may represent the bit sequence 00, the second 01, the third 10 and the fourth 11. If the modem plays a melody
consisting of 1000 tones per second, the symbol rate is 1000 symbols/second, or 1000 baud. Since each tone
(i.e., symbol) represents a message consisting of two digital bits in this example, the bit rate is twice the symbol
rate, i.e. 2000 bits per second.

Fundamental digital modulation methods

The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:
•PSK (phase-shift keying): a finite number of phases are used.
•FSK (frequency-shift keying): a finite number of frequencies are used.
•ASK (amplitude-shift keying): a finite number of amplitudes are used.
•QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation): a finite number of at least two
phases and at least two amplitudes are used.
Transduction Methods

Electromagnetic Transduction

Capacitive Transduction

Photoconductive Transduction

Inductive Transduction
Transduction Methods

Thermoelectric Transduction
Potentiometric Transduction

Photovoltaic Transduction
Strain Gage Transduction
Transduction Methods

Piezoelectric Transduction
Ionizing Transduction

Reluctive Transduction
Differential Transformer Resistive Transduction
Design Characteristics
Transducer Design Characteristics

Measurand Electrical Mechanical

• Range • Excitation • Configuration

• Overrange • Isolation • Dimensions
• Recovery time • Grounding • Mountings
• Source impedance • Connections
• Load impedance • Case material
• Input impedance • Materials in contact with
• Output impedance measured fluids
• Insulation resistance • Case sealing
• Breakdown voltage rating • Identification
• Gain instability
• Output
• End points
• Ripple
• Harmonic content
• Noise
• Loading error
Design Characteristics
Measurand Characteristics

The range of a transducer is given by the upper and lower limits of measurand values it is
intended to respond to within specified performance tolerances. A range can be
unidirectional (e.g., "0 to 5 cm"), or bidirectional (either symmetrically, e.g., "±20 N", or
asymmetrically, e.g., "-10 to +30 N or expanded (zero-suppressed) (e.g., "90 to 120 L/s").
The algebraic difference between the two range limits is the span of the transducer

The span of a 90-to-120 L/s flowmeter is 30 L/s; the span of a -10-to-+ 30 N force
transducer is 40 N.

The overrange (overload, maximum measurand; proof pressure for pressure transducer)
is the maximum magnitude of measurand that can be applied to a transducer without
causing a change in performance beyond specified tolerances.

The recovery time is the amount of time allowed to elapse after removal of an overrange
condition before the transducer again performs within the specified tolerances.
Design Characteristics
Measurand Characteristics

Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus

Span: the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values of the
input that being sensed.
Input full scale (IFS) = span
Output full scale (OFS): difference between the upper and lower ranges of the
output of the sensor.
Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and lower limits and is usually
expressed in dB

Example: a sensors is designed for: −30 °C to +80 °C to output 2.5V to 1.2V

Range: −30°C and +80 °C
Span: 80− (−30)=110 °C
Input full scale = 110 °C
Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
Dynamic range=20log(140/30)=13.38 dB
Design Characteristics
Electrical Design Characteristics

Transducers require excitation, i.e., externally supplied electrical power (expressed in

terms of voltage or current, or both) applied to them for their proper operation. The
impedance of the excitation supply presented to the transducer is the source impedance
(Zs), of which the impedance of the excitation cabling is considered a part. In the opposite
direction, the impedance of the transducer presented to the excitation supply is the input
impedance (Zin). The impedance measured across the output terminals of the transducer
is the output impedance (Zout). In the opposite direction, the impedance presented to
these output terminals by the external circuitry they connect into is the load impedance
(ZL). The impedance of the cabling between the transducer and the external circuitry
(the load) is included in ZL.
Design Characteristics
Electrical Design Characteristics

Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit current of
the port (i.e. current when the output is shorted)
output impedance is important for interfacing
Example: 500 Ω sensor (output impedance) connected to a processor
b. Processor input impedance is infinite
c. Processor input impedance is 500 Ω
Performance Characteristics
TRANSDUCER PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Static Dynamic Environmental

Resolution Frequency response Operating environmental effects
Threshold Transient response: Operating temperature range
Creep Response time Thermal zero shift
Hysteresis Rise time Thermal sensitivity shift
Friction error Time constant or
Repeatability Natural frequency Temperature error
Linearity (+ reference line) Damping or
Sensitivity Damping ratio Temperature error band
Zero-measured output Overshoot Temperature gradient error
Sensitivity shift Ringing frequency Acceleration error
Zero shift or
Conformance(+ reference curve) Acceleration error band
or Attitude error
Static error band (+ reference line or curve) Vibration error
Reference lines: or
Theoretical slope Vibration error band
Terminal line Ambient-pressure error
End-point line or
Best straight line Ambient-pressure error band
Least-squares line Mounting error
Reference curves: Nonoperating environmental effects
Theoretical curve Type-limited environmental effects
Mean-output curve Conduction error
Strain error
Transverse sensitivity
Reference-pressure error
Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics

Ideal measurand output relationship

Performance Characteristics
Hysteresis

Caused by electrical or
mechanical systems
– Magnetization
– Thermal properties
– Loose linkages

Hysteresis is the maximum difference in output, at any measurand value within the
(specified) range, when the value is approached first with increasing and then with
decreasing measurand.
Performance Characteristics

Repeatability (sometimes called "reproducibility") is the ability of a transducer to

reproduce output readings when the same measurand value is applied to it consecutively
under the same conditions and in the same direction.
 Performance Characteristics
Linearity is the closeness of a transducer's calibration curve to a specified straight line. It is
expressed as "within ± __ % FSO" (in a specification) or as "within + __ , -__ % FSO" (as a
result of a calibration) in effect, the maximum deviation of any calibration point from the
corresponding point on the specified straight line during anyone calibration cycle.
Theoretical-slope linearity is referenced to the theoretical slope, the straight line between the
theoretical end points. These are usually close to0% FSO (for 0% range) and close to 100% FSO (for
100% range), but can be purposely offset (e.g., 5% FSO at 0% range and 95% at 100% range). Since no
tolerances apply to theoretical end points, the theoretical slope can always be drawn without referring
to any measured values.
Terminal linearity is referenced to the terminal line, a special form of theoretical slope for which the
theoretical end points are exactly 0% and 100% of both the range and the full-scale output.
End-point linearity is referenced to the end-point line, the straight line between the end points, i.e., the
outputs at the upper and lower range limits obtained and averaged (unless otherwise specified) during
anyone calibration. End-point tolerances should be specified.
Independent linearity is referenced to the "best straight line", a line midway between the two parallel
straight lines closest together and enveloping all output values on a calibration curve. The best straight
line can be drawn only after a calibration has been completed.
Least-squares linearity is referenced to the least-squares line, that straight line for which the sum of the
squares of the residuals is minimized. The term "residual" refers to the deviations of output readings
from their corresponding values on the straight line calculated. The calculation is usually performed
with the aid of a computer.
An error band is the band of maximum deviations of output values from a specified
reference line or curve due to causes attributable to the transducer. Since such deviations
may be due to nonlinearity, nonrepeatability, hysteresis, zero shift, sensitivity shift, and so
on, it can be seen that transducer characteristics are easier to specify and determine when
individual characteristics need no longer be specified and determined.
Dynamic Characteristics