interfacing &

technique signal levels

the ins and outs of

interfacing analogue
and digital equipment
common inquiry from Sound On Sound When is the professional standard signal level no

A readers concerns optimising the exchange

of signals between an analogue console
and an A-D converter or soundcard. The
classic problem is that recorded digital signal
levels are pitifully low, while ludicrously high
longer standard? When you want to connect to
digital equipment! Hugh Robjohns explains the
mysteries of exchanging signals between
replay levels from the digital machine stress or
overload the console returns. analogue and digital domains.
If you have found yourself in this situation, take
comfort from the fact that it afflicts us all. In fact,
I recently had to realign the Apogee converters in
my own location-recording setup to overcome this function producing a tone
very problem. In this article, I’ll start off by looking showing 0VU on the output
at the existing standards for analogue signal levels meters, the main outputs
and how they came about, before examining the should measure +4dBu,
ways of addressing the problems that result. or 1.228VRMS. The vast
majority of
The Great Analogue Standard professional
There is a proverbial saying in the audio industry equipment expects
along the lines of “We like to have standards... this as the nominal
that’s why there are so many of them!” As far as signal level, which
analogue signal levels are concerned, though, means we can align
there are only two to worry about: +4dBu and input and output levels
-10dBV, respectively the professional and to exhibit unity gain
semi-professional standards. But what do these throughout a signal chain.
levels actually represent? In other words, you can
The reference point in any decibel scale is pass signals between
always 0dB (see the box on decibels) and a suffix equipment and know that you
letter is used to denote the chosen standard. The won’t overload anything or disappear A standard analogue
earliest standard was set in telephone engineering, into the noise floor. VU meter shows
when input and output impedances on all For the sake of completeness, the semi-pro average signal
equipment were standardised at 600Ω. It became level standard of -10dBV was adopted for levels — transient
the norm to use 1 milliWatt as the reference power unbalanced signal interfaces using much simpler peaks can exceed
these by a long way.
level for speech signals over telephone lines. This, (or cheaper) circuitry. The reference point here is
when translated to an RMS (averaged) voltage, a 1 Volt RMS signal instead of 0.775V (hence the
measures 0.775V across 600Ω V in dBV). The standard -10dBV level equates to
2
(Power= Voltage / Resistance). The letter ‘m’ was 316mVRMS which is about a quarter of the voltage
used to denote the 1 milliwatt reference, and of the professional +4dBu reference level, or
hence the reference point was referred to as 0dBm. almost 12dB lower.
Professional audio eventually settled on 4dBm as
the standard calibration level and this is the level
Max Headroom
indicated by the zero mark on a VU meter: One of the ‘features’ many engineers like about
0VU = +4dBm = 1.228VRMS. The audio industry no analogue systems is that if you drive them hard,
longer uses 0dBm as its reference standard but the quality of the sound changes in an interesting
0dBu. This uses exactly the same reference voltage way: in general, analogue systems overload
of 0.775V, but is no longer tied to any particular progressively, the distortion artefacts building in
impedance. proportion to the signal level. However, this is
What does all this mean in practice? Well, if you really only a special effect and, normally, we try to
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have a mixing console with a test oscillator avoid overload distortion. To that end, system

40 SOUND ON SOUND • may 2000

 interfacing &
technique signal levels
▲

designers create a safety buffer called ‘headroom’

