1.(a) Design a simple compiler that translates a high-level arithmetic expression into its corresponding assembly code.

Illustrate the translation process with an example.

Answer : Certainly! Here’s a more refined and detailed explanation for each part of the problem.

(a) Design a Simple Compiler for Arithmetic Expressions

A compiler translates high-level code into a lower-level language, such as machine or assembly code. To design a
compiler for arithmetic expressions, we follow these essential steps:

Key Stages of the Compiler:

1. Lexical Analysis: Breaks the expression into tokens.

2. Syntax Analysis: Checks the structure of the expression against grammar rules.

3. Semantic Analysis: Ensures the expression is meaningful (e.g., type-checking).

4. Intermediate Representation (IR): Converts the expression into an abstract form like a parse tree.

5. Optimization: Improves the intermediate code for efficiency.

6. Code Generation: Produces assembly code.

Example: Expression Translation

We will translate:
a=b+c*d-e

Step 1: Lexical Analysis

The expression is broken into tokens:

Tokens: a, =, b, +, c, *, d, -, e

Each token is classified:

• a, b, c, d, e: Identifiers (variables)

• =, +, *, -: Operators

• Semicolon (if present): Delimiter

Step 2: Syntax Analysis

The expression is validated using a context-free grammar, e.g.:

expr → term ((+ | -) term)*

term → factor ((* | /) factor)*

factor → identifier | number | (expr)

For b + c * d - e, the parse tree looks like:

/\

+ e
 /\

b *

/\

c d

Step 3: Semantic Analysis

Semantic checks ensure:

• Variables like b, c, d, and e are declared.

• Type consistency (e.g., no string added to an integer).

Step 4: Intermediate Representation

The expression b + c * d - e is converted into an intermediate form:

t1 = c * d

t2 = b + t1

t3 = t2 - e

a = t3

Step 5: Code Generation

Translate the IR into assembly language:

LOAD c ; Load c into register

MUL d ; Multiply c by d

STORE t1 ; Store result in t1

LOAD b ; Load b

ADD t1 ; Add t1 to b

STORE t2 ; Store result in t2

LOAD t2 ; Load t2

SUB e ; Subtract e from t2

STORE a ; Store result in a

(b) Role of a Lexical Analyzer in Compilation

The lexical analyzer (or scanner) is the first phase of a compiler. Its primary purpose is to process the raw source code
and break it into meaningful tokens.

Key Responsibilities:

1. Tokenization: Splits the code into tokens, which are the smallest meaningful units like keywords, identifiers,
literals, and operators.
 o Example: For x = y + 42;, tokens are [IDENTIFIER: x, ASSIGN_OP: =, IDENTIFIER: y, ADD_OP: +,
NUM_LITERAL: 42, SEMICOLON].

2. Pattern Recognition: Uses regular expressions or finite automata to identify different token types, e.g., \d+ for
numbers, [a-zA-Z_]\w* for identifiers.

3. Error Detection: Flags invalid characters or improperly formed tokens.

o Example: Detects an invalid identifier like @var.

4. Preprocessing: Removes comments and white spaces, which are irrelevant to syntax analysis.

o Example: // This is a comment is ignored.

5. Symbol Table Integration: Sends identifiers and literals to the symbol table for later use by the compiler phases.

Output of Lexical Analyzer:

The lexical analyzer transforms:

Input: int a = b + 10;

Output: [(KEYWORD, int), (IDENTIFIER, a), (ASSIGN_OP, =), (IDENTIFIER, b), (ADD_OP, +), (NUM_LITERAL, 10),
(SEMICOLON, ;)]

(c) Roles of Compiler, Interpreter, and Assembler

1. Compiler

A compiler translates high-level source code into machine code or assembly language. It does so in multiple phases,
including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, optimization, and code generation.

Role in the Compilation Process:

• Ensures syntax correctness using grammar rules.

• Performs semantic checks, such as type compatibility.

• Optimizes the code for efficiency.

• Produces an executable or object code for future execution.

Example Workflow: High-level code:

int result = x * y + z;

Compiler Output (Assembly):

LOAD x

MUL y

ADD z

STORE result

2. Interpreter
An interpreter directly executes high-level code without generating intermediate machine code. It translates and
executes line-by-line.

Role in Execution:

• Executes code immediately, offering real-time feedback.

• Commonly used in scripting languages (e.g., Python, JavaScript).

• Slower than compiled code due to repeated translation.

Example: For print(3 + 5), an interpreter:

1. Parses the line.

2. Evaluates 3 + 5.

3. Prints 8.

3. Assembler

An assembler converts assembly language into machine code. Assembly language is human-readable and closely mirrors
machine instructions.

Role in Compilation:

• Bridges the gap between the high-level compiler output (assembly) and low-level machine code.

• Generates executable files.

Example: Assembly Code:

LOAD A

ADD B

STORE C

Machine Code:

11001001 10100010 11101100

Conclusion

1. The compiler is responsible for analyzing, optimizing, and translating high-level code into low-level machine
instructions.

2. The interpreter allows immediate execution of high-level code but trades speed for convenience.

3. The assembler translates human-readable assembly into binary machine code for execution.

The lexical analyzer plays a critical role in ensuring the raw source code is transformed into structured tokens, laying the
groundwork for accurate and efficient compilation. Together, these tools create a streamlined pipeline for turning
human-readable programs into executable forms for computers.

2. Question (a): Given the grammar, calculate the First( ) and Follow( ) sets and identify the terminals and non-
terminals.
i. Grammar:

1. E→TE′E → T E'E→TE′

2. E′→+TE′/εE' → + T E' / \varepsilonE′→+TE′/ε

3. T→FT′T → F T'T→FT′

4. T′→∗FT′/εT' → * F T' / \varepsilonT′→∗FT′/ε

5. F→(E)/idF → (E) / idF→(E)/id

ii. Grammar:

1. S→XYS → X YS→XY

2. X→aX/bX → a X / bX→aX/b

3. Y→cY/dY → c Y / dY→cY/d

Answer (a)

i. Grammar Analysis

Non-terminals: E,E′,T,T′,FE, E', T, T', FE,E′,T,T′,F

Terminals: +,∗,(,),id+, *, (, ), id+,∗,(,),id

Step 1: Calculate First( ) Sets

The First( ) set of a non-terminal contains all terminals that can appear at the beginning of strings derived from that non-
terminal. If a production can lead to ε\varepsilonε, include ε\varepsilonε in First( ).

1. First(F):
F→(E)F → (E)F→(E) or F→idF → idF→id
First(F) = { (, id }

2. First(T'):
T′→∗FT′/εT' → * F T' / \varepsilonT′→∗FT′/ε
*First(T') = { , \varepsilon }

3. First(T):
T→FT′T → F T'T→FT′
First(T) = First(F) = { (, id }

4. First(E'):
E′→+TE′/εE' → + T E' / \varepsilonE′→+TE′/ε
First(E') = { +, \varepsilon }

5. First(E):
E→TE′E → T E'E→TE′
First(E) = First(T) = { (, id }

Summary of First( ):
Non-terminal First( )

EEE (,id{ (, id }(,id

E′E'E′ +,ε{ +, \varepsilon }+,ε

TTT (,id{ (, id }(,id

T′T'T′ ∗,ε{ *, \varepsilon }∗,ε

FFF (,id{ (, id }(,id

Step 2: Calculate Follow( ) Sets

The Follow( ) set of a non-terminal contains all terminals that can appear immediately after that non-terminal in some
derivation.

1. Follow(E):
EEE appears in (E)(E)(E).
Follow(E) = { ), $ } (Here, $ denotes the end of input.)

2. Follow(E'):
E′→+TE′/εE' → + T E' / \varepsilonE′→+TE′/ε, and E′E'E′ is followed by ))) and $.
Follow(E') = { ), $ }

3. Follow(T):
TTT appears in E→TE′E → T E'E→TE′. Hence, TTT is followed by First(E'), which is +,ε{ +, \varepsilon }+,ε.
Follow(T) = { +, ), $ }

4. Follow(T'):
T′→∗FT′/εT' → * F T' / \varepsilonT′→∗FT′/ε, and T′T'T′ is followed by Follow(T).
Follow(T') = { +, ), $ }

5. Follow(F):
FFF appears in T→FT′T → F T'T→FT′. Hence, FFF is followed by First(T'), which is ∗,ε{ *, \varepsilon }∗,ε.
*Follow(F) = { , +, ), $ }

Summary of Follow( ):

Non-terminal Follow( )

EEE { ), $ }

E′E'E′ { ), $ }

TTT { +, ), $ }

T′T'T′ { +, ), $ }

FFF { *, +, ), $ }

ii. Grammar Analysis

Non-terminals: S,X,YS, X, YS,X,Y
Terminals: a,b,c,da, b, c, da,b,c,d

First( ) Sets:

Non-terminal First( )

SSS a,b{ a, b }a,b

XXX a,b{ a, b }a,b

YYY c,d{ c, d }c,d

Follow( ) Sets:

Non-terminal Follow( )

SSS { $, c, d }

XXX c,d{ c, d }c,d

YYY {$}

Question (b): Systematic Methodology to Determine if a Grammar is LL(1)

To check if a grammar is LL(1), follow these steps:

1. Check for Left Recursion:

LL(1) grammars cannot have left recursion. Rewrite any left-recursive rules using left-factoring.

