INTRODUCTION TO FOREST

ECOSYSTEMS

BY
HIMASREE PANKU,
ABDUL MAJID
AND
RAKSHITH KRISHNAMURTHY
WHAT IS A FOREST ECOSYSTEM?

A forest ecosystem is defined as a community of

living organisms that are interacting with each
other and the physical environment, which include
soil, air, water, and climate, within a forest.
It features trees and other types of plants, which
build up a complex structure in layers, such as
canopies, understories, shrub layers, and forest
floors
 MORE ABOUT FOREST ECOSYSTEM
World’s total land area is 13,076 million hectares of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s
land area.which translates to roughly 4,053 million hectares out of the world’s total land area is populated with
Forests ecosystems.
In India, the forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area.
The forest ecosystem are of great concern from the environmental point of view.
It provides numerous environmental services like;
• Nutrient cycling,
• Maintaining biodiversity
• Providing wildlife habitat
• Affecting rainfall patterns
• Regulating stream flow
• Storing water
• Reducing flooding
• Preventing soil erosion
• Reclaiming degraded land
 IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS

Biodiversity Carbon Water Cycle and Soil Livelihoods and Cultural and
Hotspots: Sequestration and Protection: Economic Value: Spiritual Value:
Climate Regulation:
• Wildlife Habitat: • Carbon Sink: • Water Control: • Resource • Forests hold cultural
Forests are home to Forests absorb Forests absorb Provision: Forests and spiritual
80% of land CO₂, helping rainfall, manage provide timber, fuel, importance for
species, providing reduce the effects runoff, prevent food, and medicines many indigenous
diverse habitats of climate change floods, and that support and local
essential for global by storing carbon in recharge livelihoods. communities.
biodiversity. trees, plants, and groundwater. • Tourism: Forests
• Threatened soil. • Soil Conservation: attract tourists,
Species: Many • Climate Tree roots prevent generating income
endangered species Regulation: Forests erosion and through activities
live in forests, influence weather improve soil fertility, like hiking and
making patterns, helping protect wildlife
conservation vital to temperature, and against observation.
prevent extinction. rainfall through desertification.
processes like
evapotranspiration.
 Air Quality Natural Disaster Economic and Global Ecological Oxygen
Improvement: Buffer: Social Significance: Balance: Production:
• Forests are key
• Trees purify • Forests reduce the • Products: Forests • Forests regulate producers of
harmful gases, impact of natural supply timber, essential cycles oxygen, vital for
improving air disasters by paper, medicines, (oxygen, carbon, living organisms.
quality and stabilizing soil and and more. nitrogen),
health. controlling water • Employment: supporting life on
flow. Millions of people Earth.
work in forestry-
related jobs.
 FUNCTIONS OF A FOREST ECOSYSTEM

•Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production: Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen,
playing a critical role in maintaining atmospheric balance.

•Carbon Storage: Forests act as carbon sinks, storing large amounts of carbon in trees, soil, and biomass, which
helps mitigate climate change.

•Nutrient Cycling: Decomposers break down dead organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil, which supports
plant growth and sustains the ecosystem.

•Water Regulation: Forests help regulate the water cycle by capturing rainfall, reducing runoff, and promoting
groundwater recharge. They also prevent soil erosion by stabilizing the soil with roots.

•Habitat and Biodiversity: Forest ecosystems provide shelter, food, and breeding grounds for a vast array of
plant and animal species, promoting biodiversity.
 FOREST SUCCESSION

2.Intermediate
Stage: • The final, stable stage of succession, where
the ecosystem reaches equilibrium.
• The species composition remains relatively
• Fast-growing, sun-loving species like stable unless a disturbance resets the
grasses, shrubs, and small trees process.
dominate. • As the pioneer species grow and die,
they add organic matter to the soil, • In a forest, the climax community often
• These species are often opportunistic, making it richer and more capable
consists of slow-growing, shade-tolerant
thriving in disturbed environments with tree species
of supporting larger, more complex • (e.g., oak, beech, or maple in temperate
plenty of sunlight and space. plants. forests).
• Soil quality improves as organic • Taller shrubs and young trees begin • The biodiversity is usually high, with a
material from dead plants to grow, creating shade and complex structure of trees, understory
accumulates. reducing the dominance of the plants, animals, and microorganisms.
pioneer species.
1.Pioneer • This stage can last for many years or
decades, depending on the region 3.Climax
Stage: and conditions.
Stage
 TYPES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
Location: Climate:

1. Tropical • Found near the equator,

between the Tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn (e.g., the Amazon
• Warm temperatures year-round
(25°C to 30°C on average).
• High levels of rainfall (over

Rainforest
Basin, Central Africa, Southeast 2,000 mm per year).
Asia). • No distinct seasons—warm and
wet throughout the year.

