MODULE:-1

Element of Cellular radio system Design

Cellular Systems
Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal
communication systems, wireless networking etc. The technology is developed
for mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems.
Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters for
data transmission.
Basic Cellular System:
There are mainly two types of Basic Cellular System: -

1. Circuit Switched: In a circuit-switched system, each traffic channel is

dedicated to a user until its cell is terminated.
2. Packet Switched: In packet-switching, the packets are sent towards the
destination irrespective of each other. Each packet has to find its own route to
the destination. There is no predetermined path; the decision as to which node
to hop to in the next step is taken only when a node is reached. Each packet
finds its way using the information it carries, such as the source and destination
IP addresses.
Circuit-switched systems can be of two types:
1. Analog Circuit-Switched System
2. Digital Circuit-Switched System
1. Analog Circuit-Switched System:
 Mobile Units: A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver,
and an antenna system. 
Cell site: The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile
units. It has a control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data
terminals.  MTSO: The switching office, the central coordinating element for
all cell sites, contains the cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with
telephone company zone offices, controls call processing, provides operation
and maintenance, and handles billing activities
 Connections: The radio and high-speed data links connect the three
subsystems. Each mobile unit can only use one channel at a time for its
communication link. But the channel is not fixed; it can be any one in the entire
band assigned by the serving area, with each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile units.
2) Digital Circuit-Switched System:
1. MS(Mobile Station): It consists of two parts
 mobile equipment (ME) 
Subscriber Identify Module (SIM): SIM contains all subscriber-specific data
stored on the MS side.
2. BTS (Base Transceiver System): Besides having the same function as the
Analog BTS, it has the Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU), which carries out
coding and decoding as well as rate adaptation in case data rate varies.
3. BSC (Base Station Controller): A new element in digital systems that performs
the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. BSC also
handles handovers, power management time and frequency synchronization,
and frequency reallocation among BTSs.
4. Switching subsystems: Main components of Switching Subsystem is as
follows:
a. MSC: The main function of MSC is to coordinate the setup of calls between
MS and PSTN users.
b. VLR (Visitor Location Register): A database of all mobiles roaming in the
MSC’s area of control.
c. HLR (Home Location Register): A centralized database of all subscribers
registered in a Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN).
d. AUC (Authentication Centre): Provides HLR with authentication parameters
and ciphering keys that are used for security purposes.
e. EIR (Equipment Identity Register): A database for storing all registered
mobile equipment numbers.
f. EC (Echo Canceller): Used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits.
g. XC (Transcoder): Usually installs in each BTS. But for the cost reason, it can
be installed in BSC or MSC.
h. OMC (Operational and Maintenance Center): This function resided in analog
MSC but became a separated entity in digital systems.
Packet Switched System:
A cellular packet-switched system has six elements as follows:
1. MS (Mobile Station)
2. Node B
3. RNC (Radio Network Controller)
4. SGSN (Service GPRS Support Node)
5. GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)
6. CGF (Changing Gateway Function)

Performance criteria
Main components of Performance criteria are as follows:
➢ Voice Quality
• Definition: Voice quality refers to the clarity, intelligibility, and overall
experience of voice calls in a cellular network.

• Factors Affecting Voice Quality:

• Signal Strength: Poor signal strength can result in dropped calls, distorted
voices, or silence.
• Latency: High latency in voice calls can cause delays, making
conversations feel out of sync.

➢ Data Quality
• Definition: Data quality refers to the ability of the cellular network to support
high-speed data transmission with minimal errors or interruptions.
• Factors Affecting Data Quality:

• Throughput (Speed): The rate at which data is transmitted, measured in

bits per second (bps). Higher throughput results in faster downloads,
uploads, and streaming.
• Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the
destination. Low latency is critical for real-time applications like video
calls, gaming, and live streaming.
• Packet Loss: The loss of data packets can lead to slow or interrupted
service.

➢ Picture/Vision Quality
• Definition: Picture or vision quality pertains to the clarity, sharpness, and
smoothness of images and video transmitted over the cellular network. This is
especially important for video calls, streaming, and mobile TV services.

• Factors Affecting Picture Quality:

• Resolution: Higher resolution means sharper and more detailed images

and videos (e.g., HD, Full HD, 4K).
• Frame Rate: A higher frame rate results in smoother video playback.
Common frame rates are 30 FPS (frames per second) and 60 FPS.

➢ Service Quality
• Definition: Service quality refers to the overall user experience with the
network, which includes the reliability and consistency of services like voice
calls, data access, SMS, and other network functionalities.