2. Compute First( ) and Follow( ) Sets:

Calculate the First( ) and Follow( ) sets for all non-terminals.

3. Verify the Predictive Parsing Table:

Construct a parsing table:

o For each production A→αA → \alphaA→α, assign α\alphaα to M[A,a]M[A, a]M[A,a], where a∈First(α)a
\in First(\alpha)a∈First(α).

o If ε∈First(α)\varepsilon \in First(\alpha)ε∈First(α), add A→αA → \alphaA→α to M[A,b]M[A, b]M[A,b],

where b∈Follow(A)b \in Follow(A)b∈Follow(A).

4. Check for Conflicts:

An LL(1) grammar must not have:

o Multiple entries in the same cell of the parsing table.

o Ambiguities where the same input can be derived in different ways.

Apply to E→TE′E → T E'E→TE′:

• The grammar has no left recursion or ambiguity, and the parsing table (constructed using First/Follow) will have
no conflicts.

• Conclusion: The grammar is LL(1).

Question (c): Describe and create a flowchart or pseudocode for the components of an LL(1) parser, including their
specific roles. Explain how an LL(1) parser determines whether a string such as zzz is accepted or rejected using the
given grammar:

Grammar:

1. S→XXS \to X X

2. X→aX ∣zX \to a X \ | z

Answer (c)

An LL(1) parser is a type of top-down parser that processes the input from Left to right and constructs a Leftmost
derivation of the string. The "1" in LL(1) indicates that the parser uses one input symbol of lookahead to make parsing
decisions.

Components of an LL(1) Parser

1. Input Buffer: Holds the input string, ending with the end marker "$".

2. Stack: Stores grammar symbols (terminals and non-terminals). Initially contains the start symbol and end marker
"$".

3. Parsing Table: Guides the parser on how to replace non-terminals with their productions based on the current
input.

4. Output: The parser outputs whether the string is accepted or rejected.

Step-by-Step Process

Parsing Table Construction

We calculate the First( ) and Follow( ) sets for the given grammar:

First( ) Sets:

Non-terminal First( )

SS a,z{ a, z }

XX a,z{ a, z }

Follow( ) Sets:

Non-terminal Follow( )

SS { $, a, z }

XX { $, a, z }

Parsing Table:
Non-terminal aa zz $

SS XXXX XXXX

XX aXaX zz

Flowchart for LL(1) Parser

+--------------------------------+

| Initialize Stack with "$, S" |

| Append "$" to input string |

+--------------------------------+

+---------------------------------------------+

| Compare Top of Stack with Current Input: |

| - If Match: Pop Stack, Move Input Pointer |

| - If Non-terminal: Use Parsing Table |

| - If Mismatch: Report Error |

+---------------------------------------------+

+-------------------------+

| Is Stack Empty? |

| - Yes: ACCEPT String |

| - No: CONTINUE Parsing |

+-------------------------+

Pseudocode for LL(1) Parser

def LL1_parse(input_string, parsing_table, start_symbol):

# Initialize stack with start symbol and end marker

stack = ["$", start_symbol]

input_string += "$" # Append $ to the input as end marker

pointer = 0 # Input pointer to track current character

 while stack:

top = stack.pop() # Get the top of the stack

current_symbol = input_string[pointer] # Current input character

if top == current_symbol:

# If top of the stack matches input, move pointer

pointer += 1

elif top in parsing_table:

# If top is a non-terminal, consult the parsing table

if current_symbol in parsing_table[top]:

production = parsing_table[top][current_symbol]

if production != "ε":

stack.extend(reversed(production)) # Push production RHS onto stack

else:

return "Error: Unexpected Symbol"

else:

return "Error: Parsing Failed"

# If stack is empty and input is fully processed, accept

return "Accepted" if pointer == len(input_string) else "Rejected"

Example: Parsing zzzzzz with S→XXS → XX, X→aX∣zX → aX | z

1. Input String: zzz$

2. Stack Initialization: ["$", "S"]

Step-by-Step Parsing:

Step Stack Input Action

1 ["$", "S"] zzz$ Expand S→XXS → XX

2 ["$", "X", "X"] zzz$ Expand X→zX → z for first XX

3 ["$", "X", "z"] zzz$ Match zz, pop stack

4 ["$", "X"] zz$ Expand X→zX → z

Step Stack Input Action

5 ["$", "z"] zz$ Match zz, pop stack

6 ["$"] z$ Match zz, pop stack

7 [] $ Accept

Result: The string zzz is accepted.

Explanation of Parsing Decisions

• The parser uses the First( ) and Follow( ) sets to determine the correct production for non-terminals based on
the current input symbol.

• Each step involves matching terminals or expanding non-terminals until the stack is empty.

• If a mismatch occurs (e.g., no valid entry in the parsing table), the string is rejected.

Parsing Table for Grammar S→XXS → XX, X→aX∣zX → aX | z

Non-terminal aa zz $

SS XXXX XXXX

XX aXaX zz

Diagrammatic View

Below is a flowchart showing how the LL(1) parser operates:

+-----------------------+

| Initialize Stack |

| Push $, Start Symbol|

+-----------------------+

+-------------------------+

| Read Input & Top of |

| Stack (Non-terminal?) |

+-------------------------+

+------+-------+

| |
 v v

+-------------+ +-------------+

| Lookup | | Match Stack |

| Parsing | | & Input |

| Table | | Symbol |

+-------------+ +-------------+

+------------------+

| Stack Empty? |

| Accept or Reject |

+------------------+

Conclusion

• The LL(1) parser for this grammar correctly parses strings like zzzzzz using a predictive parsing table and the
systematic elimination of grammar symbols from the stack.

• The methodology ensures efficiency and simplicity, suitable for grammars that conform to the LL(1) constraints.

Question3 (a): Explain the process of generating a CLR(1) parsing table from an LR(0) item set with lookahead symbols.
Use the grammar provided in 2(c) to illustrate your explanation. Highlight any challenges encountered during the
construction and how they are resolved.

Answer (a): Process of Generating CLR(1) Parsing Table

The CLR(1) parser uses lookahead symbols to construct a more accurate parsing table compared to LR(0). Here's the
step-by-step process:

Step 1: Augment the Grammar

Add a new start symbol S′S' and the production S′→SS' → S.

For the given grammar:

1. S′→SS' → S

2. S→XXS → XX

3. X→aX ∣zX → aX \ | z

Step 2: Create LR(0) Item Sets

An LR(0) item is a grammar production with a "dot" (•) indicating the position of the parser. Example:
S′→•SS' → • S.
Steps to generate LR(0) item sets:

1. Start with the closure of the augmented start item S′→•SS' → • S.

2. Add transitions by shifting the "dot" over the next symbol, creating new item sets.

3. Use Goto to calculate transitions for terminals and non-terminals.

Example LR(0) Item Sets:

• I0:{S′→•S,S→•XX,X→•aX,X→•z}I_0: \{ S' → • S, S → • XX, X → • aX, X → • z \}

• I1:{S′→S•}I_1: \{ S' → S• \}

• I2:{S→X•X,X→•aX,X→•z}I_2: \{ S → X•X, X → • aX, X → • z \}

• I3:{S→XX•}I_3: \{ S → XX• \}

Step 3: Add Lookahead Symbols to Form CLR(1) Items

Each CLR(1) item is an LR(0) item paired with a lookahead symbol derived from the Follow( ) set of the non-terminal on
the left-hand side.

1. Begin with S′→•S,S' → • S, lookahead $\$ (end of input).

2. Propagate lookaheads during closure and Goto computation.

Example CLR(1) Item Sets:

• I0:{S′→•S,$;S→•XX,$;X→•aX,{a,z};X→•z,{a,z}}I_0: \{ S' → • S, \$; S → • XX, \$; X → • aX, \{a, z\}; X → • z, \{a, z\}
\}

• I1:{S′→S•,$}I_1: \{ S' → S•, \$ \}

• I2:{S→X•X,$;X→•aX,{a,z};X→•z,{a,z}}I_2: \{ S → X•X, \$; X → • aX, \{a, z\}; X → • z, \{a, z\} \}

Step 4: Construct the CLR(1) Parsing Table

1. Action Entries:

o For each state IiI_i, add a shift, reduce, or accept action based on the transitions and items.

o Use lookahead symbols for reductions.

2. Goto Entries:

o For each non-terminal, add transitions based on Goto(Ii,X)Goto(I_i, X).

Example Parsing Table (Partial):

State aa zz $\$ XX SS

0 S2 S3 4 1

1 Accept

2 S2 S3 5
State aa zz $\$ XX SS

3 R3 (X→zX → z)

Challenges in CLR(1) Table Construction

1. Large State Space: Adding lookahead symbols creates more states than LR(0), making CLR(1) tables significantly
larger.
Solution: Use LALR(1), which merges states with identical cores.