Characteristics:
•High Biodiversity: Tropical rainforests are home to about half of all known species on Earth, including
a vast variety of plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms.
•Dense Vegetation: Multiple layers of vegetation, including a towering canopy, an understory of smaller trees
and shrubs, and a dense forest floor.
•Nutrient-poor Soils: Despite their lush appearance, the soils in tropical rainforests are often nutrient-poor because
the nutrients are rapidly absorbed by plants or washed away by heavy rainfall.
Tall, broad-leaved
Dominant Plants:
evergreen trees like
mahogany, kapok, and
Brazil nut trees; epiphytes Animals:
Birds (e.g., parrots,
toucans), mammals (e.g.,
jaguars, monkeys), reptiles,

Species: (plants like orchids that

grow on trees); lianas
(woody vines).
amphibians, and a wide
variety of insects.
 2. Location:
Climate:
• Experiences four distinct seasons:
winter, spring, summer, and autumn.

Temperate • Found in mid-latitude regions,

including parts of North America,
Europe, and Asia (e.g., the eastern
United States, Western Europe).
• Moderate rainfall (500 to 1,500 mm
per year), often spread throughout
the year.
• Temperatures range from cold winters

Forest to warm summers.

Characteristics:
•Deciduous Trees:
• Many temperate forests are deciduous, meaning the trees shed their leaves in the autumn and
regrow them in the spring.
•Seasonal Changes:
The forest ecosystem changes dramatically with the seasons—trees bloom and grow in the
spring and summer, drop their leaves in the fall, and remain dormant during winter.

Dominant Plants:
• Deciduous trees like oaks,
Animals:
Deer, foxes, bears, squirrels,
and a variety of birds and
Species:
maples, beeches, and birches;
some evergreens like pines and insects that change their
spruces in certain areas. behavior with the seasons.
 3.Boreal Location: Climate:
•Cold temperatures, with long, harsh

Forest • Found in the northern

hemisphere just below the
Arctic Circle, spanning large
winters and short, cool summers.
•Precipitation is low to moderate (300
to 600 mm per year), mostly as snow.
•Growing seasons are short, typically

(Taiga)
parts of Canada, Russia, lasting only a few months.
Scandinavia, and Alaska.

Characteristics:
•Coniferous Trees:
•Dominated by evergreen coniferous trees like pine, spruce,fir, and larch.
•Low Biodiversity:
Fewer species compared to tropical or temperate forests due to the extreme cold and short growing seasons.
•Slow Decomposition:
•Organic matter decomposes slowly because of the cold, leading to thick layers of leaf litter and partially
decomposed plant material.

Plants: Animals:
Dominant • Conifers such as pines,
spruces, firs, and
• Cold-adapted species
like moose, wolves, lynx,

Species: larches; mosses and

lichens are also
common.
bears, and many bird
species that migrate
seasonally.
 Location: Climate:
4. Tropical • Found in tropical regions
with seasonal dry periods,
such as parts of Africa,
• Warm year-round, with
distinct wet and dry seasons.
• Rainfall ranges from 500 to
Dry Forest India, Southeast Asia, and
Central America. 1,500 mm per year, but the
dry season can last several
months.

Characteristics:
•Deciduous Trees:
• Many trees shed their leaves during the dry season to conserve water.
•Less Dense Canopy: The forest is less dense compared to tropical rainforests, allowing more sunlight to reach
the forest floor.
•Drought Adaptation: Plants and animals in tropical dry forests are adapted to survive extended periods
without water.

