Lecture 2

Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy associated with velocity
and mass flow of material.
• KE=½mv2
• KE is a state variable.
 Example
Determine the specific kinetic energy of 0.001 m3 /s
of water flowing though a pipe with an internal
diameter of 3.00 cm.
Assume that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3
v  Q/ A
3 2
0.001 m  100 cm 
v= 2 2   =1.415 m/s
s π(1.50) cm  1 m 
2 2
 = 1  1.415  1 (N)(s ) 1J
KE   =1.00 J/kg
2  m/s  1(kg)(m) 1(N)(m)
 Exercise
• Determine the kinetic energy in Btu/h for 100 gallon/min
flow of water through a 3-inch schedule 40 pipe (inside
diameter equal to 3.068 in.)
Solution
 Potential Energy
• Potential energy is the energy associated with elevation
changes of material compared to a reference level.
• PE is a state variable.
• PE=mgh
– m- mass
– g- gravitational acceleration [32.2 ft/s2]
– h- elevation change
 Example
Determine the specific potential energy change
for water that undergoes a 40 ft increase in
height:
2
 32.2 ft 40 ft (lb )(s ) 1 Btu
PE  2
f
= 0.0514 Btu/lb m
s 32.2 (lb m )(ft) 778.2(ft)(lbf )
 Internal Energy
• Internal energy is a macroscopic concept that takes
into account all of the molecular, and atomic
energies.
• Internal energy cannot be measured directly, but
you can calculate its relative value from the
temperature, pressure, volume, and composition.
• Internal energy can be stored.
 Internal Energy
For one phase and one component the Gibbs Phase Rule gives
two degrees of freedom. Thus, the value of the specific internal
energy, Uˆ , (an intensive variable) can be fixed by specifying the
the value of two other intensive variable. Let's select T and Vˆ :
Uˆ  Uˆ (T ,Vˆ ) Taking the total derivative,

ˆ  Uˆ   Uˆ  ˆ
dU    dT   ˆ  dV
 T Vˆ  V T
By definition, the heat capacity at constant volume
 Uˆ   Uˆ 
is CV    and  ˆ  0
 T Vˆ  V T
T2

Therefore, Uˆ  Uˆ 2  Uˆ1   dUˆ   Cv dT

T1
 Internal Energy

• Internal energy is a state variable.

• You cannot calculate the absolute value of the
internal energy.
• The value of the internal energy is based on a
reference state, e.g., U=0 at reference conditions.
• When a system undergoes a phase change, the
U of the phase change must be added to the
U associated with the temperature change
(ΔCvdT).
 Example
• Determine the internal energy change of 45 kg of air if the
air is cooled from 60ºC to 30ºC. The heat capacity at
constant volume for air over this temperature range is
2.1×104 J/(kg)(ºC).

30 C J 
U  44 kg    2.1×10 4
o dT
60 C
 (kg)( C) 
 44  2.1 104 (30  60)  2.77  107 J
 Enthalpy
• The term U+pV appears in energy balance applied to open
systems. The term pV represents the contribution of flow
work.
• Enthalpy is defined as H=U+pV
 Enthalpy
From the Gibbs Phase Rule for one phase and one component,
it takes two properties to define the specific internal energy, Hˆ .
Let's select T and p : Hˆ  Hˆ (T , p )
Taking the total derivative,

ˆ  Hˆ   Hˆ 
dH    dT    dp
 T  p  p T
By definition, the heat capacity at constant pressure
 Hˆ   Hˆ 
is C p    and    0 (unless high p )
 T p   p T
T2

Therefore, Hˆ  Hˆ 2  Hˆ 1   dHˆ   C p dT

T1
 Enthalpy
• Enthalpy is a state variable.
• Enthalpy has no absolute value, but is always a
difference from a reference value (that may be 0).
• Because enthalpy includes the flow work, it is
used for open systems.
• If a system undergoes a phase change, the
enthalpy term in the energy balance must include
the enthalpy of the phase change (e.g., heat of
vaporization).
 Enthalpy Example
• Determine the rate of enthalpy change that 50 gpm of water
would undergo if it were heated from 65ºF to 90ºF. Use the
steam table to determine the enthalpy of water at 65ºF and
90ºF.
 Solution
From the saturated steam tables:
H (65ºF)=33.06 Btu/lbm
H (90ºF)=58.00 Btu/lbm
The rate of enthalpy change is given by
50 gal 8.33 lb (58.00-33.06)Btu

min gal lbm
 1.039  104 Btu/min
 Heat
• Heat flow or heat transfer (Q or Q ) is energy transferred
across the system boundary.
• Positive when the heat transfer is into the system.
• For an adiabatic process, there is no transfer of heat (i.e.,
Q=0)
• Heat transfer like work is a path dependent variable.
• Heat is transferred as the result of a temperature difference.
The Three Types of Heat Transfer

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
 Heat Transfer by Conduction

• Conduction- the transfer of heat from a higher temperature

sources to a lower one through a solid
• Examples:
– In the summer the transfer of heat from hot outside air into an air
conditioned room through a window pane.
– The transfer of heat from burning natural gas through the metal
of a cooking pot to boil water.
 Heat Conduction
For conductive heat transfer through a thin
solid material:
Thot  Tcold
Qconduction  k
h
k  the thermal conductivity of the solid
Thot  the temperature of the warmer surface
of the solid
Tcold  the temperature of the colder surface
of the solid
h  the thickness of the solid
 Heat Transfer by Convection
• Convection- the transfer of heat from a solid surface to a fluid that
flows past the surface.
– Forced convection- externally induced flow. For example, the
transfer of heat from the engine block of an automobile to the
radiator fluid (the radiator fluid is circulated by the water pump).
– Free convection- flow is induced by buoyancy of the fluid (i.e.,
hotter gases rise because they are less dense than the
surrounding air). For example, the air rising from most electric
space heaters is heated by free convection. That is, the
buoyancy created by heating the air near the electrical elements
causes the heated to rise which draws in cold air to the heating
elements to be heated.
Heat Transfer by Convection
One way to represent the rate of convective
heat transfer is using an overall heat transfer
coeficient, U
Q  UA(T
convection T
surroundings )
system