2. Ambiguities: Grammar ambiguities may lead to shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts.

Solution: Rewrite grammar to eliminate ambiguity or handle conflicts explicitly.

Question (b): Using the grammar in 2(c), construct the parsing table for an LALR(1) parser by merging states with
identical cores. Explain how merging reduces table size while maintaining correctness.

Answer (b): Process of Constructing LALR(1) Parsing Table

An LALR(1) parser reduces the size of the CLR(1) parsing table by merging states that have the same core (LR(0) items
without lookaheads). The lookaheads of merged states are combined, ensuring no conflicts arise.

Step 1: Merge States with Identical Cores

CLR(1) State Cores (from Part a):

• I0:{S′→•S,S→•XX,X→•aX,X→•z}I_0: \{ S' → • S, S → • XX, X → • aX, X → • z \}

• I2:{S→X•X,X→•aX,X→•z}I_2: \{ S → X•X, X → • aX, X → • z \}

States I0I_0 and I2I_2 have identical cores. Combine their lookaheads to merge them.

Merged States:

• I0/2:{S′→•S,$;S→•XX,$;X→•aX,{a,z};X→•z,{a,z}}I_{0/2}: \{ S' → • S, \$; S → • XX, \$; X → • aX, \{a, z\}; X → • z,

\{a, z\} \}

Step 2: Construct LALR(1) Parsing Table

Parsing Table:

State aa zz $\$ XX SS

0 S2 S3 4 1

1 Accept

2 S2 S3 5

3 R3 (X→zX → z)
Step 3: Advantages of LALR(1)

1. Smaller State Space: Merging states reduces the number of rows in the parsing table.

2. Efficiency: LALR(1) is as efficient as LR(0) but with improved accuracy due to lookahead.

3. Correctness: Combining lookaheads ensures the parser remains conflict-free.

Conclusion

• The CLR(1) parsing table is derived by adding lookahead symbols to the LR(0) item sets, providing more precise
parsing decisions but at the cost of a larger table.

• The LALR(1) parsing table reduces this size by merging states with identical cores, balancing efficiency and
accuracy.

4. Question (a): Describe the primary function of parsers in the context of programming languages. How do parsers
contribute to the compilation process?

Answer (a):

The primary function of parsers is to analyze the syntax of source code based on the grammar rules of the programming
language. Parsers verify whether the input code adheres to the language's syntax and generate an intermediate
representation for further processing.

Role of Parsers in Compilation:

1. Syntax Analysis:

o A parser takes a sequence of tokens (generated by the lexical analyzer) and checks if they follow the
syntax rules.

o If any syntax errors are detected, the parser provides error messages to help developers debug.

2. Intermediate Representation:

o The parser converts source code into a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST). This tree represents the
hierarchical structure of the program.

3. Input for Subsequent Stages:

o The AST generated by the parser serves as input for semantic analysis, optimization, and code
generation.

Types of Parsers:

1. Top-Down Parsers:

o Construct the parse tree from the root to the leaves.

o Example: Recursive Descent Parser.

 2. Bottom-Up Parsers:

o Construct the parse tree from the leaves to the root.

o Example: LR Parser.

Importance of Parsers in Compilation:

• Parsers act as a bridge between the source code and machine code.

• They ensure that the source code adheres to grammatical rules before further processing.

• Efficient parsing techniques improve the compilation speed and error detection accuracy.

Question (b): Differentiate between top-down and bottom-up parsing techniques. Provide examples of programming
languages where each parsing technique is commonly used.

Answer (b):

Aspect Top-Down Parsing Bottom-Up Parsing

Construction Builds the parse tree from root to leaves. Builds the parse tree from leaves to root.

Reduces terminals and non-terminals to a start

Direction Expands non-terminals to match the input.
symbol.

Parsing Techniques Recursive Descent, LL(1). LR(0), SLR(1), CLR(1), LALR(1).

Ease of More complex to implement due to states and

Easier to implement and understand.
Implementation lookahead.

Works with LL grammars (no left Can handle a wider range of grammars (e.g., left
Grammar Restriction
recursion). recursion).

Backtracking May involve backtracking (less efficient). No backtracking, deterministic.

Used in small or simple

Use Cases Used in modern, production-grade compilers.
compilers/interpreters.

Examples of
Python, JavaScript (LL parsers). C, C++, Java (LR parsers).
Languages

Examples of Programming Languages:

1. Top-Down Parsing:

o Often used in scripting languages like Python or JavaScript for their interpreters.

o Example: An LL(1) parser used in educational compilers for simplicity.

2. Bottom-Up Parsing:
 o Widely used in system-level programming languages like C, C++, and Java due to their complex
grammars.

o Example: LR(1) or LALR(1) parsers in GCC and other industrial compilers.

Question (c): Explain LR parsing and LALR parsing techniques. How do these parsing methods differ, and what are their
respective strengths in parsing complex grammars?

Answer (c):

LR Parsing:

LR Parsing (Left-to-right scan, Rightmost derivation):

• A bottom-up parsing technique that constructs a parse tree by reducing the rightmost derivation of the input
string.

• LR parsers are table-driven and deterministic.

Steps:

1. Use an LR parsing table containing Action and Goto entries.

2. Shift, reduce, or accept based on the input symbol and current state.

Example Techniques:

• LR(0): Basic parser with no lookahead.

• CLR(1): Canonical LR parser with one lookahead symbol for better accuracy.

LALR Parsing:

LALR (Lookahead LR):

• A simplified version of CLR(1) parsing where states with identical cores (LR(0) items) are merged.

• The lookaheads of merged states are combined.

Differences Between LR and LALR Parsing:

Aspect LR Parsing (CLR(1)) LALR Parsing

State Space Larger due to unique states for each lookahead. Smaller by merging states with identical cores.

Accuracy Can handle more grammars with fewer conflicts. May face conflicts in some ambiguous grammars.

Complexity More complex to implement and maintain. Simpler and more efficient than CLR(1).

Usage Used in advanced tools requiring precise parsing. Commonly used in production compilers.
Aspect LR Parsing (CLR(1)) LALR Parsing

Examples CLR(1): Rare, as LALR is preferred for efficiency. LALR(1): Used in YACC, Bison.

Strengths:

1. LR Parsing:

o Handles a wide range of grammars, including ambiguous and context-sensitive ones.

o Useful in applications requiring high accuracy.

2. LALR Parsing:

o Efficient in terms of memory and processing.

o Preferred in production compilers due to its balance between accuracy and performance.

Conclusion:

• Parsers are critical for syntax verification and forming an intermediate representation of the source code.

• Top-down parsing is simpler and suited for smaller languages, while bottom-up parsing is robust and used in
complex compilers.

• LR parsing ensures high accuracy but is resource-intensive, while LALR parsing strikes a balance, making it the
preferred choice in modern compiler design.

5(a) Analyzing the Ambiguity of the Grammar

Given Grammar:

S→S+S ∣ S×S ∣ xS → S+S \ | \ S×S \ | \ x

Given String: x+x×xx + x × x

Analysis of Ambiguity:

A grammar is considered ambiguous if it allows multiple distinct parse trees or derivation structures for the same string.
Let’s check if x+x×xx + x × x can be generated ambiguously.

Parse Tree 1: (Assuming Multiplication Has Higher Precedence)

/|\

S + S

x /|\

S × S

x x
Derivation:

1. S→S+SS → S + S

2. S→x,S→S×SS → x, S → S × S

3. S→x,S→x×xS → x, S → x × x

Here, x×xx × x is grouped first, and then x+(x×x)x + (x × x) is evaluated.

Parse Tree 2: (Assuming Left-to-Right Associativity)

/|\

S + S

/|\ x

S×S

x x

Derivation:

1. S→S+SS → S + S

2. S→S×S,S→xS → S × S, S → x

3. S→x×x,S→xS → x × x, S → x

Here, x+x×xx + x × x is grouped differently, with (x+x)×x(x + x) × x being evaluated.

Conclusion:

Since the string x+x×xx + x × x can be derived using two distinct parse trees, the grammar is ambiguous. The ambiguity
arises because the grammar does not specify operator precedence or associativity for ++ and ××.

(b) Significance of Intermediate Code Generation Phase

The Intermediate Code Generation phase in a compiler bridges the gap between the source code and machine code. It
transforms high-level code into an intermediate representation (IR), which is closer to machine code but still abstract
enough to be independent of the target machine.

Significance:

1. Portability: IR is independent of the target machine, enabling retargeting for different architectures.

2. Optimization: Simplifies implementation of optimizations, such as common subexpression elimination and dead
code removal.

3. Simplifies Code Generation: IR provides a structured form for easier final code generation.
Common Intermediate Code Representations:

1. Three-Address Code (TAC):

o Uses statements with at most three operands.

o Example: a=b+ca = b + c

o For x=(a−b)∗(c+d)x = (a - b) * (c + d):

o t1 = a - b

o t2 = c + d

o x = t1 * t2

2. Postfix Notation (Polish Notation):

o Represents expressions without parentheses or operator precedence.

o Example: a+b∗ca + b * c: abc∗+abc*+

3. Abstract Syntax Trees (AST):

o Represents the hierarchical structure of expressions.

o Example: x=a+bx = a + b:

o =

o /\

o x +

o /\

o a b

4. Control Flow Graph (CFG):

o Represents the program's flow using basic blocks and control edges.