• Factors Affecting Service Quality:

• Availability: The proportion of time the network is operational and

available for use.
• Reliability: How consistently the network delivers the promised services
without drops or failures.
• Speed: The ability to access services quickly, whether it’s making a call,
sending a message, or accessing data.
 ➢ Special Features
• Definition: Special features refer to additional functionalities that enhance the
user experience beyond basic voice and data services. These features may include
advanced network capabilities, personalized services, and value-added features.

• Examples of Special Features:

• VoLTE (Voice over LTE): Allows voice calls to be made over the 4G
network, offering better quality and faster call setup times.
• Video Calling: Supports high-quality video communication between
users.

Hand-off (or Handover) in Mobile Communication

In mobile communication, handoff (also called handover) is the

process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell
(base station) to another as a mobile user moves through the network.
It is a crucial feature of cellular networks because it ensures continuous
connectivity for users while they are on the move, such as when driving
or walking between different cells.
Types of Handoff

There are different types of handoffs in mobile communication systems:

1. Hard Handoff (Break-Before-Make):

o In a hard handoff, the connection with the current cell is broken
before the connection with the new cell is established.
o This is typical in older networks like GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications) and in some cases, CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) networks.

2. Soft Handoff (Make-Before-Break):

• In a soft handoff, the connection with the new cell is established before
the old connection is dropped.
• This is common in CDMA and some 3G (UMTS) networks.
• It ensures a smoother transition with minimal interruption in service, which
is critical for maintaining the quality of calls and data sessions.
 3. Horizontal Handoff: When the mobile device moves between cells within
the same network or technology, such as from one Wi-Fi hotspot to
another.
4. Vertical Handoff: When the mobile device switches between different
network technologies, like moving from a Wi-Fi network to a cellular
network or vice versa.
5. Intra-System Handoff: Occurs within the same network system but
between different base stations, cells, or sectors.
6. Inter-System Handoff: Takes place between different network systems,
such as moving from a 3G network to a 4G network.

Components of a Cellular System

1. Mobile Devices (User Equipment - UE)

o Definition: Mobile devices (such as smartphones, tablets, and other
wireless devices) that interact with the cellular network to
send/receive calls, data, and text messages.
o Functions:
▪ Transmit and receive signals to/from the base station.
▪ Perform handoffs between cells.
▪ Use the services provided by the network, such as voice, data,
and multimedia communication.
2. Cellular Base Station (Node B / eNodeB / gNodeB)
o Definition: The base station is responsible for communicating with
the mobile devices within a specific cell. It serves as the link
between the mobile device and the rest of the cellular network.
o Functions:
▪ Transmit and receive radio signals to/from mobile devices
within the cell.
▪ Control and manage communication resources (such as
frequency and channels).
▪ Handle the radio interface between the mobile device and the
core network.
▪ Coordinate handoffs between adjacent cells.
o Types of Base Stations:
▪ Node B: Used in 3G networks (UMTS).
▪ eNodeB: Used in 4G networks (LTE).
▪ gNodeB: Used in 5G networks.
3. Cell (Coverage Area)
 o Definition: A cell is the geographic area covered by a base station.
The size of the cell can vary depending on factors like population
density, terrain, and frequency used.
o Functions:
▪ Provides coverage for a group of users within its radius.
▪ Each cell can have a different type of base station depending
on the technology used (e.g., 4G, 5G).
4. Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
o Definition: The MSC is a key component of the core network in
older cellular systems (2G/3G). It handles call routing, mobility
management, and connects the mobile network with external
systems like landline networks or the internet.
o Functions:
▪ Establishes and terminates calls between mobile devices or
between mobile devices and landline networks.
▪ Manages mobile device registration and location tracking.
▪ Handles handoff decisions when the mobile device moves
between cells.
▪ Provides signaling and data transfer services.

Operations of a Cellular System

1. Call Setup and Termination
o Call Setup: The process where a mobile device communicates with
the base station to establish a connection (either voice or data) with
another device. It involves checking the availability of channels and
resources in the network.
o Call Termination: The process of disconnecting the call after it is
completed, which involves releasing the resources (e.g., channels)
back to the network.
2. Handoff (Handover)
o Definition: When a user moves between cells, the system ensures
that the call or data session is handed off from one base station to
another without dropping.
o Operation: The mobile device communicates with the base station
to determine the need for handoff. The network coordinates the
handoff process to transfer the call to a new base station without
interrupting the service.
3. Frequency Management
o The cellular system uses frequency reuse techniques to efficiently
utilize the available radio spectrum. The network assigns
frequencies to different cells in a way that minimizes interference
and maximizes the capacity of the network.
 4. Resource Allocation
o The network allocates radio resources (like time slots, frequency
channels, or codes) to users to support various services (voice, video,
data).
o Efficient resource allocation ensures that the network can handle
high volumes of traffic and provide quality service.

