OVERHEAD LINE

PARAMETERS

BY
ANDREW RWENDEIRE
OVER HEAD LINE PARAMETERS
• In Uganda, nearly all transmission and distribution lines makes use of
overhead AC lines: bare conductors / insulated cables
• These cables are good, but not perfect, conductors
✓Series impedance
✓Shunt admittance
 OVER HEAD LINE PARAMETERS…
• Series resistance: Voltage drop (𝐼R) and real power loss (𝐼2𝑅) along
the line, finite conductivity of the line
• Series inductance: Series voltage drop, only self inductance (no
mutual inductance) in balanced systems
• Shunt conductance: Real power loss (𝑉2𝐺), Leakage current due to
corona effects or leakage at insulators
• Shunt capacitance: Capacitance to other conductors and to ground
Line-charging currents
 GEOMETRIC MEAN RADIUS
• GMD (Geometrical Mean Distance), GMR (Geometrical • GMR of the hollow conductor is 0.7788 times R
Mean Radius)
• Used to simplify the inductance and
capacitance calculations of the overhead transmission
lines • Where “R” is the radius of the solid conductor
• GMR is usually denoted by the symbol DS • GMR depends on
• Inductance of the conductor comprises internally ✓ the shape
generated component and inductance due to an external ✓ size of the conductor.
field ✓ Does not depend upon the spacing between
different line conductors.

• Simplified as:

• when an AC flows through a hollow conductor, the flux

inside the conductor will be zero thus, the term (0.5×10-
7) will be eliminated
 GEOMETRIC MEAN RADIUS…
• GMR of a conductor with 3
strands is given by
GEOMETRIC MEAN RADIUS….
GEOMETRICAL MEAN DISTANCE (GMD)
• GMD stands for Geometrical Mean Distance/mutual
GMD
• Denoted by the symbol Dm.
• Simplifies the calculation of the mutual inductance of the
bundled conductors.
• GMD is the distance between different conductors and it
changes with the change in the arrangement of
conductors.
 GMD…
• Two conductors with spacing between them very large compared to the
diameter of each conductor.
• Single Circuit, 3 -wire
• Consider 2 circuits:
✓ Circuit 1: conductors r, y, and b
✓ Circuit 2: conductors r’, y’, and b’ belong to the second three-phase
circuit.
• GMR of the combination of the conductors rr’, yy’, and bb’,

• The equivalent GMD

 GMD…
• For mutual GMD among the phases RY, YB, and BR.

• Mutual GMD is given by

MODELLING TRANSMISSION LINES
 NOMINAL T-MODEL
• The whole shunt capacitance of line is assumed to
be lumped at the middle of the line.
• Half of the line resistance and reactance is assumed
at either side of the shunt capacitance • Consider the receiving end voltage as reference and
• Capacitive charging current is flowing through half of assume that receiving end current or load current is
the transmission line. lagging by some angle ØR.

• As the current through the shunt capacitor lead by

an angle 90° with respect to voltage across it (V1)
 CORONA DISCHARGE
• Ionizing the surrounding air / medium at high-voltages / by
conductors.
• Visible as a violet glow
• Audible as a hissing sound.
• Corona discharge must be prevented / minimized
• The corona effect leads to power losses
✓light, heat, sound, and ozone production,
• Affects the efficiency of high-voltage power systems.
 CORONA DISCHARGE…
• Critical Disruptive Voltage: The voltage at which the medium breaks
down, initiating the corona effect.
• When a potential difference is applied across two conductors with
spacing significantly smaller than their diameters, when the applied
voltage exceeds a certain value (critical disruptive voltage), the
insulating medium breaks down, evidenced by a faint violet glow
called corona
• Skin effect: tendency of AC to flow through the surface (outer layer)
of a conductor instead of it’s core
 THEORY OF CORONA DISCHARGE
• There is always a minimal degree of ionization in the medium
immediately surrounding the conductor
• On application of a voltage, potential gradient is set up from the
conductor surface out wards. The existing free electrons acquire greater
velocities, which increases proportionally with applied voltage.
• At about 30 kV per cm (max. value), the velocity acquired by the free
electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough force to
dislodge one or more electrons from it.
• This produces more free electrons. Thus, the process of ionization is
cumulative. Resulting into partial / total dielectric breakdown, thus
corona.
 CORONA DISCHARGE…
• The electrostatic field around • Affected by:
every conductor, whose ✓temperature (lower voltage/cm),
strength depends on the
voltage has a gradient over ✓humidity,
distance. ✓nature of medium,
• Air is often the medium of ✓voltage level, and
transmission, and a dielectric
/ an insulator ✓Frequency
• The medium breaks down at ✓conductor condition
high voltages: leakage,
current flow, breakdown
 EFFECTS OF CORONA, AND MINIMIZATION
STARTEGIES
• power loss: large amount of
electrostatic energy is wasted due
• Increase the conductor
to insulation breakdown. diameter
• High noise frequency: interrupt / • increase the spacing
interfere with nearby radio, TV, between conductors.
signals. • Use corona rings: circular
• Production of ozone gas: reduces device that reduces the
conductor / insulator life. corona discharge effect.
• It is impossible to completely • Bundling conductors
eradicate it, it can be minimized.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
 VOLTAGE REGULATION
• The regulation problem is one in which it is desired to determine the voltage drop for known
receiving-end conditions.
• For the solution of this problem, it is more convenient to make ER the reference vector
 DIFFERENT LEVELS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
Essential Tertiary.
• Essential level comprises of generators
with programmed voltage controllers in • Decides the ideal voltage profile
order to protect amid the expansion in its and arranges the auxiliary
breaking points.
controllers in view of sparing and
• The critical point of control in optional
level is to have a control over the voltage wellbeing factor.
inside the framework.
• Consequently by this methods for control
a flawless and a whole control and
coordination wind up conceivable which
brings about
• (I) solid voltage profile
• (ii) better utilization of responsive assets.
METHODS EMPLOYED TO PREVENT VOLTAGE
COLLAPSE
• Application of the gadgets to remunerate VAR prerequisite.
• System voltage control and control on VAR yield of the generators.
• Managing the tap changing of the transformers.
• To drop the heap amid under voltage.
• Proper task of defensive gadgets and their control
 PHILOSOPHY OF COMPENSATION
• Power: Active, reactive, apparent.
• Demand supply balance.
• Reactive power: inductive / capacitive
• Reactive power flow through the transmission network reduces
active power transfer capacity.
• Compensating inductive / capacitive reactive power uses
various techniques: Series / shunt compensation
• Improves the quality of power and efficiency of the transmission
network.
 VOLTAGE CONTROL
• From traditional capacitors, • Flexible Alternating Current
Transmission System (FACTS)
reactors, or synchronous • Ensure efficient operation of all power
generator system components for demand supply
matching
✓Slow response • Use power electronics switches (like…)
to increase the power transfer capability
✓Wear and tear of mechanical and controllability:
switches a) increase the voltage stability,
b) transient stability,
c) voltage regulation,
d) reliability,
e) thermal limits of the transmission
network.
FACTS Controller
Series Connected Controller
• Series Connected Controller
When the line is lightly loaded (less than SIL), the reactive power demand
• Shunt Connected Controller is less compared to the line capacitance.
• Combined Series-Series Controller Receiving end voltage > sending end voltage.
• Combined Shunt-Series Controller This effect is known as the Ferranti effect.
• Shunt reactor in series with the transmission line absorb extra reactive
power