(c) Generating Target Code for d=(a−b)+(a−c)+(a−c)d = (a - b) + (a - c) + (a - c)

Steps:

1. Break the Expression:

o t1=a−bt1 = a - b

o t2=a−ct2 = a - c

o t3=t2+t2t3 = t2 + t2

o d=t1+t3d = t1 + t3

Target Code (Assembly Style):

LOAD R1, a ; R1 = a
SUB R1, b ; R1 = a - b

STORE t1, R1 ; t1 = a - b

LOAD R1, a ; R1 = a

SUB R1, c ; R1 = a - c

STORE t2, R1 ; t2 = a - c

LOAD R2, t2 ; R2 = t2

ADD R2, t2 ; R2 = t2 + t2

STORE t3, R2 ; t3 = t2 + t2

LOAD R3, t1 ; R3 = t1

ADD R3, t3 ; R3 = t1 + t3

STORE d, R3 ; d = t1 + t3

(d) Non-Deterministic Behavior and Relationship Between NFA and DFA

Non-Deterministic Behavior:

Non-deterministic behavior occurs when a system has multiple choices for the next state from a given state for the same
input symbol. In the context of automata, Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA) allow:

1. Multiple Transitions: For a given state and input symbol, there can be multiple transitions.

2. Epsilon (ε) Transitions: Transitions without consuming any input.

Relationship Between NFA and DFA:

1. Equivalence:

o Every NFA has an equivalent Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA). Although NFAs are easier to design,
DFAs are computationally easier to implement.

2. Conversion Process:

o The Subset Construction Algorithm is used to convert an NFA into a DFA by creating states in the DFA
corresponding to subsets of NFA states.

3. Differences:
Aspect NFA DFA

Can have multiple transitions per input symbol or ε-

Transitions Exactly one transition per input symbol.
transitions.

May have more states, but transitions are

Complexity May have fewer states but more transitions.
deterministic.

Ease of
Requires backtracking or parallel processing. Easier to simulate directly.
Simulation

Example:

NFA Example:

State Input=a Input=b

0 0, 1 -

1 - 2

2 Final Final

DFA Equivalent:

State Input=a Input=b

{0} {0,1} -

{0,1} {0,1} {2}

{2} - Final

Conclusion:

• Non-deterministic behavior in NFAs provides flexibility and simplicity in design but requires conversion to a DFA
for efficient computation.

• DFAs are deterministic and guarantee a unique path for every input string.

6(a) Analysis of the Expression 10#3@910\#3@9 Using CFG and Semantic Rules

Given Expression:

10#3@910\#3@9

CFG Rules:

1. E→E#EE → E \# E

2. E→E@EE → E @ E

3. E→nE → n (where nn is a number)

Semantic Rules:

1. E→E1#E2E → E_1 \# E_2: Evaluate E1#E2=(E1+E2)mod 10E_1 \# E_2 = (E_1 + E_2) \mod 10.
 2. E→E1@E2E → E_1 @ E_2: Evaluate E1@E2=E1×E2E_1 @ E_2 = E_1 \times E_2.

3. E→nE → n: The value of EE is the numerical value of nn.

Annotated Parse Tree:

We construct a parse tree that represents the syntactic structure and annotate it with semantic information for
evaluating 10#3@910 \# 3 @ 9.

1. Parse Tree:

______|______

| E

E |

___|___ @

| | __|__

E # E E

| | | |

10 3 3 9

2. Annotations (Bottom-Up Evaluation):

• E→10E → 10: E.value=10E.value = 10

• E→3E → 3: E.value=3E.value = 3

• E→9E → 9: E.value=9E.value = 9

• E1#E2E_1 \# E_2: (10+3)mod 10=13mod 10=3(10 + 3) \mod 10 = 13 \mod 10 = 3

• E1@E2E_1 @ E_2: 3×9=273 \times 9 = 27

Final Result: The value of 10#3@910 \# 3 @ 9 is 2727.

Semantic Analysis Ensures Correct Evaluation:

• Ensures operators (# and @) are applied in the correct order (left-to-right associativity).

• Evaluates intermediate results based on rules:

o # as modulo operation.

o @ as multiplication.

Semantic analysis verifies the types and values during evaluation, ensuring meaningful computations.

(b) Role of Semantic Analysis in the Compilation Process

Role of Semantic Analysis:

Semantic analysis ensures that the program is meaningful and adheres to the language's semantic rules. It occurs after
syntax analysis and validates:

1. Type Checking:

o Ensures operands and operators are compatible.

o Example: int+floatint + float is allowed, but int+stringint + string is not.

2. Scope and Binding:

o Ensures variables are declared before use.

o Checks variable scope to prevent conflicts.

3. Consistency Checks:

o Validates function calls (number and type of arguments match).

o Ensures control flow constructs are used correctly.

Differences Between Semantic and Syntax Analysis:

Aspect Syntax Analysis Semantic Analysis

Focus Validates grammar rules. Validates meaning of constructs.

Errors Detected Missing semicolon, unmatched parentheses. Type mismatches, undeclared variables.

Example Syntax Error: int = x + ; Semantic Error: int = "string";

Common Semantic Errors:

1. Undeclared Variable:

o Example: x = 10; (if x is not declared).

2. Type Mismatch:

o Example: int x = "text";

3. Function Argument Mismatch:

o Example: int sum(int a, int b) but called as sum(5);

(c) Elimination of Left Recursion

Original CFG Rules:

(i)

1. A→AaβA → A a β

2. A→Ba/Ac/dA → B a / A c / d

(ii)

1. B→Bb/Ab/dB → B b / A b / d
Transformed Grammar:

(i) Eliminating Left Recursion for AA:

1. Identify left recursion: A→AaβA → A a β (direct left recursion).

2. Rewrite rules using a new non-terminal A′A':

A→Ba/dA′A′→aβA′/cA′/ε\begin{aligned} A & → B a / d A' \\ A' & → a β A' / c A' / ε \end{aligned}

(ii) Eliminating Left Recursion for BB:

1. Identify left recursion: B→BbB → B b.

2. Rewrite rules using a new non-terminal B′B':

B→Ab/dB′B′→bB′/ε\begin{aligned} B & → A b / d B' \\ B' & → b B' / ε \end{aligned}

Final Grammar:

1. A→Ba/dA′A → B a / d A'

2. A′→aβA′/cA′/εA' → a β A' / c A' / ε

3. B→Ab/dB′B → A b / d B'

4. B′→bB′/εB' → b B' / ε

(d) Components of an Annotated Parse Tree

Definition:

An annotated parse tree represents the syntactic structure of a program along with additional information derived
during compilation, such as types, values, and other semantic attributes.

Components and Their Significance:

1. Nodes:

o Represent grammar symbols (terminals and non-terminals).

o Annotated with attributes like type, value, or scope.

2. Edges:

o Connect parent nodes to child nodes, showing the hierarchical structure.

3. Attributes:

o Synthesized Attributes: Computed from child nodes to parent (e.g., values of expressions).

o Inherited Attributes: Passed from parent nodes to children (e.g., type information).
 4. Root Node:

o Represents the start symbol of the grammar.

o The final attribute of the root often gives the overall result.

5. Leaf Nodes:

o Represent tokens from the input string.

o Annotated with lexical attributes (e.g., token type, value).

Significance:

• Ensures semantic rules are applied systematically.

• Facilitates type checking, scope resolution, and value computation.

• Helps in generating intermediate representations and target code.

Example Parse Tree for Expression x=a+bx = a + b:

/ \

x +

/\

a b

Annotations:

• xx: Variable with type intint.

• a,ba, b: Variables with types and values.

• ++: Operator, annotated with result type and operation semantics.

7. (a) Synthesized and Inherited Attributes in Syntax Directed Translation (SDT)

Synthesized and Inherited Attributes:

1. Synthesized Attributes:

o These are attributes that are computed bottom-up during the parsing process, meaning the value of a
non-terminal is computed based on its child nodes. The synthesized attribute is propagated up the parse
tree from the leaves to the root.

o Example: In arithmetic expressions, the value of an expression like E+TE + T is the sum of the values of
EE and TT, and this value is computed as a synthesized attribute.

2. Inherited Attributes:

o These are attributes that are computed top-down. The value of an inherited attribute depends on its
parent node or the context passed down to it. These attributes are typically used for context-sensitive
information, like type checking or scope resolution.
 o Example: In a language where variables must be declared before use, an inherited attribute might be
passed down to check if a variable is declared within the correct scope.

Explanation of the Semantic Rules in the SDT System:

Given the grammar and semantic rules:

E→E+T|T

T→T*F|F

F → (E) { F.val = E.val }

F → id { F.val = lookup(id.name) }

• For the rule F → (E):

The semantic rule F.val = E.val is a synthesized attribute because the value of F is calculated from the value of E
(a bottom-up computation). The value of F is the same as that of E.