which allows signal peaks higher than the nominal
level to be accommodated without distortion.
Most professional systems are designed to
handle peak levels in the region of +22dBu or
thereabouts (+28dBu is very good, while +18dB is
not uncommon on budget equipment). Therefore,
if the nominal signal level is +4dBu but the
maximum peak level is +22dBu, we have 18dB of
headroom in the system. That might sound a lot,
but it soon disappears in practice...
In a typical mix, your music peaks might
illuminate the yellow LEDs on your mixer’s
bar-graph meters at +10VU (+14dBu) — but the VU Most professional stand-alone
is an averaging meter and thus barely responds to programme level, a figure which is far better than converters like Apogee’s PSX100
fast transients at all, so the true peaks will be very that achieved by any analogue recording system. (above) provide facilities for
much higher than the meters suggest. However, In effect, operating in this way simply configures adjusting the A-D input sensitivity
and the D-A output level for better
the overload characteristics of most analogue the digital system to have similar characteristics
alignment with analogue
systems means that any distortion artefacts will and performance to an analogue one. equipment.
probably go unnoticed.
Even if your console meters are ‘peak-reading’ Levels Mastered
types they will almost certainly have a short but Building in this kind of allowance for headroom is
finite ‘integration time’, which means they will still essential when recording unpredictable material
under-read on brief transients, typically by around which may well contain unexpected transient
6dB. For music hitting the +10 LED on peaks of substantial level. However, it is totally
peak-reading meters, the true signal peaks will be unnecessary when working with controlled,
reaching the +20dBu mark (+14dBu plus 6dB post-produced material which has benefited from
overshoot), which is only 2dB below clipping in compression or limiting to tame transient peaks.
a typical system (or maybe even 2dB above in With peak levels ironed out, the requirement for
a poor one!). large amounts of headroom is removed and,
following the long tradition of ‘louder is better’, it
Enter The Digital Converter makes sense to adjust the overall level of the
In the world of digital audio, overloads are not music to peak as closely as
musically interesting — they are horrid, unmusical possible to the maximum level —
and unpleasant things that really must be avoided. 0dBFS. The Decibel
Since digital systems can not record audio of Typically, as part of the
greater amplitude than the maximum quantising mastering process, music will be The ear perceives level changes in a logarithmic, rather
than linear, fashion. Consequently, it makes a lot more
level, engineers decided to define the digital signal ‘normalised’ to bring the peak
sense to measure audio signals using a logarithmic scale,
reference point as this maximum. The top of the levels up to the maximum rather than as straight signal voltages. In the case of
digital meter scale is thus 0dBFS, FS standing for possible level. Indeed, this is a professional audio signals, decibels and
‘full scale’. mandatory process since the ‘Red signal voltages are related by the formula:
As on analogue systems, it makes sense to Book’ specification for audio CDs
build in some form of operational headroom to insists that material should peak Signal level in dBu = 20 x log (signal voltage / 0.775)
cater for the odd loud peak. This, however, is above -4dBFS. It is common
Semi-pro levels can be calculated with the following
where all the confusion and problems occur. Since practice for pop music to be formula:
analogue equipment typically provides 18dB or mastered such that the levels
more of headroom, it seems sensible to configure reach full scale (0dBFS) frequently Signal level in dBV = 20 x log (signal voltage)
digital systems in the same way. After a little trial throughout most tracks.
and error the Americans adopted a standard of The problem for the project These might look like complicated equations, but any
half-decent calculator will be able to cope, and using
setting the nominal analogue level (+4dBu) to studio is that the vast majority of
decibels makes life a lot simpler. If you need convincing,
equate with -16dBFS in the digital system, thereby A-D converters — both
consider a -50dBu microphone signal (0.00245VRMS) which
accommodating peaks of up to +20dBu (ie. 0dBu stand-alone units and those is made 10dB louder (0.00775VRMS). Raising a +4dBu line
equals -20dBFS). In Europe we have standardised integrated into computer level by the same 10dB produces a similar perceived
on 0dBu equating to -18dBFS, thereby tolerating soundcards — are aligned to increase in level, but the voltages change from 1.228VRMS
peaks of up to +18dBu. optimise headroom, according to to 3.884VRMS. I know which I find easier to relate to!
This artificially created headroom provides a the international standards. As we
reasonable degree of protection against transient have seen, a +4dBu analogue
overloads, but will generally mean that the input will typically produce a -16dBFS
average level of material recorded into a digital digital signal, which means a well-balanced mix
system will be down around -12dBFS. This is not a with sensibly controlled peak levels may be
problem as far as the quality of the recording is consistently reaching the +12dBu (+8VU) mark on
concerned — particularly if you are working with a the console, but will only achieve peak digital
20- or 24-bit format — since the noise floor will levels of about -8dBFS. Directly recording this to
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still be at least 84dB below the nominal CD or DAT, without normalisation, will result in

