Lesson 5.

17: Interest Groups

Interest Groups
− Interest group: organization that attempts to influence public policy, some for a specific, others for a more general purpose.
o Ex: NRA (specific), ACLU (broader)
− Pluralist democracy
o Federalist No 10: multiple groups competing for power.

Types of Interest Groups

− Single-issue groups: interest groups that focus advocacy on a single issue.
o National Rifle Association (NRA) and American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)

Ideology and Interest Groups

− Liberals
o NOW: National Organization for Women
o Emily’s List: Women Elected to Office
o NAACP: Fights for minority, African American rights
o ACLU: Defenders of the Bill of Rights.
− Conservatives
o Christian Coalition
o National Right to Life
o NRA

Institutional Groups
− Intergovernmental groups: represent state and local governments to lobby for federal funds.
− Professional associations/labor: American Medical Association, American Bar Association, AFL-CIO
− Corporations: US Chamber of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers.

Ideological, Social, and Protest Movements

− Civil rights movement
− Women’s movement
− Environmental movement
− Consumer movement
 Lesson 5.18: Functions of
Interest Groups
Educate Voters and Officeholders
− Provide expert information to government officials.
− Give officeholders feedback from their constituents.
− Communicating with the group’s membership.

Draft Legislation
− Suggest and support legislation
− Testify at committee hearings on the formulation of legislation.
− Write bills that can be introduced in Congress by a representative or senator.

Mobilize Membership
− To apply pressure to legislators and government agencies.
− Ex: social media, phone, email, mail, town halls, etc.

Iron Triangles/Issue Networks

− Work with legislators and bureaucrats to ensure policy is made that benefits the group’s membership.

Create PACs
− Raise and spend unlimited independent expenditures
o Make campaign contributions.
− Corporations and labor unions can contribute to Super PACs.

What Else?
− Endorse candidates (encourage membership to vote for particular candidates)
− GOTV (mobilize voters)
− Advertise
− Organize protests
 Lesson 5.19: Lobbying
Lobbying Congress
− Lobbying: to persuade political leaders to support the group’s position.
− Lobbying Congress: provide information to congressmen
o Lobbyists are policy specialists, congressmen are policy generalists
o Testify at committee hearings
o Draft legislation
o Pressure legislators/threaten fundraising support.

Iron Triangle/Issue Network

− Influence how policies are made and implemented
− Committee/interest group/agency
− This is a symbiotic relationship
− Congress gets electoral support and policy discretion and implementation they support.
− Agencies get funding and political support.
− Interest groups get friendly legislation, beneficial regulation.

Lobbying the Courts

− Amicus curiae briefs
− Litigation: file lawsuits to attempt to change policy through the Courts
o When constitutional rights are being violated.
o When lawmakers are unlikely to change policy.

Grassroots Lobbying
− Grassroots lobbying: go directly to citizens and try to persuade them about an issue.
o Citizens must then take action for it to be effective.
 Lesson 5.20/5.21: Interest
Groups and Social Movements
Problems with Interest Groups
− Inequality of political and economic resources: Some groups have larger membership or are very well-funded, increasing the
influence they have.
− Unequal access to decision makers: well-funded groups and those with large memberships typically have more access to
policymakers
o Iron triangles and elite democracy
− Hyperpluralism: so many groups wanting conflicting policies that gridlock results.
− Free rider problem: people who benefit from a group’s efforts without joining (and paying dues).
o This problem is faced by groups seeking a collective benefit for a large group.
− Legislation often benefits the membership of interest groups over the general public.

Revolving Door
− Revolving door: about half of congressmen become lobbyists after leaving Congress.
o Are they making policy while still in office to benefit a particular interest group to assure themselves a high-paying job
later?
− Regulating congressional lobbyists:
o Must register with the government
o Must report earnings.
o Gifts to members of Congress are banned.
o Limit revolving door by instituting a waiting period.
− Interest groups and the Constitution: protected by the 1st Amendment’s free speech clause.

Social Movements Examples

− Black Lives Matter
− Occupy Wall Street
− #MeToo
− Civil rights movement
− Women’s rights movements
− LGBTQ rights movements

What is a Social Movement?