• For the rule F → id:

The semantic rule F.val = lookup(id.name) indicates that the value of F is obtained from looking up the identifier
in the symbol table. The synthesized attribute F.val holds the value of the identifier.

• For E → E + T and T → T * F**: These rules would also involve synthesized attributes, where the result of a
combination of expressions (like E + T) depends on the values computed from their child expressions (like E.val
and T.val).

Are These Rules S-Attributed or L-Attributed?

• S-Attributed SDT: This type of SDT involves only synthesized attributes, where each attribute is computed
bottom-up.

• L-Attributed SDT: This type of SDT allows both synthesized and inherited attributes, but the inherited attributes
must be computed in a way that respects the left-to-right evaluation order.

Reasoning:

The semantic rules given are S-Attributed SDT because they only use synthesized attributes. All attributes, such as F.val
and E.val, are computed by combining values of their child nodes or using values from the symbol table, which are
computed bottom-up. There is no use of inherited attributes in the given rules.

(b) Common Types of Statements in Three-Address Code

Three-address code (TAC) is a low-level representation used in compilers for intermediate code generation. It uses simple
instructions, each containing at most three operands (hence "three-address"). Below are common types of statements in
three-address code:

1. Assignment Statements:

o Assign a value to a variable.

o Example:

o x=a+b
 2. Arithmetic Operations:

o Represent arithmetic operations.

o Example:

o t1 = a + b

o t2 = t1 * c

3. Conditional Jumps (Branching):

o Represent decisions based on conditions.

o Example:

o if x > 10 goto L1

4. Unconditional Jumps (Goto):

o Represent an unconditional jump to a specific label.

o Example:

o goto L2

5. Function Calls:

o Represent function calls and passing parameters.

o Example:

o t1 = call f, x, y

6. Return Statements:

o Represent returning a value from a function.

o Example:

o return t1

7. Comparison Operations:

o Represent relational comparisons.

o Example:

o t1 = a < b

(c) Constructing a Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA) for Recognizing Strings Containing "001"

Problem:

We are tasked with constructing an NFA that recognizes all strings containing the substring "001" over the alphabet
Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{0, 1\}.

NFA Design (Graphical Representation):

 1. States:

o q0q_0: Initial state, where no part of "001" has been matched yet.

o q1q_1: State where "0" has been matched.

o q2q_2: State where "00" has been matched.

o q3q_3: Accepting state, where "001" has been matched.

2. Alphabet:

o Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{0, 1\}

3. Transitions:

o From q0q_0:

▪ On '0', go to q1q_1.

▪ On '1', stay in q0q_0.

o From q1q_1:

▪ On '0', go to q2q_2.

▪ On '1', go back to q0q_0.

o From q2q_2:

▪ On '1', go to q3q_3.

▪ On '0', stay in q2q_2.

o From q3q_3:

▪ On '0' or '1', stay in q3q_3 (since the substring "001" has already been matched).

4. Initial State:

o q0q_0

5. Accepting State(s):

o q3q_3

Formal Description of the NFA:

• States: Q={q0,q1,q2,q3}Q = \{q_0, q_1, q_2, q_3\}

• Alphabet: Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{0, 1\}

• Transitions:

o δ(q0,0)=q1\delta(q_0, 0) = q_1

o δ(q0,1)=q0\delta(q_0, 1) = q_0

o δ(q1,0)=q2\delta(q_1, 0) = q_2

o δ(q1,1)=q0\delta(q_1, 1) = q_0
 o δ(q2,1)=q3\delta(q_2, 1) = q_3

o δ(q2,0)=q2\delta(q_2, 0) = q_2

o δ(q3,0)=q3\delta(q_3, 0) = q_3

o δ(q3,1)=q3\delta(q_3, 1) = q_3

• Initial State: q0q_0

• Accepting State(s): F={q3}F = \{q_3\}

Graphical Representation of the NFA:

(q0) --0--> (q1) --0--> (q2) --1--> (q3) --0,1--> (q3)

| ^

+---1--------------------+

Explanation:

• The NFA starts at q0q_0, where no "001" has been matched yet.

• As it reads through the input, it transitions through the states, eventually accepting strings that contain the
substring "001".

• Once in q3q_3, the automaton remains in the accepting state regardless of further input because "001" has been
found.

This NFA correctly accepts all strings that contain "001" as a substring, as it only requires that "001" be matched at some
point in the input.

8. (a) Compute the Three Address Code for the Following Expressions

(i) Expression: a=(x+y)∗(y+z)+(x+y+z)a = (x + y) * (y + z) + (x + y + z)

Step-by-Step Conversion to Three Address Code:

1. Start with the innermost operations:

o First, compute x+yx + y:

o t1 = x + y

o Then, compute y+zy + z:

o t2 = y + z

2. Now multiply the results of t1t1 and t2t2:

3. t3 = t1 * t2

4. Next, compute x+y+zx + y + z:

5. t4 = x + y
 6. t5 = t4 + z

7. Finally, add the results of t3t3 and t5t5, and assign it to aa:

8. a = t3 + t5

Complete Three Address Code:

t1 = x + y

t2 = y + z

t3 = t1 * t2

t4 = x + y

t5 = t4 + z

a = t3 + t5

(ii) Expression: if P<Q then 1 else 0\text{if } P < Q \text{ then } 1 \text{ else } 0

Step-by-Step Conversion to Three Address Code:

1. Compare PP and QQ:

2. if P < Q goto L1

3. Label L1 (true branch, when P<QP < Q):

4. t1 = 1

5. goto L2

6. Label L2 (false branch, when P≥QP \geq Q):

7. L1: t1 = 0

8. L2:

Complete Three Address Code:

if P < Q goto L1

t1 = 1

goto L2

L1: t1 = 0

L2:

Translate the Expression (8-a(i)) into Triples

Triples for the expression a=(x+y)∗(y+z)+(x+y+z)a = (x + y) * (y + z) + (x + y + z):

Triples represent intermediate expressions as a triplet: (Operator, Operand1, Operand2).

1. Compute x+yx + y:
 2. ( + , x , y ) --> t1

3. Compute y+zy + z:

4. ( + , y , z ) --> t2

5. Multiply t1t1 and t2t2:

6. ( * , t1 , t2 ) --> t3

7. Compute x+yx + y again for t4t4:

8. ( + , x , y ) --> t4

9. Add t4t4 and zz:

10. ( + , t4 , z ) --> t5

11. Add t3t3 and t5t5 to get aa:

12. ( + , t3 , t5 ) --> a

Complete Triples:

( + , x , y ) --> t1

( + , y , z ) --> t2

( * , t1 , t2 ) --> t3

( + , x , y ) --> t4

( + , t4 , z ) --> t5

( + , t3 , t5 ) --> a

(b) Peephole Optimization on Practical Code Snippets

Peephole optimization involves making small local improvements in the intermediate code to reduce its size or improve
its efficiency. Common techniques include eliminating redundant expressions, constant folding, and combining
consecutive operations.

Let's take the following code snippets and apply three peephole optimization techniques:

Original Code Snippet 1:

t1 = a + b

t2 = t1 * c

t3 = t2 + d

t4 = t3 * 2

Optimization Technique 1: Redundant Expression Elimination

• We observe that t2 is computed as t1 * c, and then t3 is computed as t2 + d. The value of t2 is used only in t3
and can be combined directly into the expression for t3:

• t3 = (a + b) * c + d
 • t4 = t3 * 2

Optimized Code (after Redundant Expression Elimination):

t3 = (a + b) * c + d

t4 = t3 * 2

Original Code Snippet 2:

t1 = 5 * 2

t2 = t1 + 3

t3 = t2 * 4

Optimization Technique 2: Constant Folding

• In this snippet, 5 * 2 is a constant expression that can be computed at compile time. Similarly, t2 = t1 + 3 can be
optimized by substituting the constant value of t1:

• t1 = 10

• t2 = 10 + 3

• t3 = (10 + 3) * 4

Optimized Code (after Constant Folding):

t1 = 10

t2 = 13

t3 = 52

Original Code Snippet 3:

t1 = a + b

t2 = t1 * 1

t3 = t2 + c

Optimization Technique 3: Identity Elimination

• The operation t2 = t1 * 1 is an identity operation (multiplying by 1). It can be eliminated entirely, simplifying the
code:

• t2 = a + b

• t3 = t2 + c

Optimized Code (after Identity Elimination):

t2 = a + b

t3 = t2 + c
Summary of Peephole Optimizations:

1. Redundant Expression Elimination combines expressions that do not need intermediate variables, reducing the
overall code.

2. Constant Folding computes constant expressions at compile time, improving performance by removing
unnecessary calculations at runtime.

3. Identity Elimination removes operations that do not change the result, simplifying the code and making it more
efficient.

By applying these peephole optimizations, we reduce unnecessary operations, making the code more efficient both in
terms of execution time and resource utilization.

1. (a) Definitions

(i) Compiler:

A compiler is a program that translates the high-level source code written in a programming language (such as C, Java,
etc.) into machine code, assembly language, or an intermediate code that a computer's processor can understand and
execute. The compiler typically works in a multi-stage process to analyze the syntax and semantics of the source code,
and then it generates the corresponding machine-level code.

