1.
Program Loop with Example: A program loop is a sequence of instructions that is repeated until a
certain condition is met. In assembly language programming, loops are implemented using jump
instructions.
Example:
MVI C, 0AH ; Load 10 into register C
LOOP: DCR C ; Decrement C by 1
JNZ LOOP ; Jump to LOOP if C is not zero
HLT ; Halt the program
2. ALP to Add 100 Numbers:
MVI C, 64H ; Load 100 into register C
MVI D, 00H ; Initialize sum to 0
MVI A, 00H ; Initialize A to 0
ADD_LOOP: ADD A ; Add A to accumulator
DCR C ; Decrement C by 1
JNZ ADD_LOOP ; Loop until C is 0
MOV D, A ; Move result to D
HLT ; End of program
3. ALP to Clear Contents from 500H to 5FFH:
LXI H, 0500H ; Load starting address
MVI A, 00H ; Load 0 into accumulator
CLEAR_LOOP: MOV M, A ; Store 0 in memory
INX H ; Increment memory pointer
MOV A, H ; Check if address reached 5FFH
CPI 06H ; Compare high byte with 06H
JNZ CLEAR_LOOP ; Loop if not reached
HLT ; End of program
4. Assembly Program for Given Arithmetic Operations:
MVI H, 00H ; Initialize SUM = 0
MVI L, 00H ; Initialize SUM = 0
MOV A, M ; Load A from memory
INX H ; Increment H
MOV B, A ; Store A in B
MOV A, M ; Load B from memory
ADD B ;A=A+B
MOV M, A ; Store result in SUM
MOV A, M ; Load DIF from memory
SUB C ; DIF = DIF - C
MOV M, A ; Store result in DIF
MOV A, M ; Load SUM from memory
ADD M ; Add DIF to SUM
MOV M, A ; Store result in SUM
HLT ; End of program
5. Explanation of First Pass Assembler (Simplified):
During the first pass of an assembler, the main goal is to create a symbol table that maps user-
defined labels to their corresponding memory addresses.
Key Points:
• A location counter (LC) keeps track of the current memory address of each instruction or
operand.
• The ORG pseudo instruction initializes LC to a specified starting address.
• If ORG is missing, LC starts from 0.
• LC increments by 1 after processing each line of code.
• If a line contains a label, it is stored in the symbol table with its corresponding address.
• If a line contains the ORG instruction, LC is set to the specified number.
• If a line contains the END instruction, the first pass ends.
• No symbol is stored if a label is not present.
Process Summary:
1. LC starts at 0 (or as specified by ORG).
2. Each line is checked for labels and instructions.
3. Labels are stored with their corresponding LC values.
4. LC increments by 1 for each line processed.
5. The first pass ends when the END instruction is encountered.
6. Explanation of Second Pass Assembler (Simplified):
• Uses four key tables:
1. Pseudo Instruction Table: Handles ORG, END, DEC, HEX.
2. MRI Table: Contains 3-bit opcodes for memory-reference instructions.
3. Non-MRI Table: Holds 16-bit codes for register-reference and I/O instructions.
4. Address Symbol Table: Generated in the first pass for symbol-to-address mapping.
• Process Summary:
o LC (Location Counter) starts at 0.
o Lines are analyzed one by one.
o Labels are ignored; the focus is on instructions.
o Pseudo instructions ORG and END control LC and termination.
o Operand pseudo instructions convert operands to binary and store them.
o MRI and Non-MRI tables provide binary instruction codes.
o Address symbols are converted using the address symbol table.
o I (indirect) bit is set to 0 or 1 based on the presence of 'I'.
o Final binary code is stored at the LC-specified memory location.
o LC is incremented by 1 after processing each line.
o Error diagnostics identify invalid symbols not found in MRI or Non-MRI tables.
7. ALP to Subtract Two Numbers:
MVI A, 0AH ; Load first number (10)
MVI B, 05H ; Load second number (5)
SUB B ;A=A-B
HLT ; End of program
8. ALP to Multiply Two Positive Numbers by Repeated Addition:
MVI A, 00H ; Initialize result to 0
MVI B, 03H ; Multiplier (3)
MVI C, 04H ; Multiplicand (4)
MULTIPLY: ADD C ;A=A+C
DCR B ; Decrease multiplier by 1
JNZ MULTIPLY ; Loop until B is 0
HLT ; End of program
Diagram (Repeated Addition Method):
• 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
• Result stored in A after three iterations.