− Social movements: broad-based efforts to achieve major policy change.
o Tend to be more diffuse than interest groups
− Often use protest and civil disobedience as a way to call attention to their issues.
o Protest: public demonstration designed to call attention to the need for change.
o Civil disobedience: intentionally breaking a law to call attention to an injustice.
− Sometimes lack leadership, resources, infrastructure, and clear policy objectives, which hinders their success.
− Some gather momentum and result in policy change.
 Lesson 5.22/5.23/5.24: News
Media
The Changing News Media
− Political participation is influenced by a variety of media coverage, analysis, and commentary on political events.
− Traditional news media: newspapers, radio, network TV.
− Cable TV: 24 hour news cycle. More sensationalistic, focus on commentary over substance.
− Internet, blogs: dramatically increased news choices.
− Social media: Facebook, Twitter, etc.
o Often ideologically driven
o Reinforce existing beliefs
o Allows citizens to influence what is seen as newsworthy.
− Changing news media: newspapers, radio, tv → cable TV → Internet → social media
− Narrowcasting: targeting news coverage to specific groups of people.

Roles of Media
− Gatekeeper: by deciding what is newsworthy, news media influences what becomes an issue and for how long.
− Agenda setting: media influences the list of issues to be addressed by the government.
o Media reports on an issue, causing the public to see it as important.
o Citizens vote or demand policy action on the issue.
o Issue becomes part of governmental policy agenda.
− Scorekeeper: focus on who is “winning” and “losing”
− Horserace journalism: focus on polls rather than substantive issues.
o Citizens are less informed
o May lead to a bandwagon effect (voters support who they think will win)
− Watchdog: scrutinize and investigate politicians and the government
o Media-government relationship has become more adversarial since Watergate.

Impact of News Media on Citizens

− Debates over media bias: increase in ideologically-oriented news (reporting vs commentary).
− Media ownership: in search of more viewers, news coverage has become more sensationalistic, more biased, more
commentary, less substance.
− Partisan news sites: biased/ideological news coverage.
− Increased media choices: we have more choices for news than ever before, but many are of dubious quality. Access to more
information but citizens are often less informed or misinformed.
− Ideologically oriented programming: many seek out sources that appeal to their personal beliefs.
− Consumer-driven media outlets: goal of media organizations is to make money, so journalistic standards have fallen as they
compete for clicks, views, and ratings.
− Social media: often reinforces existing beliefs, leads to confirmation bias as people are told what they already agree with,
increases polarization and partisanship among citizens.
− Uncertainty over credibility of news sources and information: some struggle to determine objectivity or credibility of a news
source
o Sites publish fake news; bots intentionally misinform and/or cause discord on social media.
 Lesson 6.1/6.2: Fiscal Policy and
Taxation
Fiscal Policy
− Fiscal policy: government tax and spending policies.
o Congress and the president (leads to conflict, compromise, and cooperation)

Federal Budget Process

− President proposes a budget
o Office of Management and Budget: executive agency that reviews and makes the proposed budget.
− Congress makes/revises and passes the budget.
o Congressional Budget Office: provides Congress nonpartisan budget analysis.
− President signs the budget into law

Fiscal Policy Vocabulary

− Surplus: government spending < tax revenue
− Deficit: government spending > tax revenue
− Treasury bonds: to borrow money, the federal government sells treasury bonds.
− Federal debt: total money owed by the federal government.

Types of Taxation
− Progressive tax: higher income earners pay a higher tax rate.
o US uses this.
o First 25,000 dollars is taxed at 10%, next 25,000 is taxed at 15%, next 25,000 is taxed at 20%
− Regressive tax: higher income earners pay a lower tax rate.
o Ex: sales tax
− Flat tax: all income earners pay the same tax rate.
o Have this at the federal level for FICO/payroll taxes (7.65% on first 125k dollars)

Effects of Tax Policy

− Tax cuts tend to increase economic activity but increase federal budget deficits.
− Tax increases tend to decrease economic activity but decrease federal budget deficits.
 Lesson 6.3: Discretionary vs
Mandatory Spending
Types of Spending
− Discretionary spending: spending that has to be authorized every year.
o Congress and President can directly control this.
o Ex: defense and education.
− Mandatory spending: spending that does not have to be approved; can only be changed by new legislation.
o Over 2/3 of federal spending is mandatory.
o Ex: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, interest on debt.
o Congress and President don’t have a lot of power here. Congress can change it, but they’d have to pass a new law to
replace/alter the old program, so very difficult.
− As entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless tax revenues increase or the budget deficit
increases.