42 SOUND ON SOUND • may 2000

 interfacing &
technique signal levels
▲

a very quiet recording compared to which tweaker corresponds to which

commercial CD releases. channel, and don’t muddle up the
Trying to overcome this problem by D-A output adjusters with those for the
cranking up the output level from the A-D inputs! Using the a test oscillator or
console rarely helps because of a synth set to generate a constant
insufficient headroom in the analogue sine-wave tone of about 1kHz (two
electronics — most budget consoles start octaves above middle C), adjust the
to sound quite strained with the meters console levels to produce an output at
hitting the end of the scale all the time! your reference level — say 0VU on the
However, one handy workaround, if your meters, which should be +4dBu at the
A-D converter is suitably equipped, is to output. It is important that exactly the
same level is present on both left and
right outputs — be very careful about
the alignment of dual output faders,
“The established centre-click pan pots, and even the
console meters! Any alignment errors
alignment levels of will mean that all your digital recordings
will be offset, so investing in or
digital systems were borrowing a good audio meter is a
sensible precaution. I use the
conceived with the best of Terrasonde Audio Toolbox, which is
an ideal tool for this kind of job.
intentions — basically to At this point, your A-D converter’s
meters will probably be reading
endow digital audio something close to -16dBFS. If you have
a recorder with a margin indicator,
equipment with or some other high-quality metering
system, you should be able to confirm
headroom comparable to the same level on both channels within
0.1dB or so. You now have to decide on
analogue systems. ” the degree of realignment you wish to
adopt. If you find your digital recordings
are consistently under-recorded by, say,
connect the +4dBu output of the console 8dB then you can increase the sensitivity
to -10dBV inputs on the A-D converter. of the A-D converter by that amount.
The 12dB difference in sensitivity will In this example you would tweak the
allow full-scale digital signals to be input level controls such that your
generated with console outputs of just +4dBu calibration tone reads -8dBFS.
+8dBu (+4VU). Don’t go mad with your headroom
reduction — I would advise leaving a
Time To Realign couple of extra dBs of headroom just in
If the majority of the digital recordings case. After all, a digital ‘over’ is a pretty
you make are well-controlled mixes horrid thing, whereas peaking -2dB
which need minimal headroom, the best below zero is perfectly acceptable and
solution is to recalibrate the A-D comparable to many commercial CDs.
converter’s input sensitivity. You can do I have realigned my own
this properly only if you have an A-D location-recording system (a Mackie
converter which will allow you to adjust 1402VLZ mixer and Apogee PSX100
its input level (few soundcards will — if converter) so that a 0VU (+4dBu) signal
your A-D can not be adjusted, see the from the console equates with -12dBFS
box on Line Amps for an alternative on the Apogee. This calibration allows
solution), an accurate calibration tone a reasonable amount of headroom for
source and a digital meter — although it the unexpected and means that the
should be possible to achieve excellent yellow +10VU LEDs on the Mackie
results using the meters already meters can light occasionally without
provided on the console and converter overloading the converter, while the
(or perhaps on a digital recorder with a digital recording typically peaks at
‘margin indicator’). Connect the tone around -4dBFS, which I feel comfortable
source to the mixer, the mixer output to with. It also means the clients can take
the A-D input, and the A-D output to the home a CD-R of the session which
digital meter or recorder. sounds similar in level to a commercial
You then need to identify the disc. During editing and mastering the
input-level adjustment controls on the peak level can be optimised for the final
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A-D converter — make sure you know production CDs if required.