Example:

• A C compiler translates C programs into machine code that can be executed by a CPU.

(ii) Interpreter:
An interpreter is a type of program that directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language.
Unlike a compiler, which generates machine code all at once, an interpreter reads and executes the source code line-by-
line. It doesn't produce an intermediate machine code file.

Example:

• The Python interpreter executes Python code line-by-line when the program is run.

(iii) Assembler:

An assembler is a program that translates assembly language (a low-level programming language that uses mnemonics
for machine instructions) into machine code. It converts human-readable assembly instructions into the binary code that
the computer can execute.

Example:

• An assembler converts instructions like MOV AX, 5 into machine code instructions that are executed by the CPU.

1. (b) Phases of a Compiler

A compiler performs several phases of analysis and synthesis to convert a source program into an executable machine
code. Here are the main phases:

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanning):

o This phase breaks the source code into tokens. A lexical analyzer (lexer) reads the source code and
divides it into basic elements (keywords, operators, identifiers, etc.).

o Output: Tokens like keywords (int, float), operators (+, -), and identifiers (x, y).

2. Syntax Analysis (Parsing):

o This phase takes the tokens produced by the lexer and checks their syntactical correctness using the
grammar of the programming language.

o The output of this phase is a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST).

3. Semantic Analysis:

o After syntax analysis, the compiler ensures that the program has valid semantics. For instance, it checks
for type mismatches, undeclared variables, and correct usage of operators.

o Output: Annotated syntax trees that reflect the correct semantic rules.

4. Intermediate Code Generation:

o In this phase, the compiler translates the AST or syntax tree into an intermediate code, which is
independent of both the source language and the target machine.

o Output: Intermediate code like three-address code or an intermediate representation (IR).

5. Optimization:

o The optimization phase tries to improve the intermediate code to make it more efficient in terms of
execution time and memory usage. This includes removing redundant operations, simplifying
expressions, etc.

6. Code Generation:
 o This phase converts the intermediate representation into the target machine code or assembly language,
specific to the architecture of the machine on which the program will run.

o Output: Assembly or machine code.

7. Code Optimization:

o This is an additional optimization phase focused on improving the efficiency of the generated machine
code.

8. Code Linking and Assembly:

o The final phase links all modules and generates the final executable code.

1. (c) Bootstrapping

Bootstrapping is the process of writing a compiler (or interpreter) for a programming language in that same language. It
is the process by which a simple, initial version of the compiler is developed, and then used to compile more complex
versions of itself.

Example:

• A simple compiler for a programming language is first written in a low-level language (e.g., C), and then it is used
to compile a more sophisticated version of itself.

Advantages of Bootstrapping:

• It allows for self-improvement of compilers.

• Helps in making the compiler development process more efficient.

12. (a) Compute First() and Follow() Functions

Given CFG:

1. W→iXTY ∣ eW \rightarrow iXTY \ | \ e

2. Y→b ∣ ϵY \rightarrow b \ | \ \epsilon

3. T→−Ua ∣ VbT \rightarrow -Ua \ | \ Vb

4. U→du ∣ ϵU \rightarrow du \ | \ \epsilon

5. V→eV ∣ ϵV \rightarrow eV \ | \ \epsilon

6. P→QRP \rightarrow QR

7. R→IR ∣ ϵR \rightarrow IR \ | \ \epsilon

First() Function:

The First() function of a non-terminal is the set of terminals that appear at the beginning of any string derived from that
non-terminal.

• For WW:

o From W→iXTYW \rightarrow iXTY, First(W) includes ii.

 o From W→eW \rightarrow e, First(W) includes ee.

o Hence, First(W) = { i, e }.

• For YY:

o Y→bY \rightarrow b, so First(Y) = { b }.

o Y→ϵY \rightarrow \epsilon, so First(Y) = { b, \epsilon }.

• For TT:

o T→−UaT \rightarrow -Ua, so First(T) = { - }.

o T→VbT \rightarrow Vb, so First(T) = { -, V }.

o Hence, First(T) = { -, V }.

• For UU:

o U→duU \rightarrow du, so First(U) = { d }.

o U→ϵU \rightarrow \epsilon, so First(U) = { d, \epsilon }.

• For VV:

o V→eVV \rightarrow eV, so First(V) = { e }.

o V→ϵV \rightarrow \epsilon, so First(V) = { e, \epsilon }.

• For PP:

o From P→QRP \rightarrow QR, First(P) is the same as First(Q).

o So, First(P) = First(Q).

Follow() Function:

The Follow() function of a non-terminal is the set of terminals that can appear immediately to the right of that non-
terminal in some sentential form.

• For WW:

o As WW is the start symbol, Follow(W) = { $ } (end of input).

• For YY:

o W→iXTYW \rightarrow iXTY, so Follow(Y) = Follow(W) = { $ }.

o T→−UaT \rightarrow -Ua, so Follow(Y) = Follow(T) = { -, V }.

• For TT:

o P→QRP \rightarrow QR, so Follow(T) = Follow(P) = { $ }.

• For UU:

o T→−UaT \rightarrow -Ua, so Follow(U) = Follow(T) = { $, - }.

• For VV:

o T→VbT \rightarrow Vb, so Follow(V) = Follow(T) = { $, - }.

12. (b) LL(1) Grammar Check

To determine if a grammar is LL(1), we follow these steps:

1. For each non-terminal, find the First() set for each of its productions.

2. Ensure that there are no conflicts: If two productions of a non-terminal start with the same terminal, the
grammar is not LL(1).

3. If a non-terminal can derive ϵ\epsilon, check if the First() set of the production containing ϵ\epsilon and the
Follow() set of the non-terminal do not overlap.

For the given grammar:

1. First(W) = {i, e}, so there is no conflict between W→iXTYW \rightarrow iXTY and W→eW \rightarrow e.

2. First(Y) = {b, ϵ\epsilon}, so we check if Follow(Y) overlaps with First(Y), and there is no conflict as Follow(Y) = { $
}.

Thus, based on the analysis, the given grammar could be LL(1).

12. (c) Flowchart for LL(1) Parser

A LL(1) parser uses a predictive parsing technique that works from left to right on the input, and chooses the production
rules based on the lookahead symbol.

Flowchart/Pseudocode for LL(1) Parser:

1. Initialize a stack with the start symbol.

2. Read the next input symbol.

3. Top of the stack:

o If it’s a terminal, match it with the input symbol.

o If it’s a non-terminal, consult the parsing table using the non-terminal and lookahead symbol to decide
the production rule.

4. Repeat until the stack is empty or an error occurs.

Parser Logic for 'yywy':

• Suppose S → XY is our starting rule.

• If we match y with the lookahead symbol (the first symbol in the input yywy), we move to the next symbol.

• We repeat this process for each symbol in the input string.

13. (a) Canonical LR(0) Collection of Items for the Provided CFG

Given the grammar:

• S→TS \rightarrow T

• T→(F) ∣ idT \rightarrow (F) \ | \ id

 • F→TF \rightarrow T

Let's compute the Canonical LR(0) Collection of Items for this grammar. A canonical LR(0) item is a production with a dot
(.) indicating the current position in the rule.

Step 1: Start with the initial augmented grammar

We first augment the grammar by adding a new start production:

• S′→SS' \rightarrow S

The augmented grammar is:

• S′→SS' \rightarrow S

• S→TS \rightarrow T

• T→(F) ∣ idT \rightarrow (F) \ | \ id

• F→TF \rightarrow T

Step 2: Create the initial item set (I0)

We begin by creating the initial item set, I0I_0, which contains the start item for the augmented grammar:

• S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S

Item Set I0I_0:

1. S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S

2. S→.TS \rightarrow .T

3. T→.(F)T \rightarrow .(F)

4. T→.idT \rightarrow .id

5. F→.TF \rightarrow .T

Step 3: Closure of the initial item set

The closure operation expands the items by adding any new items that can be inferred from the current set of items.

1. For S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S: Add S→.TS \rightarrow .T.

2. For S→.TS \rightarrow .T: Add T→.(F)T \rightarrow .(F) and T→.idT \rightarrow .id.

3. For T→.(F)T \rightarrow .(F): Add F→.TF \rightarrow .T.

4. For T→.idT \rightarrow .id: No further items are added because idid is a terminal.

Thus, the initial set I0I_0 is:

1. S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S

2. S→.TS \rightarrow .T

3. T→.(F)T \rightarrow .(F)

4. T→.idT \rightarrow .id

5. F→.TF \rightarrow .T
Step 4: Transition and item sets

Now we perform the transitions on various symbols (non-terminals and terminals) to create new item sets.

• Transition on S:

o From I0I_0, the transition on S leads to I1I_1:

o I1:S′→S.I_1: S' \rightarrow S.

• Transition on T:

o From I0I_0, the transition on T leads to I2I_2:

o I2:S→T.I_2: S \rightarrow T.

• Transition on (:

o From I0I_0, the transition on ( leads to I3I_3:

o I3:T→(.F)I_3: T \rightarrow (.F)

• Transition on id:

o From I0I_0, the transition on id leads to I4I_4:

o I4:T→id.I_4: T \rightarrow id.

