Unit II

DRONE DESIGN, FABRICATION AND PROGRAMMING

 Classifications of the UAV
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs), commonly known as
drones, can be classified
based on various factors,
including their size, purpose,
range, and capabilities.
 Based on Size
Micro UAVs: Very small drones, often handheld or capable of
fitting in the palm of a hand.

Mini UAVs: Small drones, typically weighing a few kilograms.

Small UAVs: Larger than mini UAVs but still compact, weighing up
to several dozen kilograms.

Medium UAVs: Intermediate-sized drones, weighing in the range

of hundreds of kilograms.

Large UAVs: Heavier drones, often used for military or long-

endurance applications.
 Based on Purpose:
Recreational Drones: Used for personal and recreational
purposes.

Commercial Drones: Used for various commercial applications

such as photography, surveying, agriculture, etc.

Military Drones: Designed for military applications, including

surveillance, reconnaissance, and sometimes armed missions.

Research Drones: Used for scientific research and

experimentation.
 Based on Range and Endurance

Short-Range UAVs: Limited operational range

and endurance.

Medium-Range UAVs: Moderate operational

range and endurance.

Long-Range UAVs: Capable of covering large

distances and staying aloft for extended periods.
 Based on Capabilities
Fixed-Wing UAVs: Resemble traditional airplanes,
providing longer endurance and range.

Rotary-Wing UAVs: Use rotating blades for lift and

maneuverability, including multirotors and helicopters.

Hybrid UAVs: Combine features of both fixed-wing and

rotary-wing UAVs.

Autonomous UAVs: Capable of autonomous flight and

decision-making.
 Based on Payload
Surveillance UAVs: Equipped with cameras and
sensors for monitoring and reconnaissance.

Delivery UAVs: Designed for transporting payloads

from one location to another.

Weaponized UAVs: Equipped with weapons for

military applications.

Sensor UAVs: Specialized for data collection using

various sensors.
 Based on Altitude
Low-Altitude UAVs: Operate at low altitudes,
typically for short-range applications.

Medium-Altitude UAVs: Operate at moderate

altitudes, often for surveillance and reconnaissance.

High-Altitude UAVs: Operate at high altitudes,

providing extended range and endurance.
 Overview of the main drone parts
Drones, or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consist of various components
that work together to enable their flight and functionality. The main drone
parts can be categorized into several key components:
• Frame:
• Propellers:
• Motors:
• Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs):
• Flight Controller:.
• Battery:
• Radio Transmitter and Receiver:
• GPS Module:
• Onboard Computer:
• Camera/Gimbal:
• Sensors:
• Telemetry System:
 Technical Characteristics of the Drone
Parts

Frame:
• Material: Can be made of materials such as carbon fiber, aluminum, or plastic. Carbon fiber
frames are lightweight and durable.
• Size: Defines the overall dimensions of the drone, affecting its payload capacity and stability.
• Design: Configurations like quadcopter, hexacopter, or octocopter, each with its own stability
and redundancy advantages.
 Propellers

Rotation Direction:
Size: Specified by
Material: Typically made Drones have a mix of
diameter and pitch.
of plastic or carbon fiber. clockwise and
Larger propellers provide
Material affects weight, counterclockwise
more thrust but may
efficiency, and durability. propellers to balance
consume more power.
torque.
 Motors

Power (Watts):
KV Rating: Indicates
Type: Brushless DC Determines the
the motor's rotational
motors are common motor's output power.
speed. Higher KV
for efficiency and Higher power allows
values result in faster-
reliability. for heavier payloads or
spinning motors.
faster flight.
Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs)

Communication Protocol:
ESCs communicate with
Current Rating: Specifies Voltage Rating: Indicates
the flight controller using
the maximum current the the maximum voltage the
protocols like PWM (Pulse
ESC can handle. ESC can manage.
Width Modulation) or
DShot.
 Flight Controller

Sensors: Accelerometers,
Processor: Determines gyroscopes, Compatibility: Should be
the processing speed and magnetometers, and compatible with the
capability of the flight barometers provide data drone's frame and
controller. for stabilization and propulsion system.
navigation.
 Battery

Voltage (V): Determines the

Capacity (mAh): Specifies the
electrical potential. Most
energy storage capacity. Higher
drones use lithium-polymer
capacity often results in longer
(LiPo) batteries with voltages
flight times.
like 3.7V or 14.8V.
 Radio Transmitter and Receiver

Channels: The number Range: Determines the

Frequency: Specifies
of available channels maximum distance
the communication
affects the complexity between the
frequency, commonly
of commands that can transmitter and the
2.4 GHz.
be transmitted. drone.
 GPS Module

Accuracy: Higher Number of

Update Rate:
accuracy is crucial Satellites: More
Specifies how often
for precise satellites improve
the GPS updates its
navigation and accuracy and
position data.
waypoint tracking. reliability.
 Onboard Computer

Processor: Compatibility:
Determines Memory: Required Should integrate
computational for storing and well with sensors
power for real-time accessing data. and other
data processing. components.
 Camera/Gimbal

Resolution: Higher
resolution provides
clearer images and
videos.