Planning a Cellular System

Planning a cellular system involves a multi-step process that ensures

efficient coverage, capacity, and quality of service for users in a given area.
It requires a balance between technology, infrastructure, and operational
strategies to ensure that the network can handle traffic while meeting the
needs of users. Below are the key steps involved in planning a cellular
system:

Analog Cellular Systems

Analog cellular systems were the first generation of mobile communications, commonly
known as 1G systems. These systems were primarily based on analog technology, where voice
signals were transmitted using continuous waves.

Key Features of Analog Cellular Systems:

• Technology: Analog systems use continuous signals to represent voice information.

• Examples: The most well-known example of analog cellular systems is the Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS), used in the U.S. and other parts of the world.
• Voice Transmission: In analog systems, voice signals are converted into
electrical signals that vary continuously, which are transmitted over radio
frequencies.

Advantages of Analog Systems:

• Simplicity and relatively low-cost infrastructure.

• Initial network deployment was easier in some areas because of simpler
technologies.
• Good voice quality when signal strength was strong.

Disadvantages of Analog Systems:

• Limited capacity to handle multiple simultaneous calls.

 • Vulnerability to interference and poor voice quality in areas with high
traffic.
• No encryption or security, leading to privacy issues.
• Less efficient spectrum usage, leading to more frequency congestion.

2. Digital Cellular Systems

Digital cellular systems are the second generation (2G) and beyond, and they
represent a significant improvement over analog systems. These systems use
digital signal processing techniques to improve voice quality, increase capacity,
and introduce new services such as text messaging and data transmission.

Key Features of Digital Cellular Systems:

• Technology: Digital systems convert voice signals into digital data (binary
format) and then transmit these as discrete packets of information over
the radio channels. This process uses more efficient signal processing and
modulation techniques.
• Examples: Some of the key examples of digital cellular systems are GSM
(Global System for Mobile Communications), CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), and LTE (Long-
Term Evolution).

Advantages of Digital Systems:

• Higher Capacity: Digital systems can handle more calls and data traffic,
thanks to more efficient use of the frequency spectrum.
• Better Quality: Digital encoding and error correction lead to superior
voice quality, even in areas with weak signals.
• Security: Calls are encrypted, making digital systems much more secure
than their analog counterparts.
• Advanced Services: Supports not only voice calls but also data
transmission, SMS, MMS, and internet access.
• Efficient Use of Spectrum: The digital modulation techniques used in 2G
and later technologies enable more efficient use of available frequency
bands, reducing interference and congestion.
Disadvantages of Digital Systems:

• Complex Infrastructure: The digital system infrastructure is more

complex and expensive to deploy than analog systems.
• Latency: Digital systems introduce some amount of latency due to the
need to encode and decode signals, although this is not noticeable in most
voice communications.
• Initial Coverage: In some rural or remote areas, it may take time to roll
out digital networks with the same coverage as analog systems.

Frequency Reuse
• The basic idea of frequency reuse is that if a channel of a certain frequency
covers an area, the same frequency can be reused to cover another area. The
transmission power of the antenna in a cell is limited to avoid energy from
escaping into neighboring cells. We define a reuse cluster of cells as N cells in
which no frequencies are identical. Two co-channel cells are then referred to
two cells in which a frequency in one cell is reused in the other one.

FREQUENCY REUSE CONCEPT

Consider cellular system with T duplex channels available, let each cell be
allocated a group of k channels(k<s) and if the K channels are divided among N
cells.
Available radio channels can be expressed as
T = KN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is
called a cluster. If it is replicated M times within the system, total no.of duplex
channels:
C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given by
C = MKN
= MT
N = Cluster size and typically equal to 4,7,12.

FREQUENCY REUSE FACTOR

The frequency reuse factor is a key concept in cellular communication systems. It refers to
the number of times the same frequency is reused within a network. It's calculated as the
reciprocal of the number of cells in the cluster that share unique frequency sets.