Canonical LR(0) Collection of Items:

• I0:

o S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S

o S→.TS \rightarrow .T

o T→.(F)T \rightarrow .(F)

o T→.idT \rightarrow .id

o F→.TF \rightarrow .T

• I1:

o S′→S.S' \rightarrow S.

• I2:

o S→T.S \rightarrow T.

• I3:

o T→(.F)T \rightarrow (.F)

• I4:

o T→id.T \rightarrow id.

Analysis of States:

The items in each state represent the set of production rules and the position of the parsing head (.). Each state
describes the possible configurations during the parsing process. The collection of LR(0) items captures all the states of
the parser as it processes the input string.
13. (b) Construct the LR(0) Parsing Table

To construct the LR(0) Parsing Table, we use the following procedure:

1. Action Table: This table contains actions (shift, reduce, accept, or error) based on the current state and the
lookahead symbol.

2. Goto Table: This table contains transitions to new states based on non-terminal symbols.

Constructing the Action and Goto Tables:

Let’s consider the states from the previous section:

1. State I0:

o On (, shift to state I3.

o On id, shift to state I4.

o On $, no action (initial state).

2. State I1:

o On $, accept the input (since we reached the end of the production S′→SS' \rightarrow S).

3. State I2:

o On $, reduce by S→TS \rightarrow T.

4. State I3:

o On id, shift to state I4.

o On (, no action (waiting for closing parenthesis).

5. State I4:

o On $, reduce by T→idT \rightarrow id.

o On ), reduce by T→idT \rightarrow id.

Action Table:

State id ( ) $

I0 Shift I4 Shift I3

I1 Accept

I2 Reduce by S→TS \rightarrow T

I3 Shift I4

I4 Reduce by T→idT \rightarrow id Reduce by T→idT \rightarrow id

Goto Table:
State S T F

I0 I1 I2

I1

I2

I3 I2 I4

I4

13. (c) The Dot Symbol in LR(0) Parsing

The dot (.) symbol in an LR(0) item indicates the position of the parser's head within a production rule. It shows whether
the parser has processed part of the rule or is still waiting to process more symbols.

• Example:

o In S′→.SS' \rightarrow .S, the dot before S indicates that the parser is expecting the S non-terminal.

o In T→id.T \rightarrow id., the dot after id indicates that the parser has successfully parsed id and is ready
to move to the next step.

Augmenting the Grammar:

In LR parsing, we often augment the grammar by adding a new start symbol, S′S', to ensure that the parser reaches an
accept state when the input string is completely processed.

• Example of Augmented Grammar:

o S′→SS' \rightarrow S

o S→TS \rightarrow T

o T→(F) ∣ idT \rightarrow (F) \ | \ id

o F→TF \rightarrow T

This grammar augmentation helps the parser identify when it has successfully parsed the entire input string and can
move to an accept state.

Conclusion

LR(0) parsing provides a systematic approach to constructing a parser for context-free grammars. The use of canonical
item sets, action and goto tables, and the dot symbol allows the parser to efficiently recognize and process input based
on the grammar's rules. By augmenting the grammar and following the state transitions, LR(0) parsers can handle many
types of programming languages with deterministic parsing behavior.

04. (a) Ambiguity in Context-Free Grammar (CFG)

What is ambiguity in a CFG?

A context-free grammar (CFG) is said to be ambiguous if there exists at least one string that can be generated in multiple
ways, leading to more than one distinct parse tree or derivation for that string. Ambiguity in a CFG can make it difficult to
determine the intended structure or meaning of an expression. This issue can arise in languages where different
constructs may appear to be similar but should be interpreted differently based on context.

Effects of Ambiguity on Parsing

Ambiguity can lead to the following problems in the parsing process:

1. Multiple Parse Trees: A single input string may have more than one parse tree, causing confusion about the
meaning or structure of the program.

2. Unpredictable Parsing Behavior: An ambiguous grammar can lead to non-deterministic behavior in parsers, as
the parser may choose between multiple derivations.

3. Semantic Interpretation: Ambiguous grammars make it difficult to interpret or compute meanings because
different parse trees may correspond to different interpretations.

Example of Ambiguity:

Given the grammar GG:

1. A→(A)A \rightarrow (A)

2. A→aA \rightarrow a

Let’s analyze whether the string "a(a)aa" is ambiguous:

1. First Parse Tree:

o Start with A→aA \rightarrow a for the first aa.

o Then, A→(A)A \rightarrow (A) for the second part of the string (a)(a), with A→aA \rightarrow a inside the
parentheses.

o Finally, A→aA \rightarrow a for the last aa. This gives the derivation: A→a(A)→a(a)→a(a)aaA \rightarrow
a(A) \rightarrow a(a) \rightarrow a(a)aa.

2. Second Parse Tree:

o Start with A→(A)A \rightarrow (A) for the first part of the string (a)(a), where A→aA \rightarrow a.

o Then, apply A→aA \rightarrow a for the second aa after the parentheses.

o Finally, apply A→aA \rightarrow a for the last aa. This gives a different derivation: A→(A)→(a)→a(a)aaA
\rightarrow (A) \rightarrow (a) \rightarrow a(a)aa.

Since the string "a(a)aa" can be derived in two different ways, the grammar GG is ambiguous.

Conclusion:

The ambiguity arises because the rule A→(A)A \rightarrow (A) allows for multiple interpretations of how the parentheses
and the identifier aa are handled. The different parse trees lead to different structural interpretations of the same string.

04. (b) Construct a Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA) for Strings Ending with 'I'

We are tasked with constructing an NFA that recognizes the set of strings ending with the character 'I', over the alphabet
Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}.

Formal Description of NFA:

 • States: Q={q0,q1}Q = \{ q_0, q_1 \}

• Alphabet: Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}

• Transitions:

o δ(q0,0)=q0\delta(q_0, 0) = q_0

o δ(q0,1)=q0\delta(q_0, 1) = q_0

o δ(q0,I)=q1\delta(q_0, I) = q_1

o δ(q1,0)=q0\delta(q_1, 0) = q_0

o δ(q1,1)=q0\delta(q_1, 1) = q_0

• Initial State: q0q_0

• Accepting State: q1q_1

Graphical Representation of the NFA:

(q0) ---> 0,1 ---> (q0)

| |

I I

v v

(q1) <--- 0,1 --- (q0)

• State q0q_0 is the initial state, which accepts any string of 0s and 1s.

• When we encounter II, we transition to state q1q_1, which accepts strings that end with 'I'.

Explanation:

• The NFA can stay in state q0q_0 until the character 'I' is encountered.

• Once 'I' is encountered, the NFA moves to state q1q_1 and accepts the string if it ends there.

04. (c) Construct a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) for Strings Where the 3rd Symbol from the Right is 'a'

We are tasked with constructing a DFA that recognizes the set of strings in which the 3rd symbol from the right is 'a'.

Formal Description of DFA:

• States: Q={q0,q1,q2,q3,q4}Q = \{ q_0, q_1, q_2, q_3, q_4 \}

• Alphabet: Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}

• Transitions:

o δ(q0,0)=q0\delta(q_0, 0) = q_0, δ(q0,1)=q0\delta(q_0, 1) = q_0

o δ(q1,0)=q1\delta(q_1, 0) = q_1, δ(q1,1)=q1\delta(q_1, 1) = q_1

o δ(q2,0)=q2\delta(q_2, 0) = q_2, δ(q2,1)=q2\delta(q_2, 1) = q_2

o δ(q3,0)=q4\delta(q_3, 0) = q_4, δ(q3,1)=q4\delta(q_3, 1) = q_4

 o δ(q4,0)=q4\delta(q_4, 0) = q_4, δ(q4,1)=q4\delta(q_4, 1) = q_4

• Initial State: q0q_0

• Accepting State: q4q_4

Graphical Representation of the DFA:

(q0) ---> 0,1 ---> (q1) ---> 0,1 ---> (q2) ---> 0,1 ---> (q3) ---> 0,1 ---> (q4)

Explanation:

• State q0q_0 starts at the beginning of the string and tracks the symbols.

• States q1,q2,q3q_1, q_2, q_3 keep track of the last three symbols.

• Once three symbols have been processed, the DFA moves to state q4q_4, which accepts if the third symbol from
the right is 'a'.

05. (a) Checking Whether a CFG is SLR(1)

An SLR(1) parser uses Simple LR(1) parsing, which constructs the parsing table based on first and follow sets, ensuring
that the lookahead symbol can uniquely guide the parser's decisions.

Conditions for SLR(1) Grammar:

1. The First and Follow sets must not lead to any conflicts when constructing the parsing table.

2. For any state, if there is a reduction by a production in the action table, the lookahead symbol must not be in the
First set of any other production in that state.

Steps for Constructing SLR(1) Parsing Table:

1. Compute First and Follow Sets: For each non-terminal, calculate the First and Follow sets.

2. Construct the Action Table: Based on the First and Follow sets, determine shift, reduce, or accept actions for
each state and lookahead symbol.