Stabilization:
Field of View
Gimbals with
(FOV): Specifies
multiple axes
the extent of the
(e.g., 3-axis)
scene captured by
ensure stable
the camera.
footage.
 Sensors

Type: Various
sensors like sonar,
lidar, or infrared
Accuracy: Sensor
serve specific
accuracy is crucial
purposes, such as
for reliable data.
obstacle detection
and altitude
measurement.
 Telemetry System
Data Transmission Rate:
Higher rates provide
more real-time
information.

Range: The maximum

distance over which
telemetry data can be
transmitted.
 Assembling a Drone
• To assemble a drone, follow a
series of steps that typically
include assembling the frame,
attaching the motors,
mounting the electronic speed
controllers, connecting the
battery connector to the
power distribution board, and
mounting the propellers. Here
is a general overview of the
process.
 Assemble the Frame
If you are making your own frame, you need
to assemble it. The frame needs to be in an X
shape, and each propeller will go on each
point of the 'X'

Put the frame of the quadcopter together

first. Make sure that each arm is at the same
height as all of the other arms. If one arm is
off, it will affect the flight of the quadcopter
 Attach the Motors
If you build your
frame, you will need
to make holes for the
motors and affix them
to the frame. If you
have a premade
frame, it may come
with mounts for your
motors
Mount the Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) &
Battery

Connect the Battery Connector

Connect the ESCs to the bottom to the Power Distribution Board
of your drone's frame after (PDB):After attaching the
attaching the motors motors and ESCs, connect the
battery connector to the PDB
Mount the Propellers
TYPES OF DRONES
SINGLE PROPELLER DRONE

➢ vertically upwards and

downwards

➢ Based on Newtons III

Law of motion – the
body got undesirable
spin
Two Propeller Drone

➢ Less power
consumption

➢ Difficulty to achieve
sharp turns
THREE PROPELLER DRONE

➢ Stability is difficult to achieve

FOUR PROPELLER DRONE

➢ Stability

➢ Sharp turn
 4 Degrees of
Freedom

3 translational 1 rotational
motion motion

Rotate Clockwise
Move Up and Move Right and Move Front and
and Counter
Down Left Back
clockwise
1. TRANSLATIONAL MOVEMENT – UP & DOWN

MOVE MOVE
UP DOWN
2. TRANSLATIONAL MOVEMENT – RIGHT & LEFT

MOVE
LEFT MOVE
RIGHT

Left Motor Speed < Right Motor Speed Right Motor Speed < Left Motor Spee
 3. TRANSLATIONAL MOVEMENT – FRONT & BACK

MOVE
FRONT MOVE
BACK

Front Motor Speed < Back Motor Speed Back Motor Speed < Front Motor Sp
ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT – Clockwise & Counter clockwise

Rotate Clockwise Rotate Counter Clockwise

clockwise Motor Speed < Counter clock Motor Speed

Counter clockwise Motor Speed < Clock Mo
 DRONE HOVERING

clockwise Motor Speed = Counter clock Motor Speed

 Different Types of Drone Frames
There are several types of drone frames, each optimized for distinct purposes. The most common types
of drone frames are quadcopter frames, octocopter frames, fixed-wing frames, and hybrid frames.

Quadcopter frames are the most recognizable design in the drone world, featuring four arms and
motors arranged in a square.

Octocopter frames have eight arms and motors, offering exceptional redundancy and lifting power,
making them ideal for applications such as aerial cinematography, search and rescue operations, and
precision agriculture

Fixed-wing frames resemble miniature airplanes, with a single pair of wings, a rigid body, and a
propeller at the front or rear, and are known for their exceptional endurance and long-range
capabilities, making them ideal for tasks like mapping, surveying, and aerial monitoring.