For example, if a cluster consists of 7 cells, each using a unique frequency set, the frequency
reuse factor is:

Frequency reuse factor=1/N

{Frequency reuse factor} = \frac{1}{N}

Where N is the number of cells in the cluster. In this case, N=7 , so the frequency reuse factor
is 1/7

Co-channel interference
 Co-channel interference (CCI) exists when two or more devices are
operating on the same frequency channel.
 Co-channel is typically not interference but some kind of congestion.
 It inhibits the performance by increasing the wait time as the same as
channel used by different devices.
The Co-channel interference forces other devices to defer transmissions and
wait in a queue until the first device finishes using the transmission line and the
channel is free.
What You Need To Know About Co-Channel Interference:
 Co-channel interference can be described as interference between the
signals from co- channel cells.
 Co-channel interference comes from a device using the same channel.  Co-
channel majorly occurs on the same channel.
  A large co-channel reuse ratio improves the transmission quality because of
the smaller level of co-channel interference.
 To reduce co-channel interference and provide efficient isolation, Co-channel
cells are physically separated by a minimum distance.

CELL SPLITTING:-
Cell splitting is a technique used in cellular communication to increase the
capacity of a network and improve its coverage. The concept involves dividing a
larger cell into smaller cells, known as microcells, each with its own base station
and reduced transmitter power. This allows for the efficient reuse of frequencies
within a given area.
This technique utilizes the allocated spectrum efficiency in real time. In
situations such as traffic jams, the ideal small cell sites may be rendered
operative in order to increase the cell’s traffic capacity
• Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell in to smaller cells,
each with its own base station and corresponding reduction in antenna height
and transmitter power.
• Cell splitting increases the capacity of a system since it increases number of
times that channels are reused.
• In cell splitting original cell is split in to smaller cells. New cell radius is half of
the original radius.
• In this the cell boundaries need to be revised so that the local area which was
earlier considered as a single cell can now contain number of smaller cell ,these
new cells are called microcells
• Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells
with their own base stations.
• Then it reduces in the antenna height and transmitted power.
• Splitting the cells reduces the cell size and thus more number of cells has to
be used.
• More number of cells => more number of clusters => more number of
channels=>
There are two cell splitting techniques,
a. Permanent splitting
b. Dynamic splitting
a. Permanent splitting: Each new split cell is planned ahead of time with
consideration of the number of channels, transmitted power, assigned
frequencies, selection of the cell-site and traffic load consideration.
b. Dynamic cell splitting: This technique is based on utilizing the allocated
spectrum efficiency in real time. In this of splitting techniques cells are not
splitted permanently depending on requirement of traffic the splitting of the
cells are carried out.
Example:
— Suppose the congested service area is originally covered by 3 cells and each
cell contains 80 channels.
— Capacity= 3X80= 240.
— Usually the new radius is one-half the original radius.
— After cell splitting the radius of new cell RNew= R/2.
— After cell splitting we have 19 cells as shown below. — Now new capacity=
19X80= 1520.
If you observe the above figures after cell splitting it covers the entire area as
compared to before cell splitting. The capacity also increased from 240 to 1520.

DESIRED C/I FROM A NORMAL CASE IN AN OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA

SYSTEM

The desired Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (C/I) in a normal omnidirectional antenna system

depends on the cluster size KK and the geometric arrangement of co-channel interfering cells.

There are two cases to be considered:

1) the signal and co-channel interference received by the mobile unit and

2) the signal and co-channel interference received by the cell site.

As long as the received carrier-to-interference ratios at both the mobile unit and the cell site are the
same, the system is called a balanced system.

In a balanced system, we can choose either one of

the two cases to analyze the system requirement; the results from one case are the same for the
others.

Calculating Desired C/I:

The approximate formula for theoretical C/I is given by:

C/I≈(DR)n\text{C/I} \approx \left( \frac{D}{R} \right)^n

Where:

• DD is the distance to the nearest co-channel interfering cell.

• RR is the cell radius.
• nn is the path loss exponent (typically n=4n = 4 for urban areas).

For a cluster size KK, the frequency reuse distance DD is related to RR as:

D=R⋅3KD = R \cdot \sqrt{3K}

Substituting D/RD/R into the C/I equation:

C/I≈(3K)n\text{C/I} \approx \left( \sqrt{3K} \right)^n

Example for K=7K = 7:

1. Substitute K=7K = 7 and n=4n = 4 (for urban areas): $$ \text{C/I} \approx. ( \sqrt{3
\cdot 7} )^4 $$
2. Calculate: 3⋅7=21≈4.58\sqrt{3 \cdot 7} = \sqrt{21} \approx. 4.58
3. Raise to the power of 4: (4.58)4≈441(4.58)^4 \approx. 441

Thus, the desired C/I is approximately 441 (linear scale) or about 26 dB (logarithmic scale).