44 SOUND ON SOUND • may 2000

 interfacing &
technique signal levels

Cooling The Replay

▲

The other side of this analogue-digital conversion

problem concerns replay levels. A digital signal
peaking at 0dBFS, whether from a commercial CD
or a normalised track of your own, will generate
analogue signal levels of around +20dBu, if the
D-A converter is aligned to the conventional
+4dBu = -16dBFS standard. That is a stunningly
loud signal by anyone’s standards, and more than
a lot of equipment can tolerate! For example, the
maximum level accepted by the tape returns on
my little Mackie desk is only +16dBu, although the
channel line inputs claim to handle +22dBu.
Again, the ideal solution is to adjust the D-A
converter to output a more sensible level. A quick
and dirty trick for users of modular digital
multitracks, though, is to switch the machine’s
output level from +4dBu to -10dBV, or to interface
the outputs via the -10dBV unbalanced ports
instead of the +4dBu balanced ones. In either case,
the resulting replay level will be 12dB lower, which
often makes all the difference, meaning that
full-scale digital tracks produce analogue levels of
a far more manageable +8dBu (+4VU). The down
side is that you are moving to unbalanced
connections, which can sometimes cause problems
with induced noise or ground loops.
To adjust the outputs of a D-A converter you
will require a tweakable D-A unit, a test CD of
A well-controlled and compressed mix output from a typical analogue desk like the
some kind with 30 seconds or more of calibration Mackie 1604 VLZ Pro might peak around +12dBu on the desk’s output meters, but still be
tone at a known level, and some form of accurate 8dB or more below OdBFS when recorded via a typical A-D converter.
analogue metering. Connect the digital output of
the CD player to the D-A and the output of the
A Level Playing Field
D-A to the console or other metering device.
(You could calibrate the D-A output level by using The established alignment levels of digital systems,
the analogue inputs of a CD-R or DAT recorder with +0dBu equating to -20 or -18dBFS were
and observing audio levels on its bar-graph conceived with the best of intentions — basically to
metering or margin display. However, unless the endow digital audio equipment with headroom
recorder has calibrated input levels you will only comparable to analogue systems. However, the Line Amplifier Solution
be able to adjust relative levels, before and after ubiquity of consistent near-peak levels on
If the calibration of your A-D or D-A
tweaking, rather than setting a precise reference commercial digital formats has caused considerable
converter is not adjustable, one
level.) confusion and inconvenience for many users, not alternative solution is to invest in
But what should the D-A outputs be set to? just in project and home studios, but in professional an adjustable line amplifier —
Well, if you anticipate working with commercially circles too. For anyone recording onto CD-R, 20dB many of the professional balanced
recorded music or other material with abundant of headroom is an unnecessary luxury — indeed, it to semi-pro unbalanced converter
full-scale peaks, a commonly used alignment sets is positively disadvantageous! units would perform this function
well. This is not a particularly
a digital test signal of -8dBFS to align with +4dBu It surely doesn’t require a brain the size of
cheap option, though, as a decent
or 0VU. If your test disc does not have a tone at a planet to realise that digital systems employed unit will set you back over £100.
-8dBFS, other digital levels can be translated in live recording require a totally different However, once installed between
pro rata: -12dBFS = 0dBu = -4VU, 0dBFS = +12dBu alignment with analogue equipment than those the console output and the digital
= +8VU, and so on. used in post-production applications. So why have converter, the alignment between
Alternatively, you might prefer to establish so few manufacturers addressed this issue with the analogue console level and the
converted digital levels can be set
a unity gain path through the A-D and D-A switchable gain structures or adjustable
to suit your requirements, boosting
combination so that a given level of analogue sensitivities? Most professional converters are the peak mixer output to reach full
signal input to the A-D comes back at exactly the adjustable, as are many of the better semi-pro scale on the A-D input, and
same level from the D-A. This is my preferred units, but as far as I am aware no soundcards with reducing the D-A output to
option, and my equipment is aligned so that a onboard converters are adjustable at all. something the console finds easier
+4dBu input corresponds to -12dBFS in the digital All that would be required is an ‘operating level’ to handle.
path, which in turn generates +4dBu at the switch to reset the alignment between analogue
analogue output. Full-scale digital output signals and digital signal levels from the standard
require and generate +16dBu, which is perfectly 0dBu = -20 or -18dBFS, to something more like
manageable, and typical peaks generally sit 0dBu = -12 or -10dBFS. Let’s hope some
around the +12dBu, -4dBFS, or +8VU marks. manufacturers read this and take note! SOS

46 SOUND ON SOUND • may 2000