Hybrid frames combine the stability and maneuverability of quadcopters with the endurance of fixed-
wing drones, capable of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) like a quadcopter and then transitioning into
forward flight like a fixed-wing drone.
Different Types of Drone Frames
Different Types of Drone Frames
Different Types of Drone Frames
Popular Drone Frame Brands
Drone Frame
Python Program For Dimension in a
Frame of a Drone
 Advantages Of Measuring Drone
Frame Dimensions Using Python
Accuracy: Python can process images with high precision,
allowing for accurate measurements of the frame components.

Automation: Python scripts can automate the process of

measuring frame dimensions, saving time and effort.

Consistency: Python scripts can be used to measure frame

Advantages: dimensions consistently, ensuring that the measurements are
reliable and comparable.

Data analysis: Python can be used to analyze the data collected

from measuring frame dimensions, allowing for insights into the
performance and design of the drone frame.

Integration: Python scripts can be integrated into larger

software systems, allowing for seamless data processing and
analysis.
 Disadvantages Of Measuring Drone
Frame Dimensions Using Python
some potential disadvantages could include the need for specialized
equipment such as cameras and image processing software, as well
as the need for expertise in computer vision and image processing
techniques.

Additionally, the accuracy of the measurements may depend on the

quality of the images captured and the processing algorithms used.

Finally, the process of measuring drone frame dimensions using

Python may be time-consuming and require significant
computational resources.
 Drones Configurations
The configurations of drones include multi-rotor, fixed-wing, single-rotor, and hybrid VTOL. Multi-
rotor drones, such as quadcopters, are popular for their maneuverability and suitability for tasks
like aerial photography and surveillance

Fixed-wing drones are more energy-efficient and suitable for covering longer distances and
mapping larger areas.

Single-rotor drones and hybrid VTOL drones are also available, each with its own advantages and
applications.

Drones can be classified based on their design, size, range, and payload, and the choice of a
drone type depends on specific needs and intended use.

Additionally, drones can be categorized as Horizontal Takeoff and Landing (HTOL), Vertical Takeoff
and Landing (VTOL), and Hybrid, based on their flight mechanisms and applications

Rotorcraft drones, including multirotors like quadcopters, offer stability, maneuverability, and the
ability to carry various payloads, making them suitable for tasks such as surveillance and aerial
photography
Drones Configurations
Drone Configurations
 Programming in Drones
• Flight Controller Programming: Drones are
equipped with flight controllers that manage
their flight dynamics, stability, and navigation.
Many flight controllers support programming
through software development kits (SDKs) or
APIs provided by the manufacturer.
Developers can write code to customize flight
behavior, implement autonomous flight
modes, or integrate additional sensors and
peripherals.
Flight Controller Programming
Flight Controller Programming
 Ground Control Station (GCS)
Software
• GCS software allows operators to plan missions,
monitor telemetry data, and control drones
remotely. Some GCS platforms offer scripting or
plugin capabilities that enable users to extend
their functionality through programming.
• Developers can create custom mission plans,
automate flight operations, and integrate third-
party services using APIs provided by the GCS
software.
Software Development Kits (SDKs)
• Drone manufacturers often provide SDKs that
allow developers to interact with their drones
programmatically. These SDKs typically include
libraries, APIs, and documentation for
accessing drone functions such as flight
control, camera control, and telemetry data.
Developers can use SDKs to build custom
applications, perform advanced data analysis,
or integrate drones with other systems and
devices.
 ROS (Robot Operating System):
• ROS is a popular open-source framework for
building robotic systems. It provides libraries,
tools, and conventions for developing robot
software, including drones. ROS enables
developers to create modular and reusable
components for tasks such as perception,
planning, and control. Many drone platforms
support ROS integration, allowing developers to
leverage its capabilities for building complex
autonomous systems.
 ROS Code for a Drone
• #!/usr/bin/env pythonimport rospyfrom
geometry_msgs.msg import Twistdef
send_velocity_commands():
rospy.init_node('drone_controller', anonymous=True)
cmd_pub =
rospy.Publisher('/mavros/setpoint_velocity/cmd_vel',
Twist, queue_size=10) rate = rospy.Rate(10) # 10 Hz
while not rospy.is_shutdown(): # Send velocity
commands cmd = Twist() cmd.linear.x = 0.5 #
Set forward velocity cmd_pub.publish(cmd)
rate.sleep()if __name__ == '__main__': try:
send_velocity_commands() except
rospy.ROSInterruptException: pass
 Simulation Environments
Computer Vision and Machine Learning: Drones equipped with cameras
and other sensors can use computer vision and machine learning
algorithms for tasks such as object detection, tracking, and navigation.
Developers can train models using frameworks like TensorFlow or
PyTorch and deploy them onboard drones for real-time inference. These
algorithms can enable drones to perform tasks such as aerial mapping,
inspection, and surveillance autonomously.