Types of Programs
− Entitlement programs: provide benefits to people who are entitled to them by law.
o Largest single area of federal spending.
− Non-means-tested programs: provide benefits regardless of income.
o Social security, Medicare, unemployment benefits.
− Means-tested programs: provide benefits based on income.
o Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (welfare) and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (food stamps)

Problems Facing These Programs

− Baby boomers are starting to retire
− Longer life expectancy
− Less workers paying in
− Potential solutions: raise age requirement, lower benefits, or raise taxes.
 Lesson 6.4: Monetary Policy
Monetary Policy
− Monetary policy: controls the money supply and interest rates.
o Fiscal policy is tax and spending.
− The Federal Reserve: is in charge of monetary policy
o Independent regulatory agency (intending to remove the Fed’s decision-making from political influence).

Tools of Monetary Policy

− Change the reserve requirement
o Amount of money banks must keep in reserve
− Change the discount rate
o The interest rate the Fed charges on loans to member banks
− Open-market purchases of government debt
o Buying treasury bonds (government debt) increases money supply
o Selling decreases money supply.

To Increase Economic Activity/Decrease Unemployment

− Increase the money supply
− Lower interest rates

To Slow Down Economic Growth/Decrease Inflation

− Lower the money supply
− Raise interest rates
 Lesson 6.5/6.6: Economic
Ideologies and Public Policy
Economic Ideologies
− Keynesian economics: government should stimulate the economy during recessions by spending money to encourage economic
growth.
o Deficit spending is okay
o Typically favored by Democrats.
− Supply-side economics: government should stimulate the economy by cutting taxes to encourage businesses to grow and
taxpayers to spend more money.
o Okay with deficits caused by tax cuts.
o Typically favored by Republicans
− Keynesian and supply side:
o Both give the federal government an active role in the economy
o Both focus on economic growth, not budget deficits
o Disagree over whether government spending or tax cuts should be the preferred method.
− Libertarians:
o Prefer free markets and laissez-faire economic policies.
o Government’s only role in the economy is to protect property rights (Courts) and individual liberty.

Steps of Public Policy Process

− Problem recognition
− Agenda setting (forming the list of issues to be addressed by the government)
− Policy formulation (gov will review the idea and make policy like budget, timing, execution, etc.)
− Policy adoption (when they vote yes in favor of it)
− Budgeting (set aside money)
− Policy implementation (hire the right people, etc.)
− Policy evaluation (see if it works or not after it’s been implemented, rate its success)

Policy Theories
− Because the U.S. is a democracy with a diverse society, public policies generated at any given time reflect the attitudes and
beliefs of citizens who choose to participate in politics at that time.
− Pluralist democracy: many groups competing for power; no single group dominates.
− Majoritarian politics: paid for by everybody, benefit everybody.
o Ex: social security, defense.
− Client politics: paid for by everybody, benefit a small group.
o Ex: interest groups; subsidies of corn farmers.
o Helps interest groups successfully get legislation passed that helps their members
 Lesson 6.00: Entitlement
Programs
Types of Benefits
− In-kind benefits: provide goods and services, not money, to recipients
− Monetary benefits: government gives you money.
− Social security: provides money to retirees, disabled persons, and children/spouse of deceased workers.
o Monetary benefit
− Medicare is for old people
o Non-means tested; in-kind benefit
− Medicaid is needs-based (for poor people)
o Non-means tested; in-kind benefit
− Welfare (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families): max of two consecutive years or five years total lifetime. There is a job
search or job training/education requirement (required to look for a job).
o Monetary benefit
− Earned income tax credit: A tax credit to low and moderate income families, especially those with children.
o They must have a job to qualify.
o Boosts income; gives reason for people to get job even if it’s bad or low-paying.
o Democrats like Welfare and Earned Income, Republicans like only Earned Income tax credit.
− Food stamps (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program): money to feed yourself, can’t be spent on wasteful things.
o Can’t use at restaurants, no hot meals. Just food.
o In-kind benefit
− Unemployment benefits (SSI): Money given every week for people who get laid off; lose their job through things that aren’t
their fault (if you get fired, you don’t get SSI).
o $275 a week; max of 26 weeks (during a recession, they extend it)
o Argument against it is that it disincentives work.
o Monetary benefit
− Single-payer healthcare: a healthcare system funded by taxpayers that covers the costs of all essential healthcare.