Shunt Connected Controller

• Capacitance for long transmission lines
• Heavily loaded transmission lines,
• Voltage drop at receiving end: capacitive compensation
 SHUNT / SERIES COMPENSATION
TECHNIQUES
Shunt Compensator:
• Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
• Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
• Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
• Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
• Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
Series-series Compensator:
• Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
Series-shunt Compensator:
• Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF A POWER
SYSTEM
• Energy generation- transportation-consumption
• Power system infrastructure
✓Supports current carrying media
✓Allows transmission / distribution of energy to the end user
✓Ensures a fairly uniform transmission / distribution environment, with in
power grid parameters
• Infrastructure differ according to
✓Voltage level
✓Topography
 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF A POWER
SYSTEM …
• Poles/towers ❑Reduced energy loss during
transmission
• Insulators
❑Protecting against
• Conductors environmental factors such as
• Cables wind, ice, and lightning strikes.
• Vibration dampers
• Clamps
• Bolts, nuts, crossarms
• Other accessories…
 Power line components
• Conductors:
✓ different sizes (50 mm2, 100mm2,…) ✓Categorized by voltage (low
✓ Different materials (ACSR, AAAC, AASR, voltage, high voltage…)
Al, Cu,…)
✓ Air bundled conductors (ABC), bare • Ensure a safe distance between
conductors conductive elements and supporting
✓ Different tensile strength structures while withstanding
✓ Varying ampacity
✓ Varying inductance, resistance, … environmental stressors such as wind
or rain.
Media for carrying current
• Insulators:
✓ Suspension insulators
✓ Tension Insulators
✓ Material used (disk, porcelain,
polymeric,..)
 Conductors
• Cables are sized to provide the required
current-carrying capability or ampacity
✓ Number of individual strands
✓ Diameter of individual strands
• Aluminum is the most common conductor
✓ Good conductivity
✓ Light weight
✓ Low cost
✓ Plentiful supply
• Most common cable type combines
aluminum and steel
❑Aluminum-conductor steel-reinforced (ACSR)
✓ Bare, stranded cable
✓ Core of steel strands provides strength
✓ Outer aluminum strands provide good
conductivity
BUNDLING AND TRANSPOSITION
 GLASS VS PORCELAIN
• Composite materials have lightweight properties and resistance to
degradation.
• The choice between glass vs. porcelain insulators
✓climate conditions
✓Installation preferences; each has its own advantages regarding
durability and performance under various circumstances.
✓Composite insulators represent a modern solution that combines
lightweight design with high mechanical strength—ideal for areas
prone to severe weather conditions or pollution-related
challenges.
 POWER LINE COMPONENTS
• Towers / Poles:
✓Wooden, concrete, steel poles
✓Monopoles are of different sizes: support, light angle, heavy angle
✓Steel lattice towers
✓support overhead lines by holding conductors
✓ensures safety / clearance (vertical and horizontal) standards
✓Lattice towers are more robust, stabile, but their triangular designs require
more space than monopoles which provide a sleeker profile ideal for urban
settings where space is limited.
✓Each design has its unique applications based on terrain type, required height
clearance, and environmental factors.
 POWER LINE COMPONENTS…
• Materials can range from steel to concrete depending on local regulations or
specific engineering needs
• Steel towers are particularly favored for their strength-to-weight ratio
• Concrete poles offer durability against weather-related wear-and-tear over time.
• Structure height plays an essential role in determining how effectively electricity
can be transmitted over varying distances while minimizing interference with
other infrastructure like buildings or trees nearby—factors vital for maintaining
reliable service across regions.
 OPTIMIZING LINE DESIGNS
• Choose the right conductor to maximize efficiency
• Cost matters: aluminum or copper alone, wood or steel
• Consider
✓load requirements
✓distance between substations
✓environmental conditions (like temperature fluctuations),
• local regulations
• detailed calculations / simulations for optimal performance
• Minimizing energy waste
• Access to infrastructure.
• Reliability (radial, ring, protection settings, etc.)