Simulation Environments: Before deploying code to real drones,

developers often use simulation environments to test and validate their
algorithms in a virtual environment. Simulation platforms such as
Gazebo, AirSim, or Unity3D provide realistic physics engines, sensor
models, and environments for simulating drone flight and interactions.
This allows developers to iterate quickly, debug code, and evaluate
performance without risking damage to physical hardware.
 Multi Rotor Stabilization

Multi-rotor stabilization refers to the process of maintaining

the stability and orientation of a multi-rotor drone during
flight. Multi-rotor drones typically have three or more rotors
arranged in a symmetric pattern

Flight Dynamics: Multi-rotor drones rely on the interaction of

their rotors to generate lift and control motion. By varying the
speed of individual rotors, the drone can ascend, descend, roll,
pitch, and yaw. Understanding the aerodynamics and control
principles governing multi-rotor flight is essential for designing
effective stabilization systems.
 Multi rotor stabilization
Sensors: Multi-rotor drones are equipped with various
sensors to measure their orientation, position, velocity,
and other parameters. Common sensors include:

• Gyroscope: Measures angular rate (rotation) around the drone's axes

(roll, pitch, yaw).
• Accelerometer: Measures linear acceleration along the drone's axes.
• Magnetometer: Measures the drone's orientation relative to the
Earth's magnetic field (heading).
• Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure to estimate altitude.
• GPS: Provides global positioning information for navigation and
position hold.
 Multi rotor stabilization

Flight Controller: The flight controller is the

central component responsible for stabilizing the
drone and executing control commands. It
processes sensor data, calculates control signals,
and adjusts rotor speeds to maintain desired
flight behavior. Flight controllers often use PID
(Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control loops
to regulate orientation and stabilize the drone.
 Multi rotor stabilization
PID Control: PID controllers are widely used in multi-rotor stabilization systems to
maintain desired orientation (roll, pitch, yaw) and altitude. The PID controller
compares desired and measured values (e.g., desired roll angle vs. actual roll angle
from gyroscope) and adjusts rotor speeds to minimize errors. The three components
of a PID controller are:

Proportional (P): Produces an output proportional to the current error (difference

between desired and actual values).

Integral (I): Integrates past errors over time to eliminate steady-state errors and
biases.

Derivative (D): Predicts future errors based on the rate of change of the error and
dampens oscillations.

Tuning PID parameters is crucial for achieving stable and responsive flight
characteristics. It involves adjusting gains (P, I, D) to balance stability, responsiveness,
and performance.
 Multi rotor stabilization
Attitude Estimation: Flight controllers use sensor data and algorithms (e.g., complementary filter,
Kalman filter) to estimate the drone's attitude (roll, pitch, yaw) and angular rates. Attitude
estimation is essential for stabilizing the drone and maintaining a level orientation relative to the
ground.

Control Modes: Multi-rotor drones typically support various flight modes for different tasks and
operating conditions. Common control modes include:

Manual Mode: Directly controls rotor speeds based on pilot input.

Stabilize Mode: Automatically stabilizes the drone's attitude using gyro and accelerometer data.

Altitude Hold Mode: Maintains a constant altitude using barometric or ultrasonic sensors.

Position Hold Mode: Uses GPS or other positioning systems to maintain a fixed position in space.

Autonomous Mode: Executes pre-defined flight paths or missions autonomously using onboard
navigation algorithms.
 Multi rotor stabilization
Safety Features: Stabilization systems often
incorporate safety features to prevent crashes and
protect the drone from adverse conditions.
• These may include:Fail-Safe Modes: Automatically triggered in
case of communication loss or critical errors (e.g., return-to-
home, land).
• Battery Monitoring: Monitors battery voltage and capacity to
prevent over-discharge and ensure safe operation.
• Motor Redundancy: Some multi-rotor drones feature
redundant motors or rotors to maintain control in case of
motor failure.
 Wi-Fi connection in drones
Drones can operate without Wi-Fi, as they primarily rely on radio signals for
communication between the controller and the aircraft. However, Wi-Fi is commonly
used for connecting the drone to a mobile device or remote control, allowing the user
to control the drone and view the camera feed in real-time

The Wi-Fi camera on a drone works by capturing images or videos and then
transmitting them to the ground control station in real-time

While Wi-Fi is not necessary for flying a drone, it is useful for additional functions
such as live video streaming, remote control, and geofencing

It's important to note that drones don't connect to the internet; they create a closed
Wi-Fi network to communicate with the controller or a connected device
Wi-Fi connection in drones
 Drone Design Requirements
Requirements-based design process: This methodology helps bridge gaps
between non-technical design team members and those who implement the
design, ensuring clear and accurate communication.