Lecture Notes
− People with Medicare/Medicaid pay deductibles and premiums (monthly fee) and co-pay (out-of-pocket cost).
− Social security and Medicare are the most popular programs, politically, because everyone pays in and everyone benefits. For
Medicaid, welfare, and unemployment, everyone pays in, but not everyone receives benefits.
− Welfare is the most controversial program because people criticize that it encourages people not to work (true in the old
program, but not in the current program because it’s temporary).
− Purpose of these programs is to be a safety net, to help them get back on their feet.
− Fed gov gives money to the states for the program and then states run it.
− In-kind benefits give more control to the government, less trusting and more paternalistic. Monetary benefits give more control
to the recipient on what they want to buy and how they should spend money.
− Some people against in-kind benefits are they might not be useful for that person. A young, healthy person who doesn’t need
Medicaid might prefer that money through other ways.
 Lesson 6.00: Other Concepts
Acts to Know
− Single-payer healthcare: a healthcare system funded by taxpayers that covers the costs of all essential healthcare.
− Military-industrial complex: an informal alliance between the military and the arms manufacturing industry.
− No Child Left Behind: expanded federal influence over education.
− Welfare Reform Act: established TANF; gave states greater control over welfare; an example of devolution.
− Clean Air Act of 1970: created the EPA; expanded federal power to regulate pollution.
− Freedom of Information Act: requires full or partial disclosures of US federal agency documents to the public.
− Ethics in Government Act of 1978: mandatory public disclosure of financial and employment history of public officials (revolving
door: private sector → federal employees → private)
o Revolving door ex: works for the FDA for 5 years then works for a pharmaceutical company. Learning ins and outs and
loopholes to bring back to the private companies.
− Budget and Impoundment Control Act (aka Congressional Budget Act): created the CBO; requires the president to spend all
appropriated funds.
− Gross domestic product: measures the value of new goods produced in a country.
− Minimum wage: argument against is that it increases unemployment and doesn’t help who it’s intended to help.

Privacy Legislation
− Metadata: all the cellphone communication besides the actual call; who is calling whom, when, for how long, and location.
− USA Patriot Act: widened government surveillance of American citizens including wiretapping and email monitoring.
o Allowed the government to require phone and internet providers to turn over cellphone metadata without a warrant
or probable cause.
− USA Freedom Act: requires the government to obtain a warrant to examine metadata
− Carpenter v. US (2018): ruled warrantless acquisition of cell-site records unconstitutional.
o 4th Amendment protects a reasonable expectation of privacy.
− Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)
o Purpose: decrease # of uninsured people
o Provides subsidies and set up insurance exchanges
o Can’t be denied coverage based on pre-existing conditions
o Individual mandate
o Expanded Medicaid
− National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012)
o Upheld ACA based on the power to tax
o Limited Congress’s commerce and spending powers
o Medicaid expansion was unconstitutionally coercive
o Congress can’t regulate economic inactivity.

Lecture Notes
− Single-payer healthcare:
o US doesn’t have it, but it’s a proposal that gets a lot of attention.
o Name brand for it is “Medicare for all”
o Wouldn’t have any private health insurance companies, governments would insure everyone.
o Differences: covers everybody, run publicly.
 o UK, Italy, Spain, Hong Kong have publicly paid for and publicly provided (doctors/hospitals are paid by the government).
o If you’re a veteran, that’s a single-payer healthcare system (publicly paid for and provided), Medicare/Medicaid is
publicly paid for.
− Military-industrial complex:
o Government contracts out building guns/weapons/etc to different companies.
o Eisenhower warned about that.
− Clean Air Act and No Child Left Behind
o Gives powers of the states back to the federal gov
o Expands fed gov into education.
− Freedom of Information Act or Ethics in Government Act of 1978
o Don’t need to know them but the test used them as examples.
o Purpose is to better detect corruption.
− Welfare Reform Act
o Gave states back more control
o States can make it more strict (Florida drug-testing recipients).
o Devolution: give power back to the states.
− Obamacare
o Problem: Some poor people had very high deductibles so the insurance doesn’t really help you.
o