A  the area available for heat transfer

Tsurroundings  the temperature of the surroundings
Tsystem  the temperature of the system
Convection Heat Transfer Example

Q  UA(Tsurr  Tsys )
2 
7W 1.6 m (25-29) C
Q  2 o =
(m )( C)
-44.8 W or -44.8 J/s
 Example
• Peters and Timmerhaus in the Fourth Edition of their
process design textbook, state that the overall heat
transfer coefficient for cooling water condensing
methanol is between 250 and 500 Btu/(h)(ft2)(ºF).
Determine the rate of condensation of methanol
(Hvap=8520 Btu/lb mol) if the average temperature of
the cooling water is 90ºF and the condensation
temperature of the methanol is 120ºF and the area
available for heat transfer is 1000 ft2. Use the average
between the range of heat transfer coefficients reported
by Peters and Timmerhaus.
 Solution

mH vap  Q  UAT

m  UAT / H vap
lb mol methanol 375 Btu 1000 ft 2 30º F
8650 Btu (ºF)(ft 2 )(h)
 1300 lb mol methanol/h
 Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Radiation heat transfer- the transfer of heat from a hot body to a
cold body resulting because the cold body absorbs some of the
electromagnetic radiation given off by the hot body.
• For example, when you stand in front of a campfire your face,
hands and clothes become warmer by radiation heat transfer from
the hot flames of the fire.
Qradiation  F  A(Thot
4
 Tcold
4
)
F  viewing factor
  Stefan-Boltzmann constant
A  area for radiation heat transfer
 Heat Exchangers
• The transfer of heat from one fluid (liquid or gas) stream to another
is an operation that is very commonly required in all chemical and
mineral processing plants. This may be because one of the fluid
streams is too hot and needs to be cooled, or one of the streams is
too cold and needs to be heated, or it may be simply a way of
recovering energy from one of the streams.
• Regardless of the reason for the operation, one fluid stream starts out
hot and is cooled while the other starts out cold and is heated. The
initially hot stream is known as the “heat source” while the initially
cold stream is called the “heat sink”.
 Heat Exchangers
• The process of moving heat from one fluid stream to another is
referred to as “heat transfer” and the piece of equipment that is used
to carry out the operation is called a “heat exchanger”.

• Heat exchanger come in many different configurations but they all

attempt to allow the hot fluid and the cold fluid to flow side-by-side,
separated by a thin sheet of metal, while heat moves from the hot
fluid, through the metal sheet and into the cold fluid.
 Double-pipe Heat Exchangers
• Double-pipe Heat Exchangers (also
known as Concentric Pipe Heat
Exchangers, Pipe-in-Pipe Heat
Exchangers and Annular Heat
Exchangers) are the simplest possible
type of heat exchanger.
• One fluid flows through the centre pipe
while the other fluid flows through the
annulus – usually in the opposite
direction.
 Double-pipe Heat Exchangers
• Double-pipe heat exchangers are very inefficient. This means that
one requires a large temperature difference between the hot and cold
streams to achieve a reasonable rate of heat transfer and it also
means that the “heat transfer area” (ie the area of effective contact
between the hot and cold streams) must be very large.
• Because of this, these heat exchangers are not often used in industry.
They are used when it is necessary to maintain a high fluid velocity
in one or both of the streams in order to keep the solids in a slurry
suspended. As there is only one “flow path” per fluid, the fluid
velocity can be kept high. The are also used when space is at a
premium because they only occupy the space required by the larger
pipe.
 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
• Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
consist of a large number of small
diameter tubes encased in one large
diameter pipe (the shell). One fluid
flows through the tubes while the
other fluid flows outside the tubes, in
the shell. It should be obvious that
this arrangement will produce a lot
more hot/cold contact area (heat
transfer area) than the double-pipe
arrangement. It is a far more efficient
arrangement than the double-pipe
exchanger.
 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
• Shell and tube heat exchangers are commonly used in the processing
industries, particularly for heating and cooling pure liquids. When
used with slurries, the tubes tend to block if the slurry is inside the
tubes while the tubes become coated with deposited solid if the
slurry is in the shell. This reduces the effectiveness of heat transfer.
• Shell and tube heat exchangers are expensive to buy and require
significant maintenance. They are commonly used largely because
they are very effective.
 Plate Heat Exchangers
• Plate Heat Exchangers are rapidly
becoming the most common form of heat
exchanger in processing plants. They are
replacing shell and tube exchangers, in
many applications. Plate exchangers can
be used for most heat transfer applications.
They are very efficient, reasonably
inexpensive, physically very small and
easy to clean and maintain. They do have
a tendency to block when used with
slurries but they are readily cleaned,
unlike a shell and tube exchanger.
 Spiral Heat Exchangers
• Spiral heat exchangers have virtually all of the
advantages offered by plate heat exchangers,
except that they are not quite as efficient, not
quite as small and are much more expensive.
They are not commonly used but may become
more popular if prices were to drop.