Weight and payload: The design process should consider the weight of the drone
and its payload, as well as the type of engine used (e.g., four-stroke, Wankel, or
gas turbine).

Unique serial number: Drones should have a unique identifier to track and
manage their lifecycle.

Direct distance identification system: Drones should have a system to identify

their position and distance from other objects or drones
 Drone Design Requirements
Geolocation system: Drones should be equipped with a geolocation system to determine their location
and navigate

Low battery warning: Drones should have a low battery warning system to ensure safe operation and
prevent accidents

Education and training: Drone engineers should have a strong foundation in engineering, including
classes in math, science, design, and electronics.

They should also be knowledgeable about engineering science and technology procedures, design tools,
and various software programs

Physical principles and math applications: Drone engineers should have a good understanding of
physical principles, math, and its various applications, from algebra and geometry to calculus and
statistics
 Drone Design Requirements

Design tools: Drone engineers should be well-versed in

various design tools, such as technical plans, blueprints,
drawings, and models.

Software programs: Drone engineers should be proficient in

computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacturing, and
project management software

Logic and problem-solving skills: Drone engineers should

have strong logic and problem-solving skills to analyze and
resolve complex issues related to drone design and operation
 Safety Regulations
Classification by size and type: Drones are classified by size and type, and safety rules apply to all
types of drones and remote-controlled aircraft. These rules are intended to keep both operators
and the public safe, on the ground and in the air

Operating requirements: These include rules such as always avoiding manned aircraft, keeping
the drone within sight, flying at or below 400 feet, and avoiding restricted airspace, among
others

Unique identifiers and systems: Drones are required to have a unique serial number, a direct
distance identification system, a geolocation system, and a low battery warning system, among
other technical specifications

Restrictions on use: There are restrictions on flying drones over residential property, near
airports, over groups of people, and near emergency response efforts, among other limitations

European Union regulations: The European Union has developed regulatory frameworks, such as
Delegated Regulation (EU) 2019/945, which specify design, manufacture, and operational
standards for UAS across various classes. These regulations cover technical requirements, unique
identifiers, and safety systems for drones
Python Code For DC Brushless Motor
Power Sources In Drones

The power sources used in

drones include batteries,
hydrogen fuel cells, solar cells,
and tethered power.
Batteries, such as lithium-ion
and lithium-polymer, are the
most popular power source
for commercial drones due to
their availability, affordability,
and energy-to-weight ratio.
Power Sources In Drones

Hydrogen fuel cells are

being developed for drones
and offer a high potential for
long-endurance flights.
Solar power technology has
also advanced, with solar
cells reaching a power ratio
of about 175W/m2, making
them suitable for powering
drones exclusively or in
hybrid systems
Power Sources In Drones
Additionally, tethered power
sources, such as a connected power
supply, can keep a drone airborne
for extended periods, overcoming
the limitations of batteries.

Engine-powered drones may use a

variety of power sources, including
batteries and electrical generators,
to provide the necessary AC and DC
electrical power for the various
subsystems.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Using
Batteries to Power Drones
Advantages : Portability and Convenience: Battery-powered drones can be charged almost anywhere and
transported without limitations, providing convenience and flexibility.

Environmentally Friendly: Batteries create little noise and vibration, and they do not produce emissions during
operation, making them environmentally friendly.

Low Operational Costs: Battery-powered drones have lower operational and maintenance costs, contributing to
cost-effectiveness

Disadvantages: Limited Endurance: Batteries have limited energy density compared to other power sources,
resulting in shorter flight times and limiting the drone's endurance

Charging Time: Batteries require time for recharging, which can limit the operational efficiency of the drone

Environmental Impact: The manufacturing and disposal of batteries can have environmental implications, as
they contain toxic materials and their production requires significant energy and resources
Battery Names
Ukrainian Vampire Drone

Ukraine's Vampire attack drones, nicknamed

Baba Yaga