3. Check for Conflicts: Ensure that there are no conflicts in the parsing table for a given state and lookahead
symbol.

Example:

For the grammar Z→T+FZ \rightarrow T + F, check if the grammar is SLR(1) by calculating First and Follow sets and
ensuring no conflicts.

05. (b) Checking Whether a CFG is CLR(1)

CLR(1) parsing (Canonical LR(1)) is a more powerful parsing technique compared to SLR(1). It resolves conflicts by using
context-sensitive information derived from the parsing stack and lookahead symbol.

Conditions for CLR(1):

1. The LR(1) parsing table must not contain any conflicts in the actions based on the lookahead symbol.

2. Canonical item sets are used for better conflict resolution by considering all possible shifts and reductions.
Steps for CLR(1) Parsing Table Construction:

1. Augment the grammar to introduce a new start symbol.

2. Compute the Canonical Collection of LR(1) items for the grammar.

3. Construct the Parsing Table: Based on the Canonical Collection, create the action and goto tables.

4. Ensure No Conflicts: Check the action table for any conflicting shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts.

05. (c) Comparison between CLR(1) and LR(0)

Feature CLR(1) LR(0)

Lookahead 1 symbol 0 symbols

Parsing Power Can handle a broader class of grammars Limited to simpler grammars

Parsing Table Construction Uses canonical item sets with lookahead Relies only on simple state transitions

Complexity More complex and resource-intensive Simpler, but less powerful

Handling of Conflicts Can resolve conflicts using more context Cannot resolve conflicts without extra mechanisms

CLR(1) parsing is more powerful than LR(0) as it can handle more complex grammars by using the lookahead symbol
effectively, while LR(0) is restricted to simpler grammars without lookahead.

06. (a) Checking if a CFG is LALR(1)

LALR(1) parsing combines the simplicity of LR(1) with optimization techniques to handle larger grammars efficiently. It
involves merging similar states in the LR(1) parsing table that share the same set of core items.

Conditions for LALR(1):

1. The LALR(1) parser merges identical core states of LR(1) items, reducing the size of the parsing table.

2. There should be no shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts after merging similar core states.

Steps for LALR(1) Parsing Table Construction:

1. Compute LR(1) items: Construct the LR(1) parsing table.

2. Merge core states: Merge states that have identical core items to reduce the number of states.

3. Ensure No Conflicts: After merging, ensure there are no conflicts in the LALR(1) parsing table.

(b) Significance of LALR(1) Parsing in Compiler Design

LALR(1) Parsing plays a crucial role in compiler design because it combines the simplicity and efficiency of LR(1) parsing
with optimizations that reduce the size of the parsing table. This makes it an ideal choice for compilers handling large or
complex grammars without consuming excessive memory or processing time.

Importance for Compiler Developers:

 1. Efficiency: LALR(1) is memory-efficient and faster than other parsers like CLR(1) because it merges similar states
in the LR(1) table, reducing the total number of states while retaining the power of LR(1) parsing.

2. Practical Usage: While LR(1) can handle more complex grammars, it is often too large for practical use in real-
world compilers. LALR(1) reduces this complexity, making it a better choice for many compilers, especially for
programming languages that involve complex expressions and control flow.

3. Error Handling: LALR(1) parsers are less prone to conflicts than other parsing methods (like SLR(1)), offering
better error detection and more predictable parsing behavior.

4. Compatibility: LALR(1) parsing is widely supported in modern compilers. Many tools like Yacc and Bison use
LALR(1) parsing because it strikes a good balance between computational efficiency and parsing capability.

Real-World Example:

Compilers for C/C++ often use LALR(1) parsing techniques because the syntax of these languages is complex yet
manageable with LALR(1). This allows the compiler to handle expressions, loops, and function calls efficiently without
the overhead of a more complex parser like CLR(1).

Advantages of LALR Parsing:

1. Compact Parsing Table: By merging states with identical cores in the LR(1) item set, LALR(1) reduces the size of
the parsing table.

2. Predictive Parsing: LALR(1) has a single lookahead symbol for making parsing decisions, which simplifies error
recovery and reduces ambiguity during parsing.

3. Lower Memory Usage: Compared to CLR(1), LALR(1) consumes less memory, making it ideal for large
applications like compilers and interpreters.

(c) Eliminating Left Recursion in CFG

Left Recursion occurs in a CFG when a non-terminal can derive a string starting with itself. This creates an infinite loop in
recursive descent parsers. We can eliminate left recursion by transforming the CFG using a standard method.

Given CFG:

• S→S+A∣AS \rightarrow S + A \mid A

• A→id∣(S)A \rightarrow id \mid (S)

Step-by-Step Transformation:

1. Identify the left recursive rule:

o S→S+AS \rightarrow S + A is left-recursive because the non-terminal SS appears on the left side of its
own production.

2. Remove left recursion by introducing a new non-terminal S′S' and transforming the grammar:

o Replace S→S+AS \rightarrow S + A with S→AS′S \rightarrow A S'.

o Define S′S' to handle recursion, like S′→+AS′∣ϵS' \rightarrow + A S' \mid \epsilon.

Transformed Grammar:

• S→AS′S \rightarrow A S'

• S′→+AS′∣ϵS' \rightarrow + A S' \mid \epsilon

 • A→id∣(S)A \rightarrow id \mid (S)

This transformation removes left recursion and makes the grammar suitable for top-down parsing.

(a) Converting NFA to Regular Expression

To convert an NFA to a regular expression, we use the state elimination method, which iteratively eliminates states while
adjusting the transitions to preserve the language recognized by the NFA.

Example NFA:

Assume we have an NFA with states q0,q1,q2q_0, q_1, q_2 and alphabet Σ={0,1}\Sigma = \{ 0, 1 \}. Here's a rough
representation:

(q0) ---0---> (q1)

| |

1 0

| |

v v

(q2) <----1----- (q0)

State Elimination Method:

1. Start by eliminating intermediate states and adjusting the transitions.

2. After eliminating states and adjusting the edges, the resulting regular expression will be a combination of the
transitions that allow the NFA to accept the same strings.

Converted Regular Expression:

After applying the state elimination method to the above NFA, the regular expression could be:

0(0∪1)∗10(0 \cup 1)^*1

This regular expression matches any string that starts with '0', ends with '1', and can have any combination of '0' and '1'
in the middle.

(c) Code Optimization: Dead Code Elimination

Code Optimization is a technique used in compilers to improve the performance of the generated code, making it more
efficient and faster without changing its output.

Dead Code Elimination:

• Dead code refers to parts of the code that are never executed. This could be due to redundant calculations,
conditional branches that never execute, or variables that are never used.

• Dead code elimination is the process of removing such code to reduce program size and improve execution
time.

Example:
Consider the following code snippet:

int a = 5;

int b = 10;

int c = a + b; // Dead code

int d = 20;

The calculation for cc is redundant if it is never used. By applying dead code elimination, the code can be simplified to:

int a = 5;

int b = 10;

int d = 20;

This reduces the execution time and improves resource utilization by removing unnecessary calculations.

(08) (a) Three Address Code for Expressions

(i) Expression: x=(b+c)dx = \frac{(b + c)}{d}

Three Address Code (TAC) is a form of intermediate code in which each instruction performs a single operation. Each
operation has at most one operator and two operands.

• Step 1: t1=b+ct1 = b + c (Temporary variable for the sum)

• Step 2: t2=t1/dt2 = t1 / d (Divide the sum by dd)

• Step 3: x=t2x = t2 (Store the result in xx)

Three Address Code:

t1 = b + c

t2 = t1 / d

x = t2

(ii) Expression: y+b⋅(c⋅d)y + b \cdot (c \cdot d)

• Step 1: t1=c⋅dt1 = c \cdot d

• Step 2: t2=b⋅t1t2 = b \cdot t1

• Step 3: y=t2+yy = t2 + y

Three Address Code:

t1 = c * d

t2 = b * t1

y = t2 + y

(b) Loop Optimization Techniques

Loop Optimization improves the performance of loops by reducing redundant operations or restructuring the loop to
minimize resource usage. Two common techniques are:

1. Loop Invariant Code Motion: Moving calculations that do not change within the loop outside the loop.

2. Strength Reduction: Replacing expensive operations like multiplication by a constant with simpler operations like
addition or bit shifts.

Original Code with a Loop:

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

result = result + (x * i); // x * i is invariant

Optimized Code:

1. Loop Invariant Code Motion: Move x⋅ix \cdot i outside the loop since it does not change with each iteration.

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {

result = result + x * i; // Strength reduced

This transformation reduces the number of computations inside the loop, improving performance by removing
unnecessary multiplicative operations.

(e) Target Code Generation for Expression x⋅(b−c)/dx \cdot (b - c) / d

Three Address Code Generation:

1. Step 1: t1=b−ct1 = b - c

2. Step 2: t2=x⋅t1t2 = x \cdot t1

3. Step 3: t3=t2/dt3 = t2 / d

4. Step 4: Store result in the target variable, say result result.

Three Address Code:

t1 = b - c

t2 = x * t1

t3 = t2 / d

result = t3

This results in a set of instructions that performs the desired computation in intermediate code, and can then be further
translated into target machine code.