Plants: Animals:
Dominant • Deciduous trees like
teak and acacia;
• Herbivores like deer
and elephants,

Species: drought-resistant
plants like succulents
and thorny shrubs.
predators like tigers
and leopards, and
various bird species.
 Location: Climate:
5.Montane • Found on mountain sides,
typically at elevations
• Cool, moist conditions with
frequent cloud cover or fog.
Forest (Cloud between 1,000 and 3,500
meters, in tropical and
• High levels of precipitation
due to the moisture carried
Forest) temperate regions (e.g., the
Andes, Himalayas).
by mountain winds.

Characteristics:
•Dense, Moist Vegetation: The constant mist and moisture support lush vegetation, including mosses, ferns, and
epiphytes.
•Stunted Trees: Trees are often shorter and gnarled due to the harsh, windy conditions.
•High Endemism: Montane forests often contain species that are not found anywhere else because of their unique
climates and isolation.

Animals: home to varieties

Dominant Plants:
• Mosses, ferns, epiphytes,
and cloud-adapted trees
that adapt to cooler , wetter
conditions such as snow
leopard,mountain gorilla

Species: like magnolias and oaks. ,red panda,black bear ,tahr

, musk deer,Himalayan
monal etc..
 Location: Climate:

6.Mangrove • Coastal regions in tropical and

subtropical areas, particularly
along river deltas, estuaries,
• Warm tropical and subtropical
climates.
• Brackish water, where
Forest and tidal shores (e.g.,
Southeast Asia, West Africa,
and the Caribbean).
freshwater meets seawater.

Characteristics:
•Salt-Tolerant Trees: Mangrove forests consist of trees that have adapted to survive in saline, waterlogged soils.
•Complex Root Systems: Mangrove trees have specialized root systems, such as prop roots and pneumatophores, which
help them breathe in waterlogged environments.
•Nursery for Marine Life: Mangroves serve as breeding grounds for many species of fish, crustaceans, and other marine
organisms.

Plants: Animals:
Dominant • Mangrove tree species like
Rhizophora (red mangrove),
Avicennia (black
• Marine species like fish,
crabs, and shrimp; birds like
herons and kingfishers; and

Species: mangrove), and Sonneratia. reptiles like crocodiles and

snakes.
 ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF A FOREST ECOSYSTEM
SOIL WATER SUNLIGHT AIR CLIMATE

• Soil in the forest is full of • Water is a necessary • Sunlight is the source of • Forestry systems directly • It is mainly climatic
organic matter, called abiotic factor in the energy in this forest interact with the conditions that shape the
humus, that is created by ecosystem. Water enters ecosystem. It's powering atmosphere through gas forest ecosystem, for
decomposed leaves, the forest in the form of photosynthesis, when exchange. Plants and instance, tropical,
wood, and dead animals. rainfall, rivers, streams, plants make food for trees absorb carbon temperate, boreal, etc. It
• It provides the growing ponds, and ground water. themselves and oxygen dioxide through determines temperature,
needs of plants and trees • Forests play an important for all living organisms. photosynthesis, producing precipitation, and
in terms of nutrient and role in the water cycle by The richness of plant life oxygen back into the seasonal changes.
minerals. slowly absorbing and differs with respect to atmosphere, which in itself • Example:
• Factors affecting soil releasing water, thus amount of sunlight explains the importance • Tropical rainforests have
quality: minimizing the chances of reaching different levels of forests in conservation high temperatures and
• So, composition of the soil flooding and maintaining of forest: canopy, and sequestration of humidity that will
and its wetness, pH, and the flow of streams. understory, forest floor. greenhouse gases and the encourage a rich
presence of organic • Function: It regulates the • Example: Tall trees get quality of air. diversity of species;
materials like decaying species distribution, the most light in the • Role in Gas Exchange: temperate forests will
plants. growth of plants, and canopy, but most plants • Carbon Sink: Forestry have deciduous trees
• Soil in forests differs by overall fitness of the on the forest floor plays a vital role in which shed their leaves
forest type-tropical ecosystem. produce specialized absorbing carbon in autumn because of
rainforests tend to be features that enable them dioxide and hence distinct seasons.
nutrient-poor as nutrients to live in low light, often relieving climatic • Boreal or taiga forests
are depleted quickly by shade tolerance. change. are primarily adjusted
plants. • Oxygen Production: to the cold climate with
Forest ecosystems long winters and short
produce huge volumes growing seasons, mainly
of oxygen through dominated by coniferous
photosynthesis, which trees like pine and
are returned into the spruce.
atmosphere.
 BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF A FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Producers: Examples:

• These are the autotrophs (primarily • Trees:

plants) that produce their own food • Oak, Pine, Mahogany, Maple,
through photosynthesis coconut trees, variety of trees
• They form the foundation of the • Shrubs:
forest food web by converting • Rhododendron, Azalea, Blackberry.
sunlight into energy, which is used • Grasses and Ferns:
by other organisms.
• Bamboo, Wild Grasses, Bracken
Fern.
• Other Plants:
• Mosses, Lichens, and Epiphytes
(plants that grow on other plants,
like orchids).
 Consumers are organisms that
Consumers: feed on other organisms
including the producers

Herbivores feed directly on Examples:

a. Herbivores (Primary producers (plants). They are
crucial for transferring energy
•Mammals: Deer, Rabbits, Elephants.
•Insects: Caterpillars, Grasshoppers, Leaf Beetles.
Consumers): from plants to higher trophic
levels.
•Birds: Parrots, Pigeons (seed-eaters), Squirrels (some
species also eat seeds and fruits).

Carnivores feed on herbivores Examples:

and sometimes other •Predators: Wolves, Tigers, Hawks.
b. Carnivores: carnivores. They help control
the population of herbivores
•Birds of Prey: Eagles, Falcons, Owls,vultures.
•Reptiles: Snakes, Crocodiles.
and maintain ecological
balance.

Omnivores consume both Examples:

plants and animals, making •Mammals: Bears, Wild Boars,
c.Omnivores: them flexible feeders that
occupy multiple roles in the
Raccoons.
•Birds: Crows, Ravens.
•Primates: Chimpanzees, Humans
ecosystem. (when part of the forest food web).
 Carnivores
Tertiary Consumers:
Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that feed on other carnivores or
secondary consumers.
Carnivores that feed on herbivores.

Lions,tigers, hawks,crocodiles,
leopards,eagles,large owls,pythons,

foxes,snakes ,wildcats
,owls,spiders,
Large monitor lizards, wolves

Falcons,praying mantis, wessels,

fox,lizards

Detritivores feed on
d. dead organic material
(detritus), such as
They play a critical
role in breaking down Examples:
Earthworms,
Detritivores: decaying plants,
animals, and fecal
matter.
organic material and
recycling nutrients. millipedes, woodlice.
Decomposers:
• Decomposers play a vital
role by breaking down
dead organic material
(plants and animals) into
simpler compounds,
returning essential nutrients
to the soil. This process is
crucial for nutrient cycling in
the ecosystem.

Examples:

• Fungi: Mushrooms, Mold,

Shelf Fungi, e.g:Armillaria
Amanita
• Bacteria: Soil bacteria that
decompose dead matter.
Especially leaf litering and
rotting wood
• Insects: Termites, Beetles,
Earthworms,maggots
 NITROGEN AND CARBON CYCLE
• In these cycles, pure carbon and nitrogen are taken from the atmosphere and soil and
combined into other molecules that plants and animals pass along through the food chain.
•At the end of the food chain, decomposers break down these molecules and return carbon and
nitrogen to the soil and air.
•Without decomposers, these cycles would end, and our air and soil would become unusable.
NUTRIENT CYCLE
WATER CYCLE
FOOD PYRAMID OF A FOREST ECOSYSTEM
 FOOD CHAIN
•A food chain shows the transfer of nutrients and energy
(in the form of food) from one organism to another. The sun gives energy
to producers (plants).
•Consumers (animals) eat the plants.
•The energy is passed from the producers to the consumers.
•Each Organism is linked together based on what is consumes
•When consumers die or produce waste, decomposers take some of that energy and
return it back to the soil for plants to use once again.
 FOOD WEB
A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains within an ecosystem.
It illustrates how various organisms (plants, animals, fungi, etc.) are connected through feeding
relationships, showing how energy and nutrients flow through the ecosystem.